1) The document provides an overview of basic mathematics concepts including whole numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, indices, decimals, and order of operations. 2) Key points covered include the properties of addition and subtraction, commutative and non-commutative operations, and rules for multiplying and dividing positive and negative numbers. 3) The document also discusses concepts like place value, rounding decimals, the distributive law, scientific notation, and the importance of order of operations in mathematical expressions.

1. Review of
Basic Mathematics
Whole Numbers
Addition and Subtraction
Addition is indicated by +. Subtraction is indicated by −. Commutative is a special
mathematical name we give to certain operations. It means that we can do the
operation in any order. Addition is commutative because we know that
2 + 4 means the same thing as 4 + 2
Subtraction is not commutative since
21 − 6 is not the same as 6 − 21
For this reason addition can be done in any order. Generally we calculate from left
to right across the page. We can sometimes rearrange the order of a sum involving
both additions and subtractions but when we do this we must remember to keep the
number with the sign immediately preceeding it. For example
3+5+3+4+7+3 = 3+3+3+4+5+7
6 + 7 − 10 + 2 − 1 − 2 = 6 + 7 + 2 − 10 − 1 − 2
Multiplication and Division
Multiplication is indicated by × or ∗. Sometimes, as long as there will be no confusion
we use juxtaposition to indicate multiplication, particular when we use letters to
represent quantities. For example 3a means 3 ×a and xy means x ×y. Multiplication
is a commutative operation i.e. we can reverse the order e.g. 3 × 4 = 4 × 3.
Division is indicated by the symbols ÷, / or − . Division is not commutative
since 4 ÷ 2 = 2 ÷ 4. Multiplication and division should be done from left to right
across the page. although you can rearrange the order of an expression involving
only multiplications. For example
3×4×5 = 5×4×3
ab3a = 3aab
1

2. Indices
Like any profession or discipline mathematics has developed short hand notation for
a variety of operations. A common shorthand notation that you may be familiar
with is the use of indices or powers. The indice indicates how many times a number
should be multiplied by itself, so for instance
103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000
3
X4 = X × X × X × X
4
A negative index indicates that the power should be on the bottom of a fraction with
a 1 on the top. So we have
1 1 1
10−2 = 2 = =
10 10 × 10 100
1 1
y−3 = 3 =
y y ×y ×y
Additional Rules Associated with Multiplicaton and Division
Zero
Any quantity multiplied by zero is zero, and since we can perform multiplication in
any order zero times any quantity is zero. So
8×0 = 0×8 = 0
21 21
0× = ×0=0
456 456
3×a×0 = 0×a×3 = 0
Zero divided by any quantity is zero. However the operation of dividing by zero is
NOT DEFINED. So
0
= 0 0 ÷ 20 = 0 0/2a = 0
8
But
35
and 16b ÷ 0 are not defined
0
One
Multiplying any number by 1 leaves it unchanged
a×1= a = 1×a
5×1 = 5 = 1×5
478 478
×1= 478
1098
= 1×
1098 1098
2

3. Negative Numbers
Addition and Subtraction
Look at the diagram below which we will refer to as the number line. When we
subtract a positive number (or add a negative number) we move the pointer to the
left to get a smaller number. Represented below is the sum 3 − 5 = −2.
..............................
..............................
........
........ ......
......
... .. ......
.....
.....
.....
....
....
. ....
.... ....
....
....
.. ....
.... ...
...
...
... ...
...
.
...
...
. ...
...
. -
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Similarly, when we add a positive number (or subtract a negative number) we
move the pointer to the right to get a larger number. The diagram below represents
−3 + 7 = 4.
.....................................
.....................................
.............
............ .........
........
........
........ .......
......
.......
...... ......
......
..
. ......
...... .....
.....
..
......
..... .....
.....
.....
.... ....
....
.
.
..
....
....
.
j
.....
.....
..
. -
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Notice that subtracting a positive number and adding a negative number result
in the same action, a move to the left on the number line. Adding a positive number
and subtracting a negative number also result in the same action, a move to the right
on the number line. So
10 − 4 gives the same result as 10 + −4
and 2 + 6 gives the same result as 2 − −6
Multiplication and Division
Multiplication and division of negative numbers is almost exactly the same as multi-
plication of the counting numbers. The only difference is what happens to the sign.
It is easy to see that 4 × −5 = −20 and logical to then assume that −4 × 5 = −20
But what about −4 × −5? This is equal to 20. So we have the following:
(+a) × (+b) = +ab e.g. 3×2 = 6
(+a) × (−b) = −ab e.g. 3 × −2 = −6
(−a) × (+b) = −ab e.g. −3 × 2 = −6
(−a) × (−b) = +ab e.g. −3 × −2 = 6
3

4. Similarly
a
(+a) ÷ (+b) = + e.g. 8÷4 = 2
b
a
(+a) ÷ (−b) = − e.g. 8 ÷ −4 = −2
b
a
(−a) ÷ (+b) = − e.g. −8 ÷ 4 = −2
b
a
(−a) ÷ (−b) = + e.g. −8 ÷ −4 = 2
b
Generalising the above result we have:
• Multiplying or dividing two quantities with the Same sign will give a Positive
answer.
• Multiplying or dividing two quantities with Unike signs will give a Negative
answer.
Powers of 10
Our number system increases by powers of 10 as we move to the left and decreases
by powers of 10 as we move to the right. Given the number 123 456.78, the 1 tells
us how many 100,000’s there are, the 4 indicates the number of 100’s and the 7
indicates the number of tenths. Similarly when we multiply two numbers together
such as 200 × 3000 we can use our knowledge of the place value system to represent
this as (2 × 100) × (3 × 1000). Since the order is not important in multiplication (i.e.
2 × 3 × 4 = 4 × 3 × 2 ) we can rewrite this as:
200 × 3000 = (2 × 100) × (3 × 1000)
= (2 × 3) × (100 × 1000)
= 6 × 100000
= 600000
Some calculator information
Sometimes calculators give us the answer to questions in something called scientific
notation. Scientific notation is a way of writing very big or very small numbers. It
consists of writing the number in two parts, the first part is a number between 1 and
10 and the second part is a power of 10. So 2 million (2 000 000) would be written
as 2 × 106. Similarly 0.00345 would be written as 3.45 × 10−3. Our calculators will
revert to using scientific notation if the answer calculated is very small or very large.
Try this exercise
1 ÷ 987654321
4

5. Notice that the answer given by most of your calculators (there may be small varia-
tions here depending on the model calculator you have) is
1 ÷ 987654321 = 1.0125−09
What this actually means is that the answer to the sum is 1.0125 × 10−9 in other
words 0.0000000010125. Keep a watch out in that top right hand corner for this kind
of notation.
Distributive Law
Suppose you have four children and each child requires a pencil case ($2.50), a ruler
($1.25), an exercise book ($2.25) and a set of coloured pencils ($12) for school.
One way we can calculate the cost is by multiplying each item by 4 and adding
the result:
(4 × $2.50) + (4 × $1.25) + (4 × $2.25) + (4 × $12) = $10 + $5 + $9 + $48 = $72
This took quite a bit of effort so perhaps there might be a simpler method. Why not
work out how much it will cost for one child and then multiply by 4?
($2.50 + $1.25 + $2.25 + $12) × 4 = $18 × 4 = $72
The fact that
4 × (2.50 + 1.25 + 2.25 + 12) = 4 × 2.5 + 4 × 1.25 + 4 × 2.25 + 4 × 12
is called the distributive law in mathematics. When we do a calculation involving
brackets we generally do the calculation inside the brackets first. When that is
not possible, for example if you have an algebraic expression then you can use the
distributive law to expand the expression. Sometimes we leave out the times symbol
when multiplying a bracket by a quantity, this is another example of mathematical
shorthand, so the above could be written
4(2.5 + 1.25 + 2.25 + 12)
Order of Operations
Consider the following situation. You have worked from 2 p.m. to 9 p.m. on a major
proposal. As you were required to complete it by the following day you can claim
overtime. The rates from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. are $25 per hour and from 5 p.m. to
midnight rise to $37.50 per hour.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as 3 × $25 + 4 × $37.50. How much do you
think you earned? Which attempt below is most reasonable?
5

6. Attempt 1 Attempt 2
3 × 25 + 4 × 37.50 3 × 25 + 4 × 37.50
= 75 + 4 × 37.50 = (3 × 25) + (4 × 37.50)
= 79 × 37.50 = 75 + 150
= 2962.50 = 225
Mathematical expressions can be read by anyone regardless of their spoken lan-
guage. In order to avoid confusion certain conventions (or accepted methods) must
be followed. One of these is the order in which we carry out arithmetic.
Brackets: Evaluate the expression inside the brackets first eg. (3 + 5) = 8
Indices: Evaluate the expressions raised to a power eg. (3 + 5)2 = 82 = 64
Division: Divide or multiply in order from left to right.
Multiplication: eg. 6 × 5 ÷ 3 = 30 ÷ 3 = 10
Addition: Add or subtract in order from left to right.
Subtraction: eg. 4 + 5 − 2 + 4 = 9 − 2 + 4 = 7 + 4 = 11
This can easily be remembered by the acronym BIDMAS.
Some more calculator information
Modern calculators have been programmed to observe the order of operations and
also come equipped with a bracket function. You just enter the brackets in the
appropriate spots as you enter the calculation. Some older calculators with a bracket
function will tell you how many brackets you have opened, they do this by having
on the display (01 or [01.
Calculations involving Decimals
Zeroes to the right of a decimal point with no digits following have no value. Thus
10.4 10.40 10.400000
are all equal in value. There is however a concept of significant figures in the sciences
and when we look at the numbers above they are viewed slightly differently. This
has to do with the significance of the figures, i.e. to what level of precision do we
measure something. In that case 10.4 is telling us that we measured to the nearest
tenth and 10.400000 is telling us that the measurement is to the nearest millionth.
6

7. Rounding
When we round decimals to a certain number of decimal places we are replacing the
figure we have with the one that is closest to it with that number of decimal places.
An example: Round 1.25687 to 2 decimal places
1. Firstly look at the decimal place after the one you want to round to (in our
example this would be the third decimal place)
2. If the number in the next decimal place is a 6,7,8 or 9, then you will be rounding
up, so you add 1 to the number in the place you are interested in and you have
rounded. In our example the number in the third place is a 6 so we round up.
We change the 5 in the second place to a 6 and our rounded number is 1.26
3. If the number in the place after the one we are interested in is a 0,1,2,3 or 4 we
round down, i.e. we just write the number out as it is to the required number
of places.
4. If the number in the place after the one we are interested in is a 5, then we
need to look at what follows it. Cover the number from the beginning to the
place you are interested in, for example, suppose we are rounding 2.47568 to
three decimal places we look at just the 568 and we ask is that closer to 500 or
600. Since its closer to 600 we get a rounded number of 2.476
5. If only a 5 follows the place we are interested in then different disciplines have
different conventions for the rounding. You can either round up or down since
5 is exactly half way between 0 and 10.
Addition and Subtraction of Decimals
To add or subtract decimal numbers you should always remember to line up the
decimal point and then add or subtract normally. For example:
25 + 25.5 + .025 + 2.25 and 36.25 − 6.475
25.000 + 36.250 −
25.500 6.475
0.025 29.775
2.250
52.775
7

8. Multiplication of Decimals
Two decimals are multiplied together in the same way as two whole numbers are.
Firstly, carry out the multiplication ignoring the decimal points. Then count up the
number of digits after the decimal point in both numbers and add them together. Fi-
nally return the decimal point to the appropriate position in the product by counting
back from the right hand digit. For example
Evaluate 2.6 × 0.005
First multiply 26 by 5: 26 × 5 = 130
Now, count up the digits after the decimal point 1 + 3 = 4
Finally return the decimal point to the product four places back from the right
hand digit, adding zeroes in front if necessary
4
. 0130
Another way of looking at this is
1 1
2.6 × 0.005 = (26 × 1
10
) × (5 × 1
1000
) = (26 × 5) × ×
10 1000
= (130 × 10000 ) =
1 130
10000
= 0.130
As above we have 2.6 × .005 = 0.0130
Division of Decimals
When dividing numbers with decimals by whole numbers, the only essential rule is to
place the decimal point in the answer exactly where it occurs in the decimal number.
For example:
0.238 ÷ 7 = 0.034 0.034
7)0.238
When the divisor (the number you are dividing by is also a decimal, the essential
rule is:
Move the decimal point in the divisor enough places to the right so that it
becomes a whole number. Now move the decimal point in the dividend (the number
being divided) the same number of places to the right (adding zeroes if necessary).
Finally carry out the division as in the example above. For example:
0.24 ÷ 0.3 = 2.4 ÷ 3 = 0.8
25 ÷ 0.05 = 2500 ÷ 5 = 500
8

9. Calculations Involving Fractions
Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions
3 4 can be expressed as 19 since there are 15 fifths in 3 wholes plus 4 fifths. This can
5 5
be worked out by multiplying the whole number by the denominator and adding the
numerator.
Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers
Improper fractions are fractions in which the numerator is larger than the denomi-
nator. For example 12 . You can use the fraction key on your calculator to convert
5
these to mixed numbers or you can divide by hand. For example:
12 ÷ 5 = 2 remainder 2
The remainder can be expressed as the fraction 2 . So
5
12
5
= 22.
5
Multiplying Fractions
Before performing any operations on fractions always represent it in the form a even
b
if this makes it an improper fraction. Once all fractions are in this form simply
multiply the numerators together and then multiply the denominators together. For
example:
3 1 18 1 × 18 18 9 4
One half of 3 = × = = = =1
5 2 5 2×5 10 5 5
Division of Fractions
Before performing any operations on fractions always represent it in the form a b
even if this makes it an improper fraction. To divide by a fraction is the same as
multiplying by its reciprocal. The reciprocal of a fraction a is the fraction a . So
b
b
the reciprocal of 3 is 4 , the reciprocal of 1 is 2 which is just 2 and the reciprocal of
4 3 2 1
5 is 1 . So to divide by 2 is the same as to multiply by 3 . For example:
5 3 2
4 2 4 3 4×3 12 6
÷ = × = = =
7 3 7 2 7×2 14 7
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
To add and subtract fractions you must be dealing with the same kind of fractions.
In other words to add or subtract fractions you need to convert the fractions so that
both fractions have the same denominator (i.e. the same number on the bottom).
Two fractions are said to be equivalent if they represent the same part of one
whole. So 2 is equivalent to 4 since they represent the same amount. To find
3 6
9

10. equivalent fractions you multiply the top and the bottom of the fraction by the same
amount. For example:
2 2×2 4 12 6
= = = =
7 7×2 14 42 21
are all equivalent fractions. To add or subtract fractions you need to find equivalent
fractions to each part of the sum so that all the fractions in the sum have the same
denominator and then you simply add or subtract the numerators (i.e. the top
numbers). So
2 1 2×3 1×7 6 7 6+7 13
+ = + = + = =
7 3 7×3 3×7 21 21 21 21
3 1 3×3 1×4 9 4 9−4 5
− = − = − = =
4 3 4×3 3×4 12 12 12 12
Percentages
Percentages are fractions with a denominator of 100. Often there will not be 100
things or 100 people out of which to express a fraction or a percentage. When this
is the case you will need to find an equivalent fraction out of 100 by multiplying by
100% which is the same as multiplying by 1.
1 1×5 5 1 1 100
= = = 5% or = × 100% = % = 5%
20 20 × 5 100 20 20 20
3 3 × 10 30 3 3 300
= = = 30% or = × 100% = % = 30%
10 10 × 10 100 10 10 10
2 2 × 20 40 2 2 200
= = = 40% or = × 100% = % = 40%
5 5 × 20 100 5 5 5
Therefore you can either find out how many times the denominator goes into 100
and multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by this number or multiply the
numerator by 100, then divide through by the denominator.
When you are asked to find a percentage you must find the fraction first. For
instance if there are 15 men, 13 women and 22 children in a group, the fraction
of men in the group is 15 since there are 50 = 15 + 13 + 22 people in the group
50
altogether. You can either multiply by 100 % (if you have a calculator) or find the
equivalent fraction out of 100. In both cases you will reach an answer of 30%.
10

11. Interchanging Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
Changing Fractions to Decimals
Using your calculator divide the top number (numerator) by the bottom number
(denominator) to express a fraction as a decimal. If you do not have a calculator we
can do it manually. Be sure to put a decimal point after the numerator and add a
few zeros.
3
can be expressed as 3.00 ÷ 4 = 0.75
4
Changing Fractions to Percentages
Express the fraction as a decimal (as shown above) then multiply the result by 100%.
This can be done easily by shifting the decimal point two places to the right.
3
= 3.000 ÷ 8 = 0.375 = 37.5%
8
When the denominator of the fraction to be converted goes evenly into 100, the
percentage can be found using equivalent fractions.
3
=
5 100
3 20 60
× = = 60%
5 20 100
Converting Percentages to Decimals
In order to convert a percentage into a decimal, divide be 100. This can be done
easily by shifting the decimal point two places to the left. If there is no decimal point
be sure to place a decimal point to the right of the whole number.
45.8% = 0.458 and 0.5% = 0.005 and 7% = 7.0% = 0.07
Ordering Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
In order to compare numbers they must all be presented in the same form with
the same number of decimal places. It is usually easiest to convert everything to
decimals. Once you have done this, write the numbers underneath each other lining
up the decimal points. Fill in any blanks with zeros. Compare the whole number
side first. If there is a match, then compare the fractional side. For example: Express
the following numbers in order from smallest to largest.
3 46
0.5, 5.3%, 0.54, 47%, , , 3
5 100
11

12. 1. Convert all the numbers to decimals:
0.5, 0.053, 0.54, 0.47, 0.6, 0.46, 3
2. Line the numbers up
0.5
0.053
0.54
0.47
0.6
0.46
3
3. Fill in all of the blanks with zeros
0.500
0.053
0.540
0.470
0.600
0.460
3.000
4. Compare the whole numbers. If there is a match, compare the fractional side.
Since six of the numbers begin with a 0. we must compare the right hand side.
Clearly
53 460 470 500 540 600
5. Express the numbers from smallest to largest
46 3
5.3%, , 47%, 0.5, 0.54, , 3
100 5
Ratio
Any fraction can also be expressed as a ratio. 15 can be written as 15:50. However
50
be careful of the wording of these types of questions. The ratio of men to the total
number in the group is 15:50 but the ratio of men to women is 15:35.
12

13. Some common mathematical notation
Here are a few of the shorthand symbols used in mathematics
Sign Meaning Sign Meaning
+ add − minus or subtract
× multiply ÷ divide
= equals 2 square
greater than less than
≥ greater than or equal to ≤ less than or equal to
≈ approximately equal to = not equal to
√
square root ∴ therefore
Another convention in maths is to leave out the multiplication sign if it will not
lead to confusion, so, for example 2a means 2 × a and 4(1 + 2) means 4 × (1 + 2).
Introductory Algebra
Substitution
When we use algebra in maths it is often as a convenient form of shorthand. We want
to express a relationship that always holds true for certain things and so we represent
these things by letters. For example the length of the perimeter of a rectangle is 2
times the length plus 2 times the height. We can express this as 2l + 2h = P where
l represents the length, h represents the height and P represents the perimeter.
Substitution is the process of putting numbers in for the letter representatives of
quantities. So, if the length of a rectangle is 4 and the height is 7 then l = 4 and
h = 7 and P = 2 × 4 + 2 × 7 = 8 + 14 = 22. We have substituted l = 4 and h = 7
into the equation. Another example:
Let x = 5, y = 7 and find z when
z = 3y + 4x2
Then substituting we have
z = 3 × 7 + 4 × (5)2 = 3 × 7 + 4 × 25 = 21 + 100 = 121
Solving Algebraic Equations
When we are asked to solve an algebraic equation for z, say, we are being asked to
get z on one side of the equation by itself and the rest of the information on the other
side. (Remember that the relationship still holds when both sides of the equation
13

14. are multiplied or divided by the same thing or when the same quantity is added to
or subtracted from each side). In this example we are going to solve for y.
3y + 4 = 19
3y + 4 − 4 = 19 − 4 (subtract 4 from each side of the equation)
3y = 15
3y ÷ 3 = 15 ÷ 3 (divide each side of the equation by 3)
y = 5
Plotting
To plot the following data on the average height of boys and girls at different ages
x : Age (years) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y : Height (cms) 85 95 100 110 115 122 127 132
Firstly draw two straight lines at right angles to one another. It is customary to
have one horizontal line and the other vertical. The x variable is generally plotted
along the horizontal axis and the y variable along the vertical axis. The horizon-
tal axis is usually the independant variable and the vertical axis is the dependant
variable.
Next, you need to select a suitable scale for use on each of the two axes. The
scales on the axes can be different from each other. Look first at the x values. In the
above we are told that age is the x variable. Find the smallest and the largest value.
The scale chosen has to be such that it will accommadate both of these values. In
the above we have to fit in values for x between 2 and 9. Similarly for the y variable
we need to fit in values between 85 and 132.
160
120
Height (cms)
80
40
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
14

15. Alternatively a break in a scale can be used if all the values to be shown lie within
a small range.
140
120
This symbol shows
Height (cms)
that the scale has
been ’broken’ i.e. 100
some values have
been missed out .................... 80 ..
.............................
....................................... ................
- ... ..
...
0 ..
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
The axes and scale chosen above will satisfy these requirements. At age 2 years
the child has a height of 85 cm. To plot this we go along the x-axis to where the 2
is indicated and then go vertically to opposit where the 85 is on the y-axis.
Similarly for a child of 3 years and a height of 95 cm. The shorthand way
of indicating these points is (2, 85) and (3, 95). They are plotted together in the
diagram below.
140
120
Height (cms)
100 t
t
80 .
....
.............
.
...
0 .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
Plotting the remaining and labelling the display we get:
Height of Children at Different Ages
140
t
t
120
t
t
t
Height (cms)
t
100 t
t
80 .
.... .
.............
..
...
0 .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
15

16. Sometimes it is preferable to have the axes intersect at zero for both variables. If
we do that with the above data then we get the following graph.
160
t t
t t
120 t
t t
Height (cms)
t
80
40
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
16