1. Norms
• The statistics used to develop derived scores
in norm-referenced (NR) testing come from
normative samples.
• Most NR tests have several samples
– Samples for different ages
– Samples for different grades
– Sometimes different samples for boys and girls

2. Representativeness of Norms
• NR scores are only as valid as the norms are representative.
• Dimensions represented
– Gender
– Age
– Grade in school
– Acculturation of parents
• Education
• Occupation
• Income
– Racial identity
– Geography
• Area of the country
• Urban, suburban, rural
• Community size
• Population trends
– Intelligence

3. Technical Considerations, norms
• Finding people
– Stratified National Samples
– Cluster sampling
– Representative communities
– Poor procedures
• Clinical samples
• Whole schools or agencies
• friends
• Each Norm group must be representative. Even when
the combined norm groups are representative, some
individual groups may not be.

4. Norms, Technicals
• Proper proportion of people
– Sample proportion should be same a population
proportion in each norm group.
• Number of Subjects
– Large enough to be stable
– Large enough to represent infrequent groups or
characteristics (e.g., Native Americans)
– Large enough to get a full range of derived scores

5. Massaging Norms
• Norms are often manipulated to get them correct
– Smoothing – scores may be transformed to remove
minor irregularities in shapes or progression of
means. Outliers may be dropped.
• Norms are often weighted – a procedure in which
some scores are counted as less than one case
and others are counted as more than one case in
order to achieve the correct proportions of
characteristics

6. Old Norms
• Norms must current (<15 years)
– to represent today’s individuals
– People learn the specific test content
• Normative Updates
– New norms for old test content
– Statistics from smaller samples may be used to
adjust means and standard deviations of old
norms

7. Norm Relevance
• National vs. Local norms
• Special Norm Groups (e.g., SATs are normed
on high school students who intent do go to
college)
• Avoid typological thinking. Just because you
got the same score on the LSAT as successful
lawyers does not mean that you should
become a lawyer.

8. Using Norms Appropriately
• The correct norm table.
– How was norm group sampled? If sampled by age,
age norm tables are usually preferable.
– The norm table should make sense. For achievement
tests, grade tables are usually better than age tables.
– Out of age or grade testing. When a student’s test
score is extreme, there is a tendency to use younger
(for low) or older (for high) norm groups. Don’t!

9. Final Warning
• Norms are expensive and time consuming to
develop. Unrepresentative norms may be
easy to get -- convenient, but they do not
produce accurate derived scores.
• If a test’s norms are inadequate, select a
different test.

10. Final Warning
• Norms are expensive and time consuming to
develop. Unrepresentative norms may be
easy to get -- convenient, but they do not
produce accurate derived scores.
• If a test’s norms are inadequate, select a
different test.