An introduction to attachment theory

1. Attachment Theory
John Bowlby 1907-1990

2. Maternal deprivation
 This presentation outlines attachment
theory, the terms ‘mother’, ‘parent’ and
‘primary caregiver’ are used
throughout this presentation and
reflect the nature of the studies which
are referred to. The notion of
‘maternal deprivation’ should be
considered carefully for seminar 6

3. Bowlby’s theory – early concepts
drawn from biology
 Attachment behaviour adaptive – has
survival value
 Attachment behaviours directed
towards one person in particular – the
mother – monotropy
(Birch, 1997)
Bowlby’s views on monotropy are
controversial – find some evidence
which contradicts this notion

4. Definitions of Attachment
 ‘An attachment is a bond or tie between
an individual and an attachment figure’
(Prior and Glaser, 2006. p 15)
 ‘The bond that develops between an
infant and caregiver’ (Egeland, 2004)
 Cassidy & Shaver (1999) emphasise that
attachment is a pattern of emotional and
behavioural interaction which develops
over time as the infant and caregiver
interact, especially in response to the
infant’s needs for attention and comfort

5. Characteristics of attachment
Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1980) suggested that
there are four defining features of the
attachment bond:
1. proximity maintenance (wanting to be
physically close to the attachment figure)
2. separation distress (separation from the
caregiver causes upset and distress to the
child)
3. safe haven (retreating to the caregiver
when sensing danger)
4. secure base (the provision of a secure and
dependable base for the child to explore
the world)

6. Contingent responsiveness
 It is from this secure base that the child
gains the confidence to gradually explore
the wider environment, knowing that the
attachment figure is still available for
protection and security. This requires
what is described as ‘contingent
responsiveness’ - the ‘sensitive-enough
mother’ who understands when the
infant is becoming anxious or
experiencing danger and provides
reassurance through responsiveness
(Ainsworth et al, 1986)

7. Difficulties with responsiveness
Some parents may:
 Chronically over stimulate their child
 Be inconsistent with responsiveness
 Neglect their children’s needs
Consider factors which may
influence these situations

8. Styles of Attachment
 Children develop and display either
one of the two basic attachment styles
which are termed as ‘secure’ or
‘insecure’ (Porter, 2003)
 The quality and sensitivity of the
mother-infant face-to-face interaction
from as early as a few months through
and beyond the first year of life has
been shown to predict attachment
style (Smith et al, 2003).

9. Secure attachment
 Children who experience warm, sensitive and
responsive parenting or early care they will
develop a secure attachment (Golding, 2008)
 This provides children with the opportunity to
develop positive expectations about future
relationships; to develop trust in others
 Self-confidence which enables the child to
feel safe and explore the wider world
(Bomber, 2008)
 Child develops basic trust that others will be
helpful and supportive when asked
(Delaney, 2009)

10. Insecure attachment
 Identified by features of
instability, including ambivalent
behaviour, preoccupation, avoidant
responses and a lack of co-operative
communication in the mother-child
relationship (Golding, 2008;
Porter, 2003).

11. Insecure attachment
 Thought to occur when the attachment figure
(mother) is not emotionally available to the
infant on a significant and repeated basis
(Ayers et al, 2000)
 Child lacks of confidence to explore the wider
world
 Are thought to not feel safe enough with the
attachment figure to truly express their
negative emotions towards this primary
caregiver
 Is believed to influence future
behaviours, especially the child’s ability to
form other positive attachments

12. Patterns (or styles) of
Attachment – Mary Ainsworth
(1967, 1974) ‘The Strange
Situation’
 Secure
 Avoidant
 resistant-ambivalent
 Disorganised

13. Avoidant attachment pattern
 The child expresses an emotional need such as
physical closeness. The parent(s) experiences difficulty
in responding and withdraws (Golding, 2008)
 The mother is perceived as less sensitive, or neglectful,
of the emotional needs of the child, displaying what is
termed ‘rejection syndrome’ (Geddes, 2008)
 The child becomes conscious of the mothers withdrawal
behaviour and tries to prevent its re-occurrence through
passive and withdrawn behaviour with minimal display
of any emotional distress (Heard, 1987)
 During childhood, the child becomes increasingly self-
reliant and independent, because he/she has
experienced their parents as resentful, rejecting. This
fear of rejection creates an inner-struggle for the child
between the desire for and the dread of physical
acceptance (Hopkins, 1987)

14. Ambivalent-resistant pattern
 Emerges when parents are inconsistent and
insensitive to the child’s needs
 The child tries to compensate for the
unpredictability of the parents by maximising
their use of attachment behaviour, such as
clinginess and, crying being over-demanding.
 Some of these children will become extremely
distressed at the absence of the primary
caregiver(s), but will behave ambivalently on the
reunion by a combination of seeking contact and
interaction, but rejecting it when it is offered The
child can quickly fluctuate from anger and
resistance to total clinginess and dependence
(Ding & Littleton, 2005)

15. Disorganised and/or
disorientated pattern
 The infants concerned show undirected movements and
seem confused or apprehensive about approaching their
parents (Main and Solomon, 1990)
 Can be associated with neglect or feeling fearful of the parent
Golding, 2008)
 As a consequence, the child becomes confused - child is
naturally drawn to want comfort from the actual source of the
fear. Hence, the infant may move towards the mother but
keep their eye-gaze averted and express unexpected and
unrelated emotions (Bee, 1992)
 It has been claimed that 80% of children with disorganised
attachments have been maltreated, and as such have an
inability to use caregivers for soothing (Burnell and
Archer, 2003)
 A minority will suffer from Reactive Attachment Disorder (Van
Spedoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2003)

16. Reactive Attachment Disorder
 Diagnostic Manual – Intellectual Disability (DM-ID, 2007)
describes RAD as a clinical syndrome characterised by a
‘severe’ disruption in the development and expression of
emotional attachments. So much so, that the severity affects
all areas of the child’s development and results in him/her
having an lack of concern for maintaining close relationships
with any adult caregivers
There are thought to be two forms of attachment disorder:
 Inhibited/reactive - failure by the child to initiate or respond to
most social interactions, and is manifested by excessively
inhibited responses (Prior & Glaser, 2006)
 Disinhibited - characterised by indiscriminate sociability and
excessive familiarity with relative strangers.
Although, effective in getting his/her needs met, the child is
not selective from whom he/she receives comfort and re-
assurance (Prior & Glaser, 2006)

17. References
 Ainsworth, M. D. S. Bell. S. M. and Stayton, D. J. (1974) Infant mother attachment
and social development: @socialisation as a product of reciprocal responsiveness
to signals’, in M. P. M. Richards (ed) The integration of a child into a social world.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 Archer, C. and Burnell, A. Eds. (2003) Trauma, Attachment and Family
Permanence: fear can stop you loving, London, Jessica Kingsley Publishers
 Ayers, H., Clarke, D. & Murray, A. (2000). Perspectives on Behaviour: A Practical
Guide to Effective Interventions for Teachers – Second Edition. London, David
Fulton Publishers
 Bee, H. (1992). The Developing Child – Sixth Edition. New York, Harper Collins
College Publishers
 Bomber, L.M. (2008). Inside I’m Hurting: Practical Strategies For Supporting
Children With Attachment Difficulties In Schools. London, Worth Publishing
 Bowlby, J, (1969). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1 Attachment. New York, Basic
Books & Hogarth Press
 Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2: Separation: Anxiety & Anger. New
York, Basic Books
 Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3: Loss: Sadness & Depression.
New York, Basic Books

18. References
 Cassidy, J. & Berlin, L. (1994). The Insecure Ambivalent
Pattern of Attachment: Theory and Research. Child
Development, 65, 971-991
 Delaney, M. (2009). Teaching The Unteachable: Practical
Ideas To Give Teachers Hope And Help When Behaviour
Management Strategies Fail. London, Worth Publishing
Limited
 Diagnostic Manual – Intellectual Disability: A textbook of
Diagnosis of Mental Disorders in Persons with Intellectual
Disability (2007). New York, National Association for the
Dually Diagnosed (NADD)
 Ding, S. & Littleton, K. (2005). Children’s Personal and Social
Development. London, Blackwell Publishing
 Egeland, B. (2004). Attachment Based Interventions and
Prevention Programs for Young Children. Encyclopaedia on
Early childhood Development. Centre of Excellence for Early
childhood development, Minnesota

19. References
 Geddes, H. (2008). Attachment In the Classroom: the Links
Between Children’s Early Experience, Emotional Well-being
And Performance In School. London, Worth Publishing
 Golding, K. (2008). Nurturing Attachments: Supporting
Children who are Fostered or Adopted. London, Jessica
Kingsley Publishers
 Hardy, L. T. (2007). Attachment Theory and Reactive
Attachment Disorder. Theoretical Perspectives and Treatment
Implications. Journal of Clinical and Adolescent Psychiatric
Nursing, 20, 1, 27 – 39
 Heard, D. (1987). The Relevance of Attachment Theory To
Child Psychiatric Practice: An Update, 28, 1, 25 – 28
 Main, M. & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying
disorganized/disoriented infants during the Ainsworth Strange
Situation. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti & M. Cummings
(Eds), Attachement in the pre-school years, pp. 121 – 160.
Chocago: University of Chicago Press.

20. References
 Prior, V. & Glaser, D. (2006). Understanding
Attachment and Attachment Disorders:
Theory, Evidence and Practice. London, Jessica
Kingsley Publishers
 Snoufe, L. A. (1995). Emotional Development: The
Organisation of Emotional Life in the Early Years.
New York, Cambridge University Press
 Van Spendoorn, M. H. & Bakermans-
Kranenburg, M. J. (2003). Attachment disorders
and disorganised attachment. Similar and Different.
Attachment and Human Development, 53, 313 –
320