Copy of organization behavior2

Organization Behavior- Introductory Perspective
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Organization Behavior- A field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structures have on behavior within organizations for
the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organizations
effectiveness.
Processes of Study
Differences and fundamental consistencies
Systematic Study vs. Intuition
Preconceived Notion vs. Substantive Evidence

Contributing Disciplines
Psychology- Science attempting to measure, explain and change behavior- learning,
perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and
motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision making processes, appraisals, attitude
measurements, selection techniques, work design, stress
Sociology- Study of people in relation to their fellow beings- group behavior, group
dynamics, work structure ,organization structure, team designs , power and conflict
Anthropology- Study of societies to learn about human beings and their activitiesOrganization culture, environment

Organization Behavior- Introductory Perspective
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Frame Work for Study

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Few simple or universal principles
Reflects situational or contingency conditions- Relationship of dependency subject to contingency
variables- Situational factors variables that moderate the relationship between two or more other
variables.

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Challenges and Opportunities for OB

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Responding to globalization
Managing Work force diversity
Improving Quality and Productivity
Improving people skills
Empowering people
Coping with temporariness
Stimulating innovation and change
Improving Ethical Behavior

Organization Behavior-Introductory Perspective
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Dependant Variable

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Key factors that need to be explained or
predicted that are affected by some other
factors- Productivity, absenteeism, turnover,
job satisfaction and organization citizenship

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Independent Variable

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Presumed cause of some change in the
dependant variable
Individual level variables – characterizes
individual level uniqueness – perception,
individual decision making, learning, learning
and motivation besides ability, values,
attitudes, personality and emotions
Group Level Variables- characterizes group
level uniqueness
Organization Systems level variablescharacterizes the impact of superimposition of
structure on individual and group behavior.

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Basic OB Model, Stage - 1

Organization system level

Group Level

Individual Level

Organization Behavior- Individual Behavior
Biographic Characteristics

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Age
Gender
Marital Status
Tenure

Biographical Characteristics Age
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Eriksson's Eight Ages of Man
Stage1- Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust
Stage2- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage3- Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Ego Integrity vs. Despair

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Stages of Adult Life- Daniel Levinson

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Pre Adult hood- Childhood, Adolescence and early adult transition
Early Adulthood- Age 17-45
Middle Adulthood- Period of most apparent change- Age 40-60
Late Adulthood- Coping physical and intellectual decline – Age 65-

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Adult Stages- Gail Sheehy

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Late Teens- Pulling up roots
The Twenties- Trying twenties
The Early Thirties- Catch 30
The late thirties and mid forties- Deadline Decade
The mid forties to fifties- Renewal or Resignation

Biographical Characteristics Gender
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Carol Gilligan- Gender differences were not given serious consideration

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Men and Women view their moral orientation and development process differently
Stages of Development

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Separation from mother- Individuation
Autonomy
The male- female difference
Male opposites-ego boundaries/ Female children separation and individuation is slow
Female experience less differentiation- hence connected to external world and men to internal world
Hence females can demonstrate more empathy- experience needs of others
Males and females experience relationships and dependency differently- masculinity is defined through
separation and feminity through attachment
Evidenced in children games
Males- play outdoors, large groups wide age range, games emphasize competition , quarrel more often, play
with enemies
Females- indoor games, smaller groups narrow age range, games emphasize relationships, disputes often end
games, play mostly with friends in intimate groups.

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Ability
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Intellectual Ability
Physical Ability
Ability- Job fit

Ability- Intellectual Ability
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Intellectual Ability- IQ/ Other
Scholastic tests
Dimensions

Number Aptitude
Verbal
comprehension

Perceptual Speed

Inductive
Reasoning
Deductive
Reasoning
Spatial
Visualization
Memory

Descriptions

Examples

Ability- Physical Ability
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Physical Ability
Nine Physical Abilities
Dynamic Strength- Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continually over time
Trunk Strength- Ability to exert muscular strength using trunk muscles
Static Strengh- Ability to exert force against external objects
Explosive Strength- Ability to expend a maximum of energy in a single/ series bursts
Extent Flexibility- Ability to move trunk and back muscles as far as possible
Dynamic Flexibility
Body Coordination
Balance
Stamina

Learning
• Learning- Def- Any relative permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Learning
therefore takes place if an individual behaves, reacts,
responds as a result of an experience in a manner
different from the way he formerly behaved.
• Learning has several components
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Learning involves change
Change must be relatively permanent
Learning involves change in actions
Some form of experience is necessary- leading to permanent
change in behavior.

Learning
• Theories of Learning
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Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning

Learning
• Classical Conditioning-A type of conditioning in which

an individual responds to some stimulus that would not produce
such a response
• Pavlov’s experiment
• Unconditioned Stimulus- Unconditioned Response
• Conditioned Stimulus- Conditioned Response
• Steps- 1. Building an association between an unconditioned/conditioned
stimulus.2. Make the conditioned or neutral stimulus unconditional
• Limitations
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Passive- Explain simple reflexive behavior
Behavior in organizations is complex it is displayed or emitted rather than elicited or
extracted.

Learning
• Operant Conditioning- A type of conditioning in which
desired voluntary behavior leads to reward or prevents
punishment.
• Skinner- Behaviorist School
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Behavior is a function of its consequences- Operant Behavior
Voluntary or Learnt Behavior
Repetition of the behavior is influenced by reinforcement- reward
Lack of reinforcement- Punishment linked to the consequence of behavior
Assumption- All behavior is externally determined
Hence the immediacy of reward/recognition and punishment/ reprimand

Learning
• Social Learning- Learning through observation and direct
experience
• Assumption- Behavior is a function of consequences as well as observation,
models, perceptions and definition of consequences.
• Models and Processes
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Attentional Processes- Recognition and Attention to its key features- Attractive,
Replicability, Importance
Retention Process- Recollection of the model when not readily available
Reproduction Process- Individuals ability to perform the modeled activities
Reinforcement Processes- The kind and surety level of the reinforcement mechanism.

Learning
• Locus of Control- Julian Rotter- Social Learning
• Behavior is linked to outcome and value of outcome and is
contingent to ones belief that ones actions directly affects
outcome- Locus of Control.
• Locus of Control- Ways in which individuals attribute responsibility for
events to factors within themselves and outside themselves.
• The outlook will determine our perception of reward and reinforcements
• Attribution of Responsibility- defines contingency relationships between
actions and outcome- To themselves abilities, efforts( Internal Locus of
Control oriented) , Outside them and Others, fate , luck, other influential
people( External Locus of Control Oriented)

Learning
• Development of Locus of
Control
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Social Discrimination
Prolonged Incapacitating Disability
Parental Child Rearing Practices

• Job Behavior of Internal/
External Control Locus
• Changing Locus of Control
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Desire to change
Clarity about direction of desired change
Clear idea of present condition
Knowledge of process and mechanism of
change.

Internal
LOC

External
LOC

Better care of
equipment, higher
tolerance, cooperative,
self reliant, knowledge

Unrealistic aspirations.
Less able to cope with
reality

More focused and clear Unsure of needs and
of career. Values
devalues development
development training
training
Rely more on
persuasive power
Adopts change and
innovations

Use coercive power
and threat Resistant to
change and innovation

Pick superior or equal
ability people to
partner tasks

Pick partners of
inferior ability and
hold personal control

Learning
• Shaping Behavior- A process of systematically reinforcing each successive step that
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moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Methods of Shaping Behavior
Reinforcement

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Produce desired change in behavior
Organization Reinforcement processes
Timing of reinforcement and speed of learning

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Types of Reinforcement

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Continuous
Intermittent

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Fixed interval/ Variable Interval Schedule
Fixed- Ratio/ Variable Ratio Schedule

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Reinforcement Schedule and Behavior
Behavior Modification- Identify critical behavior/ Develop Base line data/ Identify
Behavioral consequences/ Develop& Implement an Intervention Strategy/Evaluate
Performance Improvement.

Values

Values
Types of Values –RokeachValue Survey
Types of Values –RokeachValue Survey

Values

Values in the
Values in the
Rokeach
Rokeach
Survey
Survey

Values

Values in the
Values in the
Rokeach
Rokeach
Survey
Survey
(cont’d)
(cont’d)

Values
Values

Mean Value Rankings of
Mean Value Rankings of
Executives &Union
Executives &Union
Members
Members

Organization BehaviorIndividual Behavior
Values

Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Values and
Behaviors of Leaders

Ethical Climate in
Ethical Climate in
the Organization
the Organization

Values
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing

Cultures
Cultures

Values

Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Values
••Assertiveness
Assertiveness
••Future Orientation
Future Orientation
••Gender differentiation
Gender differentiation
••Uncertainty avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance
••Power distance
Power distance
••Individual/collectivism
Individual/collectivism
••In-group collectivism
In-group collectivism
••Power orientation
Power orientation
••Humane orientation
Humane orientation

The GLOBE
Framework
for
Assessing
Cultures

Attitudes

Attitudes
Attitudes

Attitudes

Types of Attitudes
Types of Attitudes

Attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance- Leon Festinger
The

Desire to reduce dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance
• •Importance of elements creating dissonance
Importance of elements creating dissonance
• •Degree of individual influence over elements
Degree of individual influence over elements
• •Rewards involved in dissonance
Rewards involved in dissonance

Attitudes
Measuring Attitude &
Behavior Relationship
• Recent research indicates that
attitudes significantly predict
behavior when moderating
variables are taken into
account

Moderating Variables
Importance of Attitude
Specificity of the Attitude
Accessibility of Attitude
Social pressures on person
Direct experience with the
attitude

Attitudes
• Self Perception Theory

Attitudes are used after the
fact to make sense of an
action already occurred

Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
• Measuring Job Satisfaction
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Single global rating
Summation score

• How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?
– Job satisfaction declined
– Decline attributed to:
• Pressures to increase productivity
• Less control over work

Job Satisfaction
The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee
Performance
• Satisfaction and Productivity
– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive.
– Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more
satisfied workers.

• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

• Satisfaction and Turnover
– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
– Organizations take actions to cultivate high performers and
to weed out lower performers

Job Satisfaction
Responses to Job to Job Dissatisfaction
Responses Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
How Employees Can ExpressDissatisfaction
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction

Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction and OCB
• Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
– Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are
trusting of the organization are more willing to
engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal
expectations of their job.

Personality& Emotions
• Personality- Definition- The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts
and interacts with others.
• Determinants of Personality
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Heredity
Environment
Situation

• Trait Theory- Enduring Characteristics that describe an individuals behavior
• Jung- Typologies and Myers – Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
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Extroverted- Introverted (E or I)
Sensing- Intuitive ( S or N)
Thinking – Feeling ( T or F)
Perceiving- Judging ( P or J)
16 Personality Types

Personality & Emotions
• The 5 Factor Model
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Extraversion- A personality dimension measuring sociability, gregariousness, assertion
Agreeableness- Dimension measuring nature, cooperation and trust.
Conscientiousness- Dimension measuring responsibility, dependability, persistence and
organized ness
Emotional Stability- Dimension measuring calmness, self-confidence and secureness
Openness to experience- Dimension Measuring imaginativeness, artistic bent,
sensitivity and intellectualism.
Research Data demonstrated connectivity between factors and job performance.

• Personality Attributes and Organization Behavior
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Locus of Control
Machiavellianism
Self Esteem/ Self Monitoring and Risk Taking
Type A and Type B Personality.

Personality and Emotions
• Locus of Control- The degree to which people believe they are masters
of their own fate.
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Internals- Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.
Externals- Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside
forces such as luck or chance
Who do you think will perform better.

• Machiavellianism ( Mach)- Degree to which an individual is pragmatic
maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means.
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Are High Mach's necessarily better.

• Self Esteem- Individuals degree of liking or disliking self
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Are High Self Esteems necessarily better

• Self Monitoring- Measures an individuals ability to adjust behavior to
external situational factors- What does it imply for performance
• Risk Taking- Are there any implications for decision making

• Type A Personality- Aggressive, always in a incessant struggle to
achieve more and more in less and less time and if necessary, against
the opposing efforts of other things or people.
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Always moving, walking, eating rapidly
Feel impatient with the rate at which things take place
Strive to do two or more things at a time
Cannot cope with leisure time
Are obsessed with numbers- looking at how much or how many all the time

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Never suffer from a sense of urgency with its accompanying impatience
Feels no need to display or discuss their achievements or accomplishments unless demanded
Play for fun and relaxation rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost
Can relax without guilt

• Who do you think finally makes it big.

Job Satisfaction
• Achieving Personality and Job Fit
• Personality and Job Fit
• Holland's Theory( JL Holland) Do a net search and write a paper on it.
(5 to 7 pages)
• Person Organization Fit- Using the 5 Personality Types write a paper
500 words on types of organizations( Values & Cultures) where they
would fit.

• Emotions till recently did not receive much attention within OB
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Myth of Rationality
Emotions are disruptive

• Emotions- Intense feelings that are experienced by an individual
triggered by an experience and could be directed at something or
someone including self.
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Emotions could be felt emotions and displayed emotions

• Varieties of Emotion
Happiness

Surprise

Fear

Sadness

•External Determinants
Organizational Influences and Cultural Influences

Anger

Disgust

• Applications in Organization Behavior
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Ability and Selection- Demonstrate Emotional Intelligence
Self Awareness- Ability to be aware of ones feelings
Self Management- Ability to manage ones emotions and impulses
Self Motivation- Ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures
Empathy- Ability to sense others feelings
Social Skills- Ability to handle emotions of others.
Decision Making
Motivation
Leadership
Interpersonal Conflict
Handle Deviant Work Place Behavior.

Perception
• Perception – Process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment.
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Behavior is based on perceived reality rather than reality itself.
What causes differences in perception – Perceiver/ Target/ Situation- Characteristics
Perception about people
We make inferences- Significantly interlaced by assumptions on the individual
Attribution Theory attempts an explanation- Internally/ Externally Caused
Distinctiveness/ Consensus/ Consistency
Distinctiveness

Individual
Behavior

High
Low

Consensus

High
Low

Consistency

High
Low

Perception
• Attribution Errors
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Fundamental Error- Underestimate influence of external factors
Self Serving Bias- Attribute success to internal / failure to external
Short- Cuts and Pitfalls
Selective Perception/ Halo Effect
Contrast Effects- Comparative Perceptions
Projection
Stereo Typing

• Applications
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Interviews
Performance Expectations and Performance Evaluation
Self Fulfilling Prophecy/ Pygmalion Effect
Employee Effort/ Loyalty

Decision Making
• Decision - The choices made from among two or more alternatives.
• Problem- A discrepancy between some current state of affairs and a
desired state
• Rational- Refers to choices that are consistent and value maximising.

Does Perception Play a Role

Decision Making
• Decision Making- Rational Decision Making Process- A decision
making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to
maximize some outcome.
• Steps
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Define the Problem
Identify the decision criteria
Allocate weights to the criteria
Develop the alternatives
Evaluate the alternatives
Select the best alternative.
Assumptions
Problem Clarity/ Known Options/ Clear Preferences
Constant Preferences/ No time or cost constraints/ Maximum Payoff

Decision Making
• Enriching a decision- Creativity- The ability to produce novel and
useful ideas.

Expertise

Creativity
Skills

Creativity

Task Motivation

Decision Making
• Organization - Decision Making Processes
• Bounded Rationality- Making a decision by constructing simplified
models that extract the essential features from problems without
capturing their entire complexity. Satisficing Vs Optimum
• Intuition- An unconscious process created out of distilled experience
• High level of uncertainty
• Little precedence to draw from
• Variables are less predictable
• Facts are limited
• Facts don’t point the way
• Analytical Data of little use
• Limited Time

Decision Making
Directive- fast
Short term

Tolerance for Ambiguity

Decision Style Model
High

Analytic

Conceptual

Analytic- Careful
ability to
Cope
Conceptual- long
Range creative

Directive

Behavioral

Low

Rational
Way of Thinking

Intuitive

BehavioralParticipatory
Non conflict.

Decision Making
• Decision Making Techniques
•SWOT Analysis
•Analytic Hierarchy Process
•Buyer Decision Process
•Complex Systems
•Finance Lead
• Investment
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Dividend
• Working Capital
•Paired Comparison
•Pareto Analysis

•Cost Benefit Analysis
•Decision Trees
PERT
CPM
Critical Chain
•Force Field Analysis
•Grid Analysis
•Kepner Tregoe
•Optimization Techniques

Motivation
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DEFINING MOTIVATION

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Motivation is to inspire people to work, individually or in groups in the ways such as to produce
best results. It is the will to act. It is the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards
organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts and ability to satisfy some individual need.

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Motivation is getting somebody to do something because they want to do it. It was once assumed
that motivation had to be injected from outside, but it is now understood that everyone is
motivated by several differing forces.

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Motivation is a general term applied to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar
forces. To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that they do those things which
they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act in a desired
manner.

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To motivate others is the most important of management tasks. It comprises the abilities to
communicate, to set an example, to challenge, to encourage, to obtain feedback, to involve, to
delegate, to develop and train, to inform, to brief and to provide a just reward.

Motivation
• Motivation- Definition
The processes that account for an individuals
intensity, direction and persistence of efforts
towards attaining a goal.

Motivation
• Types of Motivation
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1) Achievement Motivation
It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to
achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here, accomplishment is important
for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It is similar to ‘Kaizen’ approach of
Japanese Management.

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(2) Affiliation Motivation
It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work
better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-operation.

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(3) Competence Motivation
It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high quality work.
Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and using their
problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from
their experience.

Motivation
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Types of Motivation - Contd

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(4) Power Motivation
It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on
their organization and are willing to take risks to do so.

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(5) Attitude Motivation
Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self confidence, their belief in themselves, their
attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the past.

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6) Incentive Motivation
It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “You do this and you get that”, attitude. It
is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder.
(7) Fear Motivation
Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the job done quickly. It is
helpful in the short run.

Motivation
• Theories Of Motivation
• Contribution of Robert Owen :
• Though Owen is considered to be paternalistic in his view, his contribution is
of a considerable significance in the theories of Motivation.
• During the early years of the nineteenth century, Owens's textile mill at New
Lanark in Scotland was the scene of some novel ways of treating people.
• His view was that people were similar to machines. A machine that is looked
after properly, cared for and maintained well, performs efficiently, reliably and
lastingly, similarly people are likely to be more efficient if they are taken care
of.
• Robert Owen practiced what he preached and introduced such things as
employee housing and company shop. His ideas on this and other matters
were considered to be too revolutionary for that time.

Motivation
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Theories Of Motivation

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Jeremy Bent ham's “The Carrot and the Stick Approach

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Developed in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, around 1800. Bent ham's view was that all people are
self-interested and are motivated by the desire to avoid pain and find pleasure. Any worker will work only if the
reward is big enough, or the punishment sufficiently unpleasant.

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The carrot and the stick metaphor relates, to the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired
behavior. It comes from the old story that to make a donkey move, one must put a carrot in front of him or
dab him with a stick from behind. Despite all the research on the theories of motivation, reward and
punishment are still considered strong motivators.

In all theories of motivation, the inducements of some kind of ‘carrot’ are recognized. Often this is money in
the form of pay or bonuses. Even though money is not the only motivating force, it has been and will continue
to be an important one.

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The ‘stick’, in the form of fear–fear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of bonus, demotion, or some
other penalty–has been and continues to be a strong motivator. Yet it is admittedly not the best kind. But fear
of penalty cannot be overlooked, the power of position to give or with hold rewards or impose penalties of
various kinds gives an ability to control, to a very great extent, the economic and social well-being of
subordinates

Motivation
Theories Of Motivation
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Abraham Maslow’s “Need Hierarchy Theory” :

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Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest,
and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a
motivator.

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As per his theory this needs are :

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(i) Physiological needs :
These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep,
medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need
satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to
maintain life, no other motivating factors can work.

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(ii) Security or Safety needs :
These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or
shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm.

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Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy- Contd.

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(iii) Social needs :
Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to satisfy
their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.

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(iv) Esteem needs :
Once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by
themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status
and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like self-respect, autonomy and
achievements and external esteem factors such as status, recognition and attention.

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(v) Need for self-actualization :
The highest need in his hierarchy is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, it
includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize one’s potential
and to accomplish something.

Motivation
Lower Order Needs
Physiological

Self
Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

Safety
Higher Order Needs
Social
Esteem
Self Actualization
Maslow’s Theory has popular
acceptance but no research validity

Motivation
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“Theory X and Theory Y” of Douglas McGregor :

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McGregor, in his book “The Human side of Enterprise” states that people inside the
organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls
under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category
Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor
concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain
grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mould his or her behavior
towards subordinates according to these assumptions.

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Under the assumptions of theory X :
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display
little ambition. :

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Motivation
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Theory X and Theory Y Contd.

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Under the assumptions of theory Y :

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Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals.
Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
solving the problems of the organization.
That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s brain power is only partly used.

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Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs
dominate individuals.
An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word “authoritarian”
suggests such ideas as the “power to enforce obedience” and the “right to command.” ITheory Y organizations
can be described as “participative”, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are
integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the
organization.

However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior

Motivation
Rensis Likert : Four Systems
• Likert developed a refined classification, breaking down
organizations into four management systems.
• 1st System – Primitive authoritarian
2nd System – Benevolent authoritarian
3rd System – Consultative
4th System – Participative
• As per the opinion of Likert, the 4th system is the best,
not only for profit organizations, but also for nonprofit firms.

Motivation
• Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene- Two factor- Theory
• Frederick tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory.
• There are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work.
• Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
associated with dissatisfaction.
• He devised his theory on the question : “What do people want from their
jobs ?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt
exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received,
he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing
dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job
satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is
natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However,
their nonpresence leads to demotivation.
• In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no
dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact

Motivation
Traditional View
Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View
Motivators
No Satisfaction

Satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
No dissatisfaction
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Dissatisfaction

Examples of Hygiene factors are :
Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with
supervisor and company policy and administration.
Examples of Motivational factors are :
Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements

Motivation
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Theories of Motivation

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Contributions of Elton Mayo :
The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as “Hawthorne Experiments.”
Conducted behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American
Western Electric Company in Chicago. Illumination experiments, introduced breaks
in between the work performance and also introduced refreshments during the pauses

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Motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay, work condition
and morale but also included psychological and social factors.
This research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn
were :

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People are motivated by more than pay and conditions.
The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important.
Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.

Motivation
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Vroom’s Valence x Expectancy theory :

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The most widely accepted explanations of motivation has been propounded by Victor
Vroom commonly known as expectancy theory.
Strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness
of that outcome to the individual .
Expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when
their is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal
and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward.

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Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.
The theory focuses on three things :
Efforts and performance relationship
Performance and reward relationship
Rewards and personal goal relationship

Motivation
• Expectancy Theory- Contd.
• In Conclusion
Valence* Expectancy
Motivation
Action
Results
Satisfaction in form of Rewards

Motivation
• The Porter and Lawler Model :
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A more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory

Performance is
Determined by
- Effort Spent
- Ability
- Task perception
Performance leads
to rewards
- Intrinsic
- Extrinsic
Equity and fairness
of rewards is the
determinant of
satisfaction

Motivation
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Theories of Motivation – contd.

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Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory :

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Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model
named ERG i.e. Existence – Relatedness – Growth.

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The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material existence. The
second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other
members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop
personally.

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The major conclusions of this theory are :
In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.
If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies.
It also contains the frustration-regression dimension.

Motivation
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Theories of Motivation- Contd.

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McClelland’s Theory of Needs :

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David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs :
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Need for Achievement

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Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control motivated to perform if
they are given key positions or power positions.
Second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and
social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation.
Third category are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is
primary and they set for themselves realistic targets and are motivated to perform when they see realistic
chances of success.

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McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased
rather than Affiliation.

Motivation
• Equity Theory - J. Stacey Adams
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People are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to
the inputs.

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People use judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparison

Outcome of A
-----------------------Input of A

=

Outcome of B
----------------------Input of B
Reward not equitable

Situation of Balance or Imbalance

Reward equitable
Reward more than equitable and
fair

Motivation
• Reinforcement Theory :
• B.F. Skinner, holds that by designing the environment properly,
individuals can be motivated.
• Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings,
attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by
what happens in the environment external to them.
• Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to
the individuals
• Punishments actually leads to frustration and de-motivation.
• The only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes
in the environment of the organization

Motivation
• Theories of Motivation- contd.
• Goal Setting Theory of Edwin Locke
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Instead of giving vague tasks to people, specific and pronounced objectives, help in
achieving them faster.
As the clarity is high, a goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the work
of the employees.
The goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher
standard than in that case employees are motivated to perform better and put in
maximum effort.
It revolves around the concept of “Self-efficacy” i.e. individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a hard task.

Motivation
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory :

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Shift from external rewards to internal rewards results into
motivation.
• Even after the stoppage of external stimulus, internal stimulus
survives. It relates to the pay structure in the organization.
Instead of treating external factors like pay, incentives,
promotion etc and internal factors like interests, drives,
responsibility etc, separately, they should be treated as
contemporary to each other.
• The cognition is to be such that even when external motivators
are not there the internal motivation continues.

Motivation
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,

difference.

And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the
-- Robert Frost

Motivation
• Can you think of some motivation issues with
you
• Spend some time reflect and write a 500 word
letter to yourself .

Organization Behavior- Group Behavior
• Group : Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent who have
come together to achieve particular objectives.
• Types of Groups
• Formal Group : A designated work group defined by the organization’s structure
• Informal Group: A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally
determined but appears in response to the need for social contact.

• Command Group: A group structured by a relationship of command and reporting
relationship.

• Task Group: A group working together to complete a task.
• Interest Group: Group working together to attain a specific objective of concern to
all members

• Friendship Group : Group brought together by need to share and commonality of
characteristics.

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Why do people join groups
Security
Status
Self Esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal Achievment

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Stages of Group Development
Five Stages of Group Development
Forming: Characterized by uncertainty
Storming: Characterized by intragroup conflict
Norming: Characterized by development of cohesiveness and relationships
Performing: Characterized by fully functional stage of group.
Adjourning : Characterizes temporary groups concern for activities
completion and need to reorient identity.
Limitations
Assumes a linear process
Assumes disfunctionality of conflicts
Ignores context and situation


c na mo r e P
r f

• Punctuated Equilibrium Model- Temporary Groups go through transitions
between inertia and activity.
• Set Group Direction
• Inertia
• Transition happens when approximately half the time is used up.
• Transition brigs major changes
• Second Phase of Inertia
Punctuated Equilibrium
Model
• Accelerated Activity

Time

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Analyzing Interactions in Groups
Sociometry- Technique for studying group interaction
Sociogram
Social Networks
Building Diversity
Clusters
Managing Conflict
Prescribed Clusters
Turnover
Emergent Clusters
Commitment
Motivation
Coalitions
Cooperation
Cliques
Stars
Bridges
Isolates

GROUP BEHAVIOR MODEL

Grpup
Task

Member
Resources

External
Conditions

Group
Processes

Group
Structure

Performance
Satisfaction

• External Conditions
• Work Groups are sub systems of a larger systemOrganization- and hence are influenced by external
conditions
• Conditions Imposed by the larger system- external• Organizations overall strategy- goals and means as well as resources
• Authority Structures- Leadership/ Decisions/ Reporting Structure/
Positioning in Hierarchy
• Formal Regulations- Rules, Processes, policies, job roles
• Resources
• Reward and Recognition Processes
• Physical Work Setting

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