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How do we supply the world’s energy needs?
	

              Derek Abbott
      School of Electrical  Electronic Engineering
     The University of Adelaide, Australia
The University of Adelaide




University opened in 1874    Engineering building
University of Adelaide
Our Department: History
PhD Genealogy
“All power corrupts, but we need the electricity.”
The problem
The solution


    Take home message: Large scale.
Going all the way….


    “A clever man commits no minor blunders.”
               Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
My expertise




    •  Multidisciplinary engineering  physics
    •  Complex systems
Definition of expert #1


Expert (noun): a person who is more than 50 miles from home,
  has no responsibility for implementing the advice he gives,
  and shows slides.
Definition of expert #2


Expert (noun): a person sufficiently jaded with all the facts that
  he declares when something cannot be done.
Acknowledgements


•  A/Prof Brian O’Neill University of Adelaide
•  Prof M. Tariq Iqbal Memorial University of Newfoundland
•  Prof Valerie Linton University of Adelaide
•  Prof Andrzej Calka University of Wollongong
•  Dr Yung Ngothai University of Adelaide
•  Daniel Kammerer BMW, München
Special acknowledgement




   Ricky Dunbar           Prof Stephen Kaneff
Today’s goal




The highest education is that which does not merely give us
information but makes our life in harmony with all existence.


                                      Rabindranath Tagore
SMART Seminar - How do we supply the world's energy needs?
The scale of the problem


   World energy consumption = 15 terawatts
How much is a watt?

       1W
How much is a kilowatt (103)?

       1 kW
How much is a megawatt (106)?

       3 MW




      50 MW
How much is a gigawatt (109)?

       2 GW
How much is a terawatt (1012)?

       90 TW




       200 TW
How much is a petawatt (1015)?

       1 PW




              Source: University of Texas at Austin
How much is a yottawatt (1024)?

      5 YW
Even more power…..

 5 × 1036 W
Planck power = 3.63 × 1052 W
Important preface: two-pronged approach

     A viable energy solution is built on the
     foundation of sensible energy conservation
Example: Everyone drives a car for 1hr a day

5 billion people drive a car with a 50 kW engine for 1hr/day

5 × 109 × 50 × 103 × 365 × 60 × 60/(365 × 24 × 60 × 60) = 10 TW
Oil




      Source: www.almc.army.mil
Distribution of oil




            Source: BP Statistical Review
What is the upper bound for oil volume?
Sunlight conversion to plant matter = 90 TW

Conversion efficiency to oil = 1%

Energy density of crude oil = 30 GJ/m3

Volume of oil per sec = 90 × 1012 × 0.01/30 ×109 = 30 m3

Span of biological life = 3.7 billion years

Total oil = 3.7 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 3600 × 30 = 3.5 × 1018 m3

⇒ 0.3% of planet’s volume, or 2.6 times total water on planet
Extinction time for oil


    T = (1/k) ln (1+ kR/P)



    k = annual growth rate = 0.013
    R = total oil = 3.5 × 1018 m3
    P = annual consumption = 5 × 109 m3   (2009)

    ⇒ T= extinction time = 1200 years
The one minute before midnight effect




         1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128……..
Doubling time for oil




       Oil annual growth rate = 1.3%

       Doubling time ~ 100/1.3 = 77 years
Oil discovery




       Source: Mikael Höök, Uppsala University
Coal




       Source: Energy Watch Group
Fossil fuel epoch




             http://www.abc.net.au/news/video/
             2009/03/30/2530333.htm	

             http://www.abc.net.au/news/video/
             2009/05/26/2581358.htm	





      Source: M. King Hubbert, US Senate Committee, 1972
Law of resource depletion




    “Oil lasts forever if you don’t use it.”
Nuclear fission
SMART Seminar - How do we supply the world's energy needs?
Scaling up nuclear fission


•  Presently commercial 440 reactors world wide
•  Would need 15,000 reactors to match present consumption
Nuclear footprint



       Average nuclear footprint = 20.5 km2

       100 MW solar thermal = 4.7 km2



M. Z. Jacobson, Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, pp. 148–173
Nuclear sites in the USA




•  In 2002, 131 sites total and 63 commercial reactors.
•  Need 4000 commercial reactors to meet energy needs.
Nuclear waste
Titanic
Political hot potato
Reliability
Costs


•  $6 billion to build a 750 MW nuclear station
•  Upto $6 billion to decommission
•  Hidden costs
Accidents




“Three Mile Island taught Wall Street. . . [that] a $2 billion
asset can turn into a $1 billion cleanup job in about 90
minutes.”

Peter Bradford, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Accident rate


 •  70 reported incidents per year (NEA)
 •  Presently 440 commercial reactors world wide
 •  Need 15,000 run the world è Five incidents per day
 •  Partial or full core melt è   One per month
Nuclear fission: 80-year life
Fast breeder reactors (FBRs)


  •  FBRs increase uranium lifetime by a factor of 60

  •  Total nuclear utility time = 60 × 80 = 4800 years

  •  By extracting uranium from seawater and using thorium
    we can last for well over 10,000 years.
Uranium in seawater
 •  Total volume of seawater = 1.37 x 1018 m3

 •  Density of seawater = 1030 kg/m3

 •  Uranium content = 3.3 ppb

 •  Total uranium = 4.6 x 1012 kg

 •  Total U-235 = 3.2 x 1010 kg     (0.7%)

 •  Energy density = 83.14 TJ/kg

 •  Total energy content = 2.7 x 1012 TJ

 •  Utility time = 5700 years     (at 15 TW)
Total quantity versus rate



 •  With an FBR, 60 x 5700  300,000 years!

 •  But this is nonsense as rates have been ignored
Mass balance equation


                           dc
                         V    = Fc
                           dt

  •  Results in a simple exponential
                 €
  •  But this is wrong because: F is not const., F ∝1/c

  •  So let us insert: F = k /c
                                       €
  	

             €
Correct differential equation


                         dc
                       V    = −k
                         dt

                             VFo
                      F=
                           V − FoT
              €

•  For 1 GW supply, Fo = 7.6 x 106 m3/sec
             €             V
•  Doomsday time,     T=
                           Fo
                       = 5700 years (at 15 TW)

              €
Total volume of ocean mined in time T


                      T
         VTOT =   ∫   0
                          Fdt = −V ln(1− FoT /Vo )



 €
 Over 30 years, the accumulated volume to be processed
 is 7 x 1015 m3 = 6 times the total river outflow in the
 world in same time.
Moral of the story




   What works at small scale doesn’t
   always work at large scale!
What are nuclear power stations made of?

   In addition to steel and concrete:

  u Niobium
  u Tantalum
  u Beryllium
  u Zirconium
  u Lithium
  u Yttrium
  u Hafnium
  u Vanadium
  u Molybdenum
  u  etc….
Mineral extraction


•  Acids
•  Toxic chemicals
•  Organic solvents
•  Very high temperatures needed
Extinction times

Resource    Reserves       Production       Growth             Ext. Time
            R (tonnes)     P (tonnes)       k (/year)          T (years)

Beryllium       8.00E+04          4,470                 0.10               10

Lithium         9.90E+06       382,000                  0.08               14

Niobium         2.90E+06         62,000                 0.09               19

Zirconium       5.60E+07      1,280,000                 0.04               25

Yttrium         5.40E+05           400                  0.22               26

Hafnium         6.60E+05                8               0.38               28

Crude oil      1.757E+11 3,525,000,000                  0.01               37
                                                Based on USGS figures (2008)

     Can we afford to destroy elemental diversity ??
Types of nuclear advocate




     •  Nuclear utopian

     •  Nuclear realist
Humour break




          Nuclear
Only justifiable use of nuclear
Hydroelectric power
Wind power
Wave power




             Source: Pelamis
Nuclear fusion?
Everyone has fusion in their back yard!
The sun!
But is solar energy really viable?


Quiz: the solar power that hits the planet is just enough to:


 1.    Power New York
 2.    Power Europe
 3.    Power half the planet
 4.    Power 10,000 of our planets.
Quiz answer


•  The solar power that hits the planet = 174,000 TW
•  Planet’s power consumption is = 15 TW

 1.    Power New York
 2.    Power Europe
 3.    Power half the planet
 4.    Power 10,000 of our planets þ
But how sun much makes it to the surface?



    •    30% is reflected
    •    19% is absorbed by clouds



    Therefore 51% is available for collection.
    So we still have enough to run 5000 planets.
Why isn’t “5000” shouted from the rooftops?




   Obvious (noun): that which is never seen until
   someone expresses it simply.
                                   Khahlil Gibran
Comparison
How long will the sun last?
•  10 billion years
•  5 billion yrs è red giant
•  1 billion yrs èwater boils off
Where are the best locations?




      Source: NASA          Source: NASA
Solar cells are great for pocket calculators
Trough collector

                   •  SEGS
                   •  California
                   •  20 years
                   •  350 MW
Solar tower

              •  Seville
ANU dish collector
World’s biggest solar dish
Solar farm
World activity

    •  Spain
    •  USA
    •  Egypt
    •  South Africa
    •  Australia
    •  Libya
    •  Israel
    •  Morocco
    •  Algeria
    •  Germany (laying cable from Aachen to Algeria)
Desertec proposal

A consortium of Deutsch Bank, Siemens and others, to
install a solar farm.

•  Area: 400 km by 400 km
•  Location: Sahara desert
•  Investment: EUR 400 billion
•  Supply: will connect to Europe by cable
Storage  distribution

 To supply the world, we need to:

•  Store power
•  Distribute it to other countries
•  So need to convert it to a chemical fuel
Storage
Ammonia



•  Electrolysis: N and H2
•  Then supply whole world with liquid H2
•  But where do we get all that ammonia from?
Water



•  Electrolysis: O2 and H2
•  Then supply whole world with liquid H2
•  Plenty of water that is in a repeatable cycle
Advantages of hydrogen power



•  Turns to water
•  High energy to weight ratio
•  Petrol engines can be retrofitted out
Concept                                        Sun


                                                      Solar energy


                                         Focused solar
                                        collector dishes

                                                                                        Heat produced
                 Superheated stream to 600°C          Thermal energy



                                        Stream turbine


                                                      Mechanical energy


                                                                Electricity
                                          Generator                               Stored water


                                                                        Closed cycle
                                                      Electricity




                                                                                                        Water produced
                                                                         electrolysis

                          Electricity
    Desalination plant                         Grid                            Hydrogen storage


                Electrolysis                          Transmission

                         Liquefaction                                              Hydrogen
   Hydrogen production                  End consumer                              combustion
Hydrogen infrastructure exists

•  75 million tonnes produced, stored,  shipped annually
Fuel cells versus combustion engine


•  Fuel cells are expensive
•  Fuel cells are delicate
•  Fuel cells use chemicals

	

   	





                              Source: Michigan Technological University.
But are combustion hydrogen engines a reality?
But what about small cars with limited space?




   http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ykl2PH2B-tM
Ford E-450 shuttle bus
Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE
Is hydrogen refueling safe?




  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjWCXD4P3XQ
What if there is a fire?



                                3 seconds




                                60 seconds



  Source: University of Miami
And now for the real test……




Source: Lawrence Livermore Labs
Fire test on BMW tank……




Source: BMW
Hydrogen safety: low radiant heat
Tupolev TU-154   (1988)
H2 refueling stations: North America




                                 Washington DC
H2 refueling stations: Europe




                                Munich
H2 refueling stations: Asia




                              Beijing
H2 refueling stations: Australia
Solar farm footprint




    •  For world’s energy needs: 500 km by 500 km
Bottom line



    •  Nuclear power has hidden costs


    •  Solar-hydrogen has hidden savings
Research needed



    •  Full economic trade-off analysis
    •  Research into electrolysis
    •  Research in platinum electrode alternatives
    •  Research in materials for H2 pipelines
    •  Combustion engines
    •  Analysis of cooling towers
Why is the low tech solution surprising?



•  High-tech systems are ordered: entropy reduced
•  Energy production: entropy increased
•  Cannot put a high-tech system in a high entropy state
Solar thermal vs. solar cells



 •  Solar thermal: centralized base-load power

 •  Solar cells: distributed energy harvesting
Energy diversity



 •  Creates stability  security

 •  Perhaps 70% from solar and 30% other sources
How to get started?
How to proceed?


	

1.    Need govt incentives for insulation/energy saving
2.    Govt funded research initiatives for solar-hydrogen
3.    Establish 4 km by 4 km H2-solar farm
4.    Convert trams/buses to H2
5.    Need more hydrogen car initiatives
A vision
Transforming the desert
Bottom line




              Source: USGS
Bottom line #2




  Source: Am. J. Phys., Vol. 49, No. 11, 1981, p. 1028.
Thomas Edison (1931)




“I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy.
What a source of power! I hope we don’t have
to wait until oil and coal run out before we
tackle that.”
M. King Hubbert




“Our ignorance is not so vast as our failure to use
what we know.”
Sir Mark Oliphant




“Australia can get all the energy it wants from the
Simpson Desert, if only it gains the political courage to
do so.”
The End



Proceedings of the IEEE , Vol. 98, No. 1, 2010, pp. 42-66
   The End	



          dabbott@eleceng.adelaide.edu.au

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SMART Seminar - How do we supply the world's energy needs?

  • 1. How do we supply the world’s energy needs? Derek Abbott School of Electrical Electronic Engineering The University of Adelaide, Australia
  • 2. The University of Adelaide University opened in 1874 Engineering building
  • 6. “All power corrupts, but we need the electricity.”
  • 8. The solution Take home message: Large scale.
  • 9. Going all the way…. “A clever man commits no minor blunders.” Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
  • 10. My expertise •  Multidisciplinary engineering physics •  Complex systems
  • 11. Definition of expert #1 Expert (noun): a person who is more than 50 miles from home, has no responsibility for implementing the advice he gives, and shows slides.
  • 12. Definition of expert #2 Expert (noun): a person sufficiently jaded with all the facts that he declares when something cannot be done.
  • 13. Acknowledgements •  A/Prof Brian O’Neill University of Adelaide •  Prof M. Tariq Iqbal Memorial University of Newfoundland •  Prof Valerie Linton University of Adelaide •  Prof Andrzej Calka University of Wollongong •  Dr Yung Ngothai University of Adelaide •  Daniel Kammerer BMW, München
  • 14. Special acknowledgement Ricky Dunbar Prof Stephen Kaneff
  • 15. Today’s goal The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence. Rabindranath Tagore
  • 17. The scale of the problem World energy consumption = 15 terawatts
  • 18. How much is a watt? 1W
  • 19. How much is a kilowatt (103)? 1 kW
  • 20. How much is a megawatt (106)? 3 MW 50 MW
  • 21. How much is a gigawatt (109)? 2 GW
  • 22. How much is a terawatt (1012)? 90 TW 200 TW
  • 23. How much is a petawatt (1015)? 1 PW Source: University of Texas at Austin
  • 24. How much is a yottawatt (1024)? 5 YW
  • 25. Even more power….. 5 × 1036 W
  • 26. Planck power = 3.63 × 1052 W
  • 27. Important preface: two-pronged approach A viable energy solution is built on the foundation of sensible energy conservation
  • 28. Example: Everyone drives a car for 1hr a day 5 billion people drive a car with a 50 kW engine for 1hr/day 5 × 109 × 50 × 103 × 365 × 60 × 60/(365 × 24 × 60 × 60) = 10 TW
  • 29. Oil Source: www.almc.army.mil
  • 30. Distribution of oil Source: BP Statistical Review
  • 31. What is the upper bound for oil volume? Sunlight conversion to plant matter = 90 TW Conversion efficiency to oil = 1% Energy density of crude oil = 30 GJ/m3 Volume of oil per sec = 90 × 1012 × 0.01/30 ×109 = 30 m3 Span of biological life = 3.7 billion years Total oil = 3.7 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 3600 × 30 = 3.5 × 1018 m3 ⇒ 0.3% of planet’s volume, or 2.6 times total water on planet
  • 32. Extinction time for oil T = (1/k) ln (1+ kR/P) k = annual growth rate = 0.013 R = total oil = 3.5 × 1018 m3 P = annual consumption = 5 × 109 m3 (2009) ⇒ T= extinction time = 1200 years
  • 33. The one minute before midnight effect 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128……..
  • 34. Doubling time for oil Oil annual growth rate = 1.3% Doubling time ~ 100/1.3 = 77 years
  • 35. Oil discovery Source: Mikael Höök, Uppsala University
  • 36. Coal Source: Energy Watch Group
  • 37. Fossil fuel epoch http://www.abc.net.au/news/video/ 2009/03/30/2530333.htm http://www.abc.net.au/news/video/ 2009/05/26/2581358.htm Source: M. King Hubbert, US Senate Committee, 1972
  • 38. Law of resource depletion “Oil lasts forever if you don’t use it.”
  • 41. Scaling up nuclear fission •  Presently commercial 440 reactors world wide •  Would need 15,000 reactors to match present consumption
  • 42. Nuclear footprint Average nuclear footprint = 20.5 km2 100 MW solar thermal = 4.7 km2 M. Z. Jacobson, Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, pp. 148–173
  • 43. Nuclear sites in the USA •  In 2002, 131 sites total and 63 commercial reactors. •  Need 4000 commercial reactors to meet energy needs.
  • 48. Costs •  $6 billion to build a 750 MW nuclear station •  Upto $6 billion to decommission •  Hidden costs
  • 49. Accidents “Three Mile Island taught Wall Street. . . [that] a $2 billion asset can turn into a $1 billion cleanup job in about 90 minutes.” Peter Bradford, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
  • 50. Accident rate •  70 reported incidents per year (NEA) •  Presently 440 commercial reactors world wide •  Need 15,000 run the world è Five incidents per day •  Partial or full core melt è One per month
  • 52. Fast breeder reactors (FBRs) •  FBRs increase uranium lifetime by a factor of 60 •  Total nuclear utility time = 60 × 80 = 4800 years •  By extracting uranium from seawater and using thorium we can last for well over 10,000 years.
  • 53. Uranium in seawater •  Total volume of seawater = 1.37 x 1018 m3 •  Density of seawater = 1030 kg/m3 •  Uranium content = 3.3 ppb •  Total uranium = 4.6 x 1012 kg •  Total U-235 = 3.2 x 1010 kg (0.7%) •  Energy density = 83.14 TJ/kg •  Total energy content = 2.7 x 1012 TJ •  Utility time = 5700 years (at 15 TW)
  • 54. Total quantity versus rate •  With an FBR, 60 x 5700 300,000 years! •  But this is nonsense as rates have been ignored
  • 55. Mass balance equation dc V = Fc dt •  Results in a simple exponential € •  But this is wrong because: F is not const., F ∝1/c •  So let us insert: F = k /c € €
  • 56. Correct differential equation dc V = −k dt VFo F= V − FoT € •  For 1 GW supply, Fo = 7.6 x 106 m3/sec € V •  Doomsday time, T= Fo = 5700 years (at 15 TW) €
  • 57. Total volume of ocean mined in time T T VTOT = ∫ 0 Fdt = −V ln(1− FoT /Vo ) € Over 30 years, the accumulated volume to be processed is 7 x 1015 m3 = 6 times the total river outflow in the world in same time.
  • 58. Moral of the story What works at small scale doesn’t always work at large scale!
  • 59. What are nuclear power stations made of? In addition to steel and concrete: u Niobium u Tantalum u Beryllium u Zirconium u Lithium u Yttrium u Hafnium u Vanadium u Molybdenum u  etc….
  • 60. Mineral extraction •  Acids •  Toxic chemicals •  Organic solvents •  Very high temperatures needed
  • 61. Extinction times Resource Reserves Production Growth Ext. Time R (tonnes) P (tonnes) k (/year) T (years) Beryllium 8.00E+04 4,470 0.10 10 Lithium 9.90E+06 382,000 0.08 14 Niobium 2.90E+06 62,000 0.09 19 Zirconium 5.60E+07 1,280,000 0.04 25 Yttrium 5.40E+05 400 0.22 26 Hafnium 6.60E+05 8 0.38 28 Crude oil 1.757E+11 3,525,000,000 0.01 37 Based on USGS figures (2008) Can we afford to destroy elemental diversity ??
  • 62. Types of nuclear advocate •  Nuclear utopian •  Nuclear realist
  • 63. Humour break Nuclear
  • 64. Only justifiable use of nuclear
  • 67. Wave power Source: Pelamis
  • 69. Everyone has fusion in their back yard!
  • 71. But is solar energy really viable? Quiz: the solar power that hits the planet is just enough to: 1.  Power New York 2.  Power Europe 3.  Power half the planet 4.  Power 10,000 of our planets.
  • 72. Quiz answer •  The solar power that hits the planet = 174,000 TW •  Planet’s power consumption is = 15 TW 1.  Power New York 2.  Power Europe 3.  Power half the planet 4.  Power 10,000 of our planets þ
  • 73. But how sun much makes it to the surface? •  30% is reflected •  19% is absorbed by clouds Therefore 51% is available for collection. So we still have enough to run 5000 planets.
  • 74. Why isn’t “5000” shouted from the rooftops? Obvious (noun): that which is never seen until someone expresses it simply. Khahlil Gibran
  • 76. How long will the sun last? •  10 billion years •  5 billion yrs è red giant •  1 billion yrs èwater boils off
  • 77. Where are the best locations? Source: NASA Source: NASA
  • 78. Solar cells are great for pocket calculators
  • 79. Trough collector •  SEGS •  California •  20 years •  350 MW
  • 80. Solar tower •  Seville
  • 84. World activity •  Spain •  USA •  Egypt •  South Africa •  Australia •  Libya •  Israel •  Morocco •  Algeria •  Germany (laying cable from Aachen to Algeria)
  • 85. Desertec proposal A consortium of Deutsch Bank, Siemens and others, to install a solar farm. •  Area: 400 km by 400 km •  Location: Sahara desert •  Investment: EUR 400 billion •  Supply: will connect to Europe by cable
  • 86. Storage distribution To supply the world, we need to: •  Store power •  Distribute it to other countries •  So need to convert it to a chemical fuel
  • 88. Ammonia •  Electrolysis: N and H2 •  Then supply whole world with liquid H2 •  But where do we get all that ammonia from?
  • 89. Water •  Electrolysis: O2 and H2 •  Then supply whole world with liquid H2 •  Plenty of water that is in a repeatable cycle
  • 90. Advantages of hydrogen power •  Turns to water •  High energy to weight ratio •  Petrol engines can be retrofitted out
  • 91. Concept Sun Solar energy Focused solar collector dishes Heat produced Superheated stream to 600°C Thermal energy Stream turbine Mechanical energy Electricity Generator Stored water Closed cycle Electricity Water produced electrolysis Electricity Desalination plant Grid Hydrogen storage Electrolysis Transmission Liquefaction Hydrogen Hydrogen production End consumer combustion
  • 92. Hydrogen infrastructure exists •  75 million tonnes produced, stored, shipped annually
  • 93. Fuel cells versus combustion engine •  Fuel cells are expensive •  Fuel cells are delicate •  Fuel cells use chemicals Source: Michigan Technological University.
  • 94. But are combustion hydrogen engines a reality?
  • 95. But what about small cars with limited space? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ykl2PH2B-tM
  • 98. Is hydrogen refueling safe? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjWCXD4P3XQ
  • 99. What if there is a fire? 3 seconds 60 seconds Source: University of Miami
  • 100. And now for the real test…… Source: Lawrence Livermore Labs
  • 101. Fire test on BMW tank…… Source: BMW
  • 102. Hydrogen safety: low radiant heat
  • 103. Tupolev TU-154 (1988)
  • 104. H2 refueling stations: North America Washington DC
  • 105. H2 refueling stations: Europe Munich
  • 106. H2 refueling stations: Asia Beijing
  • 108. Solar farm footprint •  For world’s energy needs: 500 km by 500 km
  • 109. Bottom line •  Nuclear power has hidden costs •  Solar-hydrogen has hidden savings
  • 110. Research needed •  Full economic trade-off analysis •  Research into electrolysis •  Research in platinum electrode alternatives •  Research in materials for H2 pipelines •  Combustion engines •  Analysis of cooling towers
  • 111. Why is the low tech solution surprising? •  High-tech systems are ordered: entropy reduced •  Energy production: entropy increased •  Cannot put a high-tech system in a high entropy state
  • 112. Solar thermal vs. solar cells •  Solar thermal: centralized base-load power •  Solar cells: distributed energy harvesting
  • 113. Energy diversity •  Creates stability security •  Perhaps 70% from solar and 30% other sources
  • 114. How to get started?
  • 115. How to proceed? 1.  Need govt incentives for insulation/energy saving 2.  Govt funded research initiatives for solar-hydrogen 3.  Establish 4 km by 4 km H2-solar farm 4.  Convert trams/buses to H2 5.  Need more hydrogen car initiatives
  • 118. Bottom line Source: USGS
  • 119. Bottom line #2 Source: Am. J. Phys., Vol. 49, No. 11, 1981, p. 1028.
  • 120. Thomas Edison (1931) “I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy. What a source of power! I hope we don’t have to wait until oil and coal run out before we tackle that.”
  • 121. M. King Hubbert “Our ignorance is not so vast as our failure to use what we know.”
  • 122. Sir Mark Oliphant “Australia can get all the energy it wants from the Simpson Desert, if only it gains the political courage to do so.”
  • 123. The End Proceedings of the IEEE , Vol. 98, No. 1, 2010, pp. 42-66 The End dabbott@eleceng.adelaide.edu.au