1. november 2012
ARTICLE

2. 17
Naples, Scampia housing estate (2003). Photos: Iván Tosics
One of the most segregated areas of Europe, with concentrated problems of poor neighbourhoods. Some of the buildings have already been demolished but an
overarching solution to this extremely segregated area (far away from the city centre) has still to be found
aGaINSt DIVIDED cItIES IN EUrOPE
BY Laura coLini, darinKa cziscHKe and iván tosics,
EDItED by PEtEr raMSDEN
The aim of the URBACT work stream “Against divided cities” is to help cities rethink existing local policies
concerning spatial and social segregation in European urban areas. As a first step, this article intends to
provide an overview of the concept of urban segregation and related public policies that have been studied
by experts and academics and experimented by URBACT city partners working on integrated sustainable
development.
The challenge: growing increase of migration flows towards Europe processes. As a result, many failures and
spatial segregation and its cities (complemented by internal east- externalities occur. Sociological analyses
west migration within the EU). show increasing number of examples of
in European cities urban policies becoming harsher towards
Since the 1990s there has been an increasing marginalized groups, using neighbourhood
In the European Commission’s Cities of recognition of these challenges and gradually regeneration in many cases to pay lip service
Tomorrow report a view on European cities as different policy responses have been deve- whilst covering up underlying aims of
places of advanced social progress is pro- loped. The reactions at EU, national and local attracting more affluent middle classes back
moted: “… with a high degree of social cohe- level, however, usually aim for direct interven- into the inner city areas. As property values
sion, balance and integration… with small tions into those areas which are considered and rent levels increase in the course of re-
disparities within and among neighbourhoods to be “problematic”, often failing to address urbanisation, disadvantaged groups are often
and a low degree of spatial segregation and the wider reasons and drivers of the spatial forced to relocate.
social marginalisation…”1 Social cohesion is,
however, threatened by the increase of social
polarisation, which is a consequence of many
parallel processes: an increasing income
Social cohesion is threatened by increasing income
polarisation since the 1980s, a decreasing polarisation, decreasing security of employment and
security of employment (due to global a huge increase of migration flows towards European cities.
competitiveness challenges) and a huge

3. 18
Tackling socio-spatial polarisation is a difficult
task for urban administrations. Besides the Box 1: The case of Berlin, Lead Partner of the URBACT Co-Net
complexity of the issue there is also a big gap networki
between politicians and practitioners on the
The city of Berlin has been the lead partner 20% of the Berlin population with
one hand and researchers on the other. While
of the Co-Net network in URBACT II which precarious employment, part-time
the former tend in many cases to favour
explored area-based and integrated employment); cultural, ethnic and financial
short-term, high visibility interventions, the approaches to strengthen social cohesion divisions affect the urban pattern of the city.
latter often lack the ability to communicate in distressed neighbourhood. Other forms of self-chosen segregation take
their ideas in a way that is easily understand-
Berlin has a long standing experience of place in the wealthy areas of the west
able by the decision makers.
supporting community led development, including Grünewald and Charlottenburg
involving people at neighbourhood level in which are hardly ever discussed in the debate
The complex nature of the problem makes it
community council with participatory about policies regarding urban cohesion
sometimes difficult for cities to learn from or
budgeting of micro projects. although this aspect is also important.
adapt the practice of others. Although there
are common trends, each situation is spe- Both ERDF and ESF have been combined The most deprived areas are located both
cific, and consequently there is much reinven- in a system of area–based approach which in the former eastern and western part of
tion of the wheel. Even when “good practices” involves the neighbourhood, district and the city with a strong dominance of the
municipality under the national programme southern zone where Kreuzberg and
are exchanged, these are often applied with-
Socially Integrative City. Since reunification mostly Neukölln are located. Berlin has a
out the much-needed adaptation to the spe-
in 1990, the city is no longer politically long tradition of urban regeneration
cific local circumstances. In the following
divided, however a new, social form of programmes to address such
sections we will explore different manifesta-
separation has been observed. Ethnic, neighbourhoods. In 2011, Berlin launched
tions of segregation in selected European ci-
religious, social, economic division are the programme “Action Areas Plus” as an
ties and the approaches employed to deal
evident in the way people access basic umbrella around various thematic
with their related issues.
facilities and services, the housing sector, interventions to reconnect those areas that
the health and social assistance and the have been identified as most deprived
labour market. according to a multidimensional social
Different experiences monitoring system.
Migrants– guest workers who arrived in
in dealing with segregation the 1960s (many from Turkey and The objective is to improve the opportunities
Vietnam), refugees who fled civil wars of their residents and to create a new
since the 1990s and increasingly vehicle to promote inter-departmental
Spatial segregation is the projection of the
economic migrants from within the EU cooperation for more effective intervention.
social structure on space2. This is why almost
grew a multicultural population in Berlin Berlin has followed other cities identified
all European cities face growing problems of
resulting in a patchwork of communities in the URBACT Project Results publication
spatial segregation. Although Europe still has
(around a quarter of Berlin inhabitants in 2011iii by bringing in a monitoring system
relatively less polarised and segregated urban have a foreign background, a figure that to measure spatial effects of socio
structures compared to cities in other parts of rises to 40% among childrenii). economic deprivation.
the world, it is in cities where the contradic-
Rental cost have been rising rapidly in the (i) http://urbact.eu/en/projects/disadvantaged-
tions of development are most visible, with neighbourhoods/conet/homepage/
last few years whilst unemployment
the fast-paced development of rich areas (ii) http://www.berlin.de/lb/intmig/presse/
remains at a high rate (the risk of being
(gentrification, gated communities, and sub- archiv/20080702.1000.104149.html
poor is above national average with a high (iii) http://urbact.eu/fileadmin/general_library/
urban sprawl) and the growing deprivation of
level of social transfer payments: about Rapport_Urbact_II.pdf
poor areas and a trend towards them
Berlin, Kreuzberg (2009). Photos: Iván Tosics
The pictures illustrate the mixture of population: the diversity of shops and the big number of dish antennas refer to high share of migrants

4. against divided cities in europe
19
becoming ethnic and immigrant ghettoes. more concentration of deprivation into the internet facilities, a copy shop and job and
This trend affects prosperous and growing central urban area. housing information points), and to start
cities and shrinking cities alike. involving the younger generation.
The main intent of current public policies
Social exclusion and the manifestation of seg- against segregation is to break the vicious Both cities are in countries with well-
regation are mostly the result of wider eco- circle of urban disadvantage. Therefore, developed social welfare systems. The level
nomic restructuring, changes in the welfare greater cooperation has been initiated at of socio-spatial segregation in these cities is
state, flexibilisation of labour markets and neighbourhood level, with local job offers not among the highest in Europe but is on the
work relations, and the weakening of social and employment agencies in order to rise. Mixed use working class areas close to
networks and solidarity. These are all prob- develop services and measures to promote the inner city and large scale housing estates
lems that exist at city level beyond the neigh- employment among long-term unemployed at the periphery are where disadvantage
bourhood. It is therefore important to people (e.g. Malmö’s Local Action Plan3 as tends to concentrate. Looking more closely,
understand how cities can rethink under these part of the Co-Net project). These policies segregation follows through distinct patterns.
circumstances existing local policies with new against segregation focus on combining Berlin has dispersed areas of deprivation but
modes of integrating multi-scalar challenges. integration and employment services, and the level of social polarization is not extreme.
on building cooperation and coordination Malmö, on the other hand, shows more con-
The cases of Berlin (box 1) and Malmö (box 2) between individual and family care, between centration of the poorer people in a few
show that even in countries with a strong the Labour and Integration Centre, and with neighbourhoods of the city.
welfare state there are different manifesta- the Work Centre and associations. A key
tions of growing spatial segregation. In Berlin aspect is to lower the barriers to access ser- These differences can partly be explained by
there are multiple issues of deprivation in vices (e.g. decentralised municipality ser- historic factors – such as the different roles
more than one area while Malmo shows vices with meeting venues, computer and the large prefabricated housing estates play
in the cities. In Eastern Berlin these areas had
a mixed population structure before the fall of
the wall, while in Malmö the few “million pro-
Box 2: The case of Malmö, partner in the URBACT Co-Net network i gramme” areas sank quickly to the bottom of
the housing market. The differences in levels
The city of Malmö was involved in the As a result, disadvantaged groups have
of segregation are partly explained by the
Co-Net network with the aim to develop moved to other areas of the city.
operation of social housing policies.
community life in an integrated way on Today, Malmö can be described as
three levels: building bridges between ethnically and socio-economically The cases of Berlin and Malmö underpin the
inhabitants in the neighbourhoods, segregated, with middle class hypothesis of Murie and Musterd4 that there
between the different neighbourhoods of neighbourhoods in the west and working are unique context-related combinations of
the larger districts and between the whole class neighbourhoods in the south and market opportunities, welfare provisions,
city and the disadvantaged district. east. social networks and neighbourhood features
Today Malmö, the third largest city in Unemployment, higher crime rates and which offer potential means to reduce and
Sweden, has the highest proportion of growing number of households in need of overcome the negative effects of segregation
immigrants in the country (citizens social benefits are the usual patterns in the and exclusion. On the other hand, we assume
represent 174 nationalities and speak 147 poor neighbourhoods. Rosengård is the that in our later work when we include the
different languages and about 40% of the district with the highest unemployment cases of a French city and a south European
population has a migrant background). rate where low income people end up city, also the effect of the welfare state will
Strong public interventions ensure that all living. show prominently.
young citizens have equal access to They dream of moving out whenever there
schools regardless of the area they live in. is a chance to catch a better working
Housing data are accessible and opportunity and higher income. Policy interventions
transparent to everybody and the level of
unemployment is not among the highest in
Fosie is a nearby neighbourhood, which is to tackle socio-spatial
likely to become trendier in the future due
urban Europe.
to its large parks. This might in turn reduce segregation
Nevertheless, Malmö is a city in which the volume of housing available in the
segregation is rising and its most evident future for new migrants. Ever since tackling segregation became a
form is the ethnic segregation in key policy objective in the 1980s, a wide range of
The eastern part of the city which includes
neighbourhoods. In the mid-20th century types of interventions started to develop.
Rosengård and Fosie plays the same role
the most deprived area was located next The most frequent way to classify these poli-
as the harbour used to for newcomers.
to the port. cies is by distinguishing between “horizontal”
This would not be a problem in itself but
However, after the construction of the and “area-based” types of interventions.
Rosengård was built as a monofunctional
Oresund link to Copenhagen and massive Horizontal interventions refer to policies that
residential area in the heyday of the
investments into urban renewal the are not linked to any particular spatial level,
Swedish “million homes policy” and is
harbour zone has turned from brownfield but focus on improving the situation of indi-
difficult to adapt to new circumstances.
into a trendy residential and mixed-use viduals or households with low income and
area including offices, restaurants and specific needs. Such policies – sometimes
university departments. (i) www.urbact.eu/conet, also called “people-based policies”, or
“sector” policies – may apply to different
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5. 20
geographical scope, i.e. national, regional or social structure in school catchment areas In the field of labour market integration, the
city wide. Area-based policies, on the other and reflect this in the size of classes and example of Berlin’s Local Pacts for the
hand, do not focus on individuals but on a number of teachers. Public health policies Economy and Employment stands out as
specific geographical unit, most often a can be reinforced in areas that are particularly an approach that complements citywide po-
neighbourhood. Typically, they include urban affected by environmental hazards or show licy. The main aim of this policy is to foster
and social regeneration programmes and high levels of lifestyle related health problems “intelligent networking” of existing areas of
other interventions whose main goal is to or substance abuse. Housing policies and in strength and development potential in order
improve the situation of the people living in particular social housing policies often aim at to increase employability and occupational
the given areas. Area-based policies rest on providing affordable housing for low-income and social integration of disadvantaged
the assumption that by focusing on places households. Instruments include supply-side groups of persons, create new jobs and train-
with specific problems, the situation of the subsidies to increase social/affordable hous- ing opportunities and enhance local eco-
people living in these areas will improve. ing construction and statutory quotas of nomic structures. It works by developing
social/affordable housing in every new hous- partnerships with boroughs to tap local
The distinction between these two types of ing development. potential for economic growth.
policies is not always clear-cut. For example,
employment or training programmes that run in In France, the law called Solidarité et
a specific neighbourhood will address a cer- Renouvellement Urbain (Solidarity and Area-based interventions
tain target group (e.g. early school leavers or long- urban renewal – SRU), which came into force
term unemployed) but are also to the benefit in 2000, promotes tenure mix through legal Area-based interventions rest on the assump-
of the community as a whole (most visibly if requirements: in urban areas, every com- tion that living in specific areas has an addi-
the training scheme is about maintaining pub- mune (municipality) should reach a minimum tional and independent effect on the life
lic space or improving social infrastructure). of 20 per cent of social housing in its housing chances of individuals. The rise of this type of
stock before 2020. strategy is linked to the development of new
governance arrangements in cities across
Horizontal interventions Europe particularly in the context of increas-
ing decentralisation of power from national to
Horizontal interventions operate according to Policy responses usually regional and city levels of government. As a
the domain of intervention. These can be, for further step in decentralization, the neigh-
example, citywide policies on school and
aim for direct interventions bourhood level is seen as “attractive” from a
adult education, job training, citizen participa- into the “problematic” policy implementation perspective, because
tion in planning policies, health, etc. They do areas, failing to address it allows for relatively easy experimentation in
not aim at reducing spatial segregation per se new forms of participatory governance.
but focus on social issues and can thus have
the wider reasons and Moreover, it provides a manageable areal
an effect on segregation or make a special drivers of the spatial focus while avoiding the much higher costs of
effort in segregated areas. Educational processes. intervening throughout the city or more uni-
polices, for instance could be sensitive to the versal policies.
Montpellier (2008). Photos: Iván Tosics
Tenure mix may also be achieved with new construction. The first picture shows the scale-model (mock-up) of three newly built buildings, one of them private,
the other social housing while the third student hostel – from outside people can not see which has which function. The second picture shows a part of the newly
built central area of the city where half of the housing belongs to the social rental sector

6. against divided cities in europe
21
It should be noted that, unless extreme cir-
Segregation can be tackled by “horizontal” interventions, cumstances, demolition usually represents a
policy failure5 with enormous cost implica-
focusing on households with low income and specific tions. The prevention-type of approach is less
needs, and by “area-based” interventions, focusing frequently found due to, amongst other rea-
on problem areas. sons, the difficulty in anticipating social and
urban decline of an area.
Overall, “hard” interventions have the advan-
The actions within area-based interventions gained prominence in policy-making over the tage of being more visible and relatively easier
are often divided into “soft” and “hard” mea- last decades, at the same time it has stirred to carry out (though with high cost and
sures. “Soft” interventions include strengthen- considerable controversy both in public and high levels of social fracture), while “softer”
ing networks and interaction between people academic debates, as explained in more interventions have a more complex, long-
in the area (for example through work integra- detail in the box 3. It is worth noting that, while term and process-oriented character but
tion and training programmes in specific in some contexts social mix is regarded as a may be cheaper and more effective in the
areas, street work, local festivals where the policy objective in itself (notably, in France), in long term.
community can gather), while “hard” inter- other contexts it is considered one policy tool
ventions are typically physical restructuring amongst others to achieve less segregated
or upgrading programmes involving demoli- urban areas. Integrating horizontal
tion and new infrastructure and/or housing
developments. The “hard” version of area-based interven- and area-based policies
tions, notably demolition, tends to act more
A specific manifestation of area-based poli- as a cure-type approach to the problem Area-based policies have received a fair
cies is the “social mix” approach. Whilst it has rather than prevent it from happening. amount of criticism. However, there is also
recognition that areas facing extreme social
and urban decline are in need of spatially tar-
geted interventions in order to prevent the
Box 3: Social mix in a nutshell
formation of ghettoes and to provide anyone
Since the 1980s social mix has been a Some commentators raise “normative” living there access to the full range of oppor-
widespread approach amongst urban policy arguments (i.e. whether social mix is a tunities that cities have to offer.
makers across Europe to tackle areas with desirable policy objective), as well as
high levels of socio-spatial segregation. pragmatic questions (i.e. does social mix When designing policies to tackle socio-
Although the definition of social mix work?). spatial segregation, it is important to under-
varies between countries, broadly stand the structural factors underlying social
Amongst the former are, for example, the
speaking these policies aim at changing urban problems in local areas, such as
dilemma between implementing social mix
the social composition of areas with high unemployment, poverty and lack of partici-
at the expense of the right to housing; the
concentrations of a particular social group. destruction of local social support
pation. There is consensus on the limitations
networks and community identities and; of area-based policies to solve these wider
While in most cases this involves the
the pricing-out of local residents by the structural problems that underpin social
introduction of better-off residents in
arrival of better-off residents problems at the local level. This raises the
deprived areas, in some cases this policy
(gentrification). Pragmatic questions raised need to develop policies that integrate hori-
takes the opposite shape, for example,
about social mix include whether social zontal and area-based interventions. This
through the introduction of statutory
mix can improve the situation of residents was also reinforced by the findings of the
quotas of new social housing construction
in these areas or whether it just moves URBACT NODUS6 and REGGOV7 projects.
in well-off areas. As in the case of area-
“the problem” to another area. As Andersson & Musterd state: “Area-based
based policies, social mix is based on a
number of assumptions.
interventions might well be considered as a
Furthermore, available evidence is complement to more universal and sector
Specific assumptions commonly used to inconclusive on whether living in close policies”8.
justify social mix policies include the proximity to a different social group really
expectation that proximity of different social fosters social interaction.
In Europe, we have found few attempts to
groups to one another will foster social Last but not least, one of the key achieve this integration. Nantes Métropole
interaction amongst them, thereby challenges for practitioners remains how (France) provides an example (see box 4).
improving social cohesion, and that a more to manage socially mixed areas.
“balanced” social composition will, In our future work we will look in more detail
amongst others, “calm” crime-ridden areas. to understand how area-based and horizon-
(i) Atkinson, R. & Kintrea, K. (2001) Disentangling
In addition, it is expected that the physical area effects: evidence from deprived and non- tal interventions can best be combined to
maintenance of the area will improve deprived neighbourhoods, Urban Studies, 38(12), achieve the most results. We will pay special
through the influx of well-off residents. pp. 2277–2298
attention to the framework conditions for
Blanc, M. (2010) The Impact of Social Mix Policies in
However, these assumptions as well as the France, Housing Studies, Special Issue: Housing local actions, i.e. to what extent national and
very objective of social mix are widely Policy and (De)Segregation: An International EU-level policies are needed to help incenti-
contestedi. Perspective, Volume 25, Issue 2 vise municipalities to deal with their most dis-
advantaged areas.
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7. 22
Box 4: Integrating horizontal and area-based housing and urban policies to tackle socio-spatial
segregation: the case of Nantes Métropole i
Nantes Métropole is an “Urban Community Nantes Métropole adopted its first Local Overall, the last decade has seen urban
of Municipalities” that defines its housing Housing Plan in 2004, followed by a policy objectives and strategies being
priorities according to a Local Housing Plan second one for the period 2010-2016, formulated at the metropolitan level,
– housing objectives and principles for which is more ambitious (5000-6000 deemed the most appropriate level to
metropolitan districts and towns. dwellings built per year). integrate the populations’ employment and
The Nantes approach to socio-spatial The latter has amongst its priorities the residential needs.
segregation combines top-down, national- increase in new construction and the However, urban social cohesion strategies
level horizontal policies with the design and diversification of new dwellings affordable and area-based policy remain limited to
implementation of a set of metropolitan to low-income households either by “priority urban zones”.
and local (i.e. district-level) area-based increasing the social housing stock or by One aspect that stands out in the
policies. In addition to the national funding and reserving up to 30% of approach of some local social landlords
legislation about social mix and the dwellings in new building programmes. supported by Nantes Métropole to tackling
enforceable “Right to Housing” law, the Furthermore, the plan aims to improve the socio-spatial segregation is the
conurbation has several regulation tools geographical distribution of the development of analytical tools to
such as the integration of social and urban construction funding efforts between the understanding “residential trajectories”
mix areas in the Local Urbanism Plan. different municipalities, with a particular and “life-cycles” of residents, and the
Moreover, in order to guarantee social mix, focus on reducing the deficit of social integration of this knowledge in the
it promotes a partnership with social housing stock in some parts of the design and implementation of its
landlords (that own and manage social Metropolis. housing and social mix (rehousing)
housing). This shared construction effort has to be policies.
Nantes Métropole developed an related to the objective of improving the
“experimental” rehousing policy for social mix, in response to the process of
inhabitants from neighbourhoods social polarization in urban areas.
(i) URBACT SUITE The Housing Project Baseline
concerned by urban regeneration, tested in Additional actions in this domain are an Study available at: http://urbact.eu/en/projects/
the Malakoff and Pré Gauchet urban renewal programme in social quality-sustainable-living/suite/homepage/; City
neighbourhoods. housing neighbourhoods. Report: Nantes, WILCO Publication no. 25 (2012)
Nantes (2010). Photos: Iván Tosics
The segregation of social housing estates can effectively be reduced with public transport. In Nantes most of such estates are linked to the city centre with newly
built tram lines

8. against divided cities in europe
23
Preliminary conclusions long-term commitment to the proper combi- Acknowledgements to…
nation of these different types of interven-
Our article shows that the issue of socio-spa- tions. The example of Nantes gives a flavour
tial segregation is complex. The same symp- of how this integration of different policies People involved in the workstream
toms of segregation in different cities might might be organised, especially at the spatial activities so far:
be present in areas that are very different in level of the functional urban area where nega-
their dynamism and include people at diffe- tive externalities can best be mitigated. Workstream coordinator:
rent stages of their life trajectories. As we • Iván Tosics, URBACT Thematic Pole
have shown, seemingly similar segregation X New ways of working across disciplines Manager on urban sustainable
patterns might be the results of totally diffe- should be promoted at city level and at the development
rent factors and reasons. All areas are hetero- level of smaller areas to improve the know-
geneous and generalisations might be ledge of what is at stake and what needs to Workstream core group members:
misleading. be done. Such knowledge needs to be main- • Peter Ramsden, Lead expert of the
tained over time to avoid repeating mistakes URBACT Smart Cities network and
Our URBACT Work stream aims to analyse and reinventing the wheel. A solid information former URBACT Thematic Pole Manager
further cases to elaborate useful suggestions base, such as the social monitoring system • Darinka Czischke, Delft University of
for cities. We emphasise how to understand in Berlin, is necessary for informing policy Technology (The Netherlands) and
different forms of socio-spatial segregation making and for allowing balanced and effec- former Thematic Expert of the URBACT
and how to start addressing it. At this point tive interventions. SUITE network
we have formulated some preliminary • Simon Güntner, Hamburg University of
statements: All these questions will be discussed at Applied Sciences
the URBACT Annual Conference on • Laura Colini, IRS Leibnitz Institute for
X The phenomenon of socio-spatial segre- 3-4 December in Copenhagen at the two Regional and Structural Planning, Berlin
gation needs to be properly analysed and on workshops on socio-spatial segregation. and former Lead Expert of the URBACT
that basis the objectives and spatial aspects After the conference a final paper will be pub- URBAMECO project
of interventions need to be determined. The lished with practical suggestions for city pra- • Reinhard Fischer, Berlin, former Lead
first task is to understand, analysing the ctitioners dealing with these problems and Partner of the URBACT Co-Net network
dynamic processes, the type and problems of with an update on how cities can deploy new • Thierry Baert, Lille, former Lead
given areas (e.g. are they dead-end or transi- approaches set out in EU regulations such as Partner of the URBACT Joining Forces
tory areas). This has to be followed by the community led local development and inte- project
analysis of the reasons behind the dynamic grated territorial initiatives.
mobility processes of population groups. Witnesses and advisors:
A typical mistake cities make is to judge Acknowledgement to Simon Güntner and the • Pia Hellberg-Lannerheim and Bertil
neighbourhoods on the basis of static mea- URBACT Secretariat for valuable remarks on Nilsson, Malmo, partner in the URBACT
sures and deciding on policies which might
undermine the role the area plays in the city in
this article. • Co-Net network
• Jan Vranken, Antwerpen University
dynamic sense. • Paul Lawless, Sheffield Hallam
University
X At the level of policy design, local adminis- • Ronald van Kempen, Utrecht
trations should require up-to-date information University
and analysis on the socio-demographic, eco- • Georg Galster, Wayne University, USA
nomic and geographical dynamics of their • Reiner Aster, GSUB Berlin
(1) DG Regio 2011 Cities of Tomorrow, page 10 http://
local populations in order to design policies
ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/conferences/
that meet current and future needs citiesoftomorrow/index_en.cfm
effectively. (2) Haussermann-Siebel, 2001, quoted in Cassiers-
Kesteloot, 2012
X In addition, on the implementation level it is (3) http://urbact.eu/fileadmin/Projects/CoNet/
advisable to involve users so as to achieve documents_media/Malm%C3%B6_URBACT_CoNet_
LAP.pdf
maximum impact through their input and
cooperation. Furthermore, local partnerships (4) Musterd, S – Andersson, R, 2005: Housing mix,
social mix, and social opportunities. In: Urban affairs
and other efforts of cooperation across review, Vol. 40, No. 6, July 2005 761-790
sectoral and organisational boundaries are (5) At least of the original housing construction and
crucial for the success of this type of sometimes of efforts to deal with current problems
intervention. (6) www.urbact.eu/nodus More inForMation
http://www.conference2012.urbact.eu/
(7) http://urbact.eu/en/projects/disadvantaged-neigh- workshops/about-conference/themes/
X In most cases both horizontal and area- bourhoods/reg-gov/our-outputs/ against-divided-cities-in-europe
based interventions are needed, with a (8) Andersson & Musterd 2005 pp. 387