This document discusses the background of OntoLex research. It covers several topics:
1. The need for shared semantics on the Semantic Web and in ontology-based applications. Precise ontological representations are needed.
2. The role of linguists in ontology, as ambiguity, polysemy and underspecification must be addressed. Meaning has different levels and dimensions that require analysis.
3. The relationship between language, meaning, concepts and reality. Word meanings are examined in relation to concepts stored in the mental lexicon. Exercises explore how meanings relate to concepts.
ISYU TUNGKOL SA SEKSWLADIDA (ISSUE ABOUT SEXUALITY
Ontology and the Lexicon: week.2
1. Background of the OntoLex Research
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Ontology and the Lexicon
Week 2: An Introduction
Shu-Kai Hsieh
Lab of Ontologies, Language Processing and e-Humanities
GIL, National Taiwan University
February 26, 2014
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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Semantic Web
What is Ontology
Ontology for Linguistics
2 OntoLex Resources
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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What is Ontology
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Semantic Web and Web Semantics
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The Need and Trend of Shared Semantics
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Your Agent or Enemy needs this
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Ontology-based Applications
We need a shared and common understanding (of a domain) that
can be communicated across people and machines (applications),
and it will play a major role in supporting information exchange
and discovery, we well as many applications:
• e-Government, e-Health, e-Commerce,..
• open data integration and interoperability.
• ontology-backboned search engine
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Languages representing Ontologies
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Languages representing Ontologies
Can we use Glossaries, Terminologies, Meta data or
other Controlled Vocabulary instead? No: they are just not
precise enough to capture linguistic and cognitive complexity.
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Why do we need Linguists for Ontology?
• ambiguity, polysemy, underspecification,...OH, 沒有語言學的
介入,知識整理工作好無趣也無頭緒。
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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Semantic Web
What is Ontology
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What is Ontology
• In Philosophy (dating back to Artistotle), → Ontos (that
which exists) + logos (knowledge of).
• In Computer Science, → ”an explicit specification of a
conceptualization (Gruber (1995))”, ”an engineering artefact
that represents the shared conceptualisation of objects in a
domain of interest”.
explicit specification : Written in logic, as a set of axioms.
conceptualization : the set of objects and relations in a
domain. <Objects,Relations,Functions>
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What is Ontological Representation
• Not what it is (ontology) but how it is represented
(ontological representation).
• There are many ways to represent ontologies (recall that it is
an engineering artefact) → that at best approximate our real
concepts and conceptualisations, even we don’t quite
understand what we are approximating.
• The evaluation of an engineering artefact turns out to be
whether it is fit for purpose or not.
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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Semantic Web
What is Ontology
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Cognitive-Functional Take
Linguistic meaning is ultimately a matter of
conceptualizing the things we talk about: when we put
things into words, we are not just giving a one-to-one
mapping of what the world is like - we make a choice by
putting things in the particular way we do. [2].
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Empirical Epistimological Stance
• OntoLex (Lexicalized Ontology) is exclusively concerned with
the ”conceptual meanings” of lexical units (that can be
empirically represented), NOT with the those of actions or
phenomena.
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Language, Meaning and Reality
• [單位-意義] 可以切割出來觀察嗎?
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Language, Meaning and Reality
跨語言觀察可能更接近
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Meaning(s)
• Meaning has many readings!
• 他的意思應該是如果不給他意思一下就很沒有意思
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Meaning(s): levels
Linguistic approach to meaning requires us to break down the
notion of meaning into different levels at which we interprete
linguistic expressions [2].
expression level the meaning of a simple or complex expression
taken in isolation.
utterance level the meaning of an expression when used in a given
context of utterance resulting from fixing reference.
communication level the meaning of an utterance as a
communicative act in a given social setting.
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Meaning(s): levels
Example
I don’t need your bicyle.
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Meaning(s): dimensions
[2] provides three dimensions of meaning:
• descriptive dimension: propositional meaning; related to
reference and truth.
• social dimension: related to honorifics.
• expressive dimension: conventionally serves the expression
of subjective sensations, emotions, affections, evaluations or
attitudes.
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A clear boundary in the Study of Meaning?
• Lexical Semantics: the investigation of expression meanings
stored in the mental lexicon.
• Semantics vs. Pragmatics: Semantics ends where
contextual knowledge comes in? (i.e., utterance meaning and
communicative meaning are beyond semantics?)
• Meanings are Concepts?
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For the sake of communication, we perceive the world (entities,
events, relations) linguistically via sound and/or orthographic form,
which trigger our MENTAL SOMETHING for further processing
and production.
• A Concept is a general mental description of something that is
stored in our mental lexicon.
• Word Sense is the instantiation and differentiation of Concept
in varied contexts.
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From Meanings to Concepts and Back
usage-based exercise
我小時候養了 13 條狗; 狗是人類的好朋友;她看到狗就
怕;狗仔隊毀了這個社會的善良風俗
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From Semantics to Cognitive Semantics, and Back?
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Exercise
What can be opened? (Searle, 1983)
Example
a. John opened the window.
b. John opened his mouth.
c. John opened his book.
d. John opened his briefcase.
e. John opened the curtains.
f. The carpenter opened the wall.
g. The surgeon opened the wound.
h. The sapper opened the dam.
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Underspecified Meanings: Exercise
What can be opened? more figurative ... (Evans, 2009)
Example
a. The discussant opened the conversation.
b. John opened a bank account.
c. John opened the meeting.
d. John opened a dialogue.
e. John opened the curtains.
f. The Germans opened hostilities against the Allies in 1940.
g. The skies opened.
h. He opened his mind to a new way of thinking.
g. He finally opened up to her.
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Underspecified Meanings: Exercise
What can be opened again, in Chinese?
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Underspecified Meanings: Exercise
My two cents ..
Example
車,穴,店,窗,會,視野,燈,口,頭,花,槍,心,源,天,門,箱,戶,工,瓶,國,同學
會,隧道,玩笑...
Each relates to distinct sorts of actions, events, and situations.
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In sum, open appears to be a function of (1) (sentential) context
which guides the (2) encyclopedic and conceptual knowledge
(ontology) to which open relates in a given instance of use. (word
meaning)
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In the Context of Cognitive Science ...
Cognitive linguistics practice can be divided approximately into two
areas: (Evans, 2009)
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Cognitive semantics: the study of semantic representation,
the human conceptual system,and meaning construction
processes as revealed by language.
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Cognitive (approaches) to grammar: the study of the
symbolic linguistic units that comprise language, and their
principles of organization.
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Cognitive Lexical Semantics
To develop a cognitive linguistic account of
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lexical concept: the linguistic knowledge that word encode.
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cognitive model: the conceptual system, i.e., the
non-linguistic knowledge that words facilitate access to. →
This provides a level of non-linguistic knowledge which is
specialized for being accessed via lexical concepts.
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Ontology-based Linguistic Studies [1]
A variety of polysemy that gets a fair amount of linguistic
attention is regular (or systematic) polysemy. This refers to word
senses that are distinct, but which follow a general pattern or rule
in the language.
• container/contents:
I put some sand into a box/bottle/tin/canister.
I dumped the whole box/bottle/tin/canister onto the floor.
• location/government/inhabitants:city
• physical object/information: book
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Ontology-based Linguistic Studies [2]
Example (組合的概念痕跡)
schoolboy (小中学校の)男子生徒 a boy attending school.
schoolmate 学校の友達 a person who attends or attended the
same school as oneself.
schoolhouse 校舍 a building used as a school, especially in a small
community or village.
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Non-hierarchical Ontologies: Qualia Structure
Pustejovsky (1995,p76,85-86): qualia as information about ”four
essential aspects of a word’s meaning”, should enter into individual
items’ meaning representations. These are:
• Formal: the basic category which distinguishes it within a
larger domain;
• Constitutive: the relation between an object and its
constituent parts;
• Telic: its purpose and function;
• Agentive: factors involved in its origin or ”bringing it about”.
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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Semantic Web
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OntoLex Resources
• Wiki Family (today)
• Lexical Resources
• Ontological Resources
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Wiki: its role
• A good review of current state-of-arts can be found in [1].
• Resolving the Knowledge acquisition bottleneck: The
creation of very large knowledge bases has been made possible
by the availability of collaboratively-curated online resources
such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary.
• structured, semi-structured, unstructured resources.
• what are the advantages and disadvantages, respectively?
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Wiki as semi-structured content for Ontologies
• Transforming Wikipedia into machine-readable knowledge
• Acquiring related terms: thesaurus extraction
• Relation extraction
• Leitmotif: generating semantics by exploiting the shallow
structure found in Wikipedia.
• Building and enriching ontologies from Wikipedia: YAGO,
WikiNet and BabelNet.
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Multilingual case of collaboratively-generated
semi-structured resources
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Ontology and the Lexicon
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Shu-Kai Hsieh
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44. Background of the OntoLex Research
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OntoLex Resources
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• WikiTaxonomy (Ponzetto and Strube, 2007; Ponzetto and
Strube, 2011)(100k is-a relations)
• WikiNet: (Nas- tase et al., 2010; Nastase and Strube, 2013)
is a project which heuristically exploits different aspects of
Wikipedia to obtain a multilingual concept network by deriving
not only is-a relations, but also other types of relations.
• MENTA (de Melo and Weikum, 2010), creates one of the
largest multilingual lexical knowledge bases by interconnecting
more than 13M articles in 271 languages.
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Ontology and the Lexicon
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Shu-Kai Hsieh
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45. Background of the OntoLex Research
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OntoLex Resources
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1 Background of the OntoLex Research
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Semantic Web
What is Ontology
Ontology for Linguistics
2 OntoLex Resources
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3 Lab
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Ontology and the Lexicon
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Shu-Kai Hsieh
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46. Background of the OntoLex Research
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OntoLex Resources
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Homework
• Install Protégé http://protege.stanford.edu/, and
• Read the tutorials
Next class: Creating your first (Pizza) ontology following http://
protegewiki.stanford.edu/wiki/Protege4Pizzas10Minutes
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Ontology and the Lexicon
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Shu-Kai Hsieh
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47. Background of the OntoLex Research
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OntoLex Resources
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Eduard Hovy, Roberto Navigli, and Simone Paolo Ponzetto.
Collaboratively built semi-structured content and artificial
intelligence: The story so far.
Artificial Intelligence, 194:2–27, 2013.
Sebastian Löbner.
Understanding semantics.
Routledge, 2013.
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Ontology and the Lexicon
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Shu-Kai Hsieh
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