Microphones convert sound waves into electrical signals by using a diaphragm that vibrates when hit by sound waves. This vibration is then converted into a varying electrical current through different mechanisms depending on the microphone type. The main types are dynamic, condenser and ribbon microphones. Microphones can also be classified by their directional properties and application.

1. Microphones

2. How Do Microphones Work?

3. How Do Microphones Work? The Basics Microphones just convert a real sound wave into an electrical audio signal. In order to do so, they have a small, light material in them called the diaphragm. When the sound vibrations through the air reach the diaphragm, they cause the diaphragm to vibrate. This in turns will somehow cause an electrical current in the microphone to vary, whereupon it is sent out to a mixer, preamplifier or amplifier for use.

4. Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all share one thing in common: The diaphragm . This is a thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio signal.

5. Types of Microphone

7. Dynamic Microphones

8. Microphones are typically classified according to how the diaphragms produce sound. Dynamic Microphones Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They use a simple design with few moving parts. They are relatively sturdy and resilient to rough handling. They are also better suited to handling high volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers. They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power.

9. How Dynamic Microphones Work As you may recall from your school science, when a magnet is moved near a coil of wire an electrical current is generated in the wire. Using this electromagnet principle, the dynamic microphone uses a wire coil and magnet to create to create the audio signal. The diaphragm is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in response to incoming sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet. This creates a current in the coil which is channeled from the microphone along wires. A common configuration is shown below.

10. Earlier we mentioned that loudspeakers perform the opposite function of microphones by converting electrical energy into sound waves. This is demonstrated perfectly in the dynamic microphone which is basically a loudspeaker in reverse. When you see a cross-section of a speaker you'll see the similarity with the diagram above. If fact, some intercom systems use the speaker as a microphone. You can also demonstrate this effect by plugging a microphone into the headphone output of your stereo, although we don't recommend it!

11. Condenser Microphones

12. Condenser Microphones Condenser means capacitor , an electronic component which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical energy. Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort.

13. How Condenser Microphones Work A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them. In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs.

14. A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.

15. Phantom Power Condenser microphones need a source of power to impress the charge on the capacitor. One of three methods is used. Either a battery will be inserted inside the microphone, a permanent charge is retained on the diaphragm or backplate thanks to some clever material scientist, or phantom power is used. Phantom power is the supply of power through the ground cable of an XLR cable. Ranging from 9 volts to 52 volts, typically 48 volts, this power can be put into the cable either from a mixer, a phantom power box or a battery pack. A mixer might have a button that allows phantom power through the ground cable. A phantom power box is like an intermediate component between a mixer and a mic. It is a box (duh) connected to the mains that essentially just puts a charge on the ground cable. A battery pack does exactly the same thing, but works only with batteries instead of mains power

16. The Electret Condenser Microphone The electret condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture. This is somewhat like a permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power for operation. Therefore you don't need to worry about batteries or phantom power. Other than this difference, you can think of an electret condenser microphone as being the same as a normal condenser

17. Specialty Mics

18. Wireless Mics Very visible in Karaoke bars and stage performances, wireless mics can be both convenient (no cables) and a pain in the ass (batteries needed, interference from outside sources). These mics are essentially the same as ordinary microphones with a transmitter. The transmitter can be in the body of a handheld mic (which accounts for the larger size of a wireless) or in a separate belt-worn pack (for lavaliers and instrument pickups (popular for electric guitarists). Wireless microphones typically transmit on only one unique frequency per mic. A 'true diversity' wireless system will have two antennae on the receiver end (which, incidentally, usually puts out a line-level signal for the mixer instead of a mic signal). When the signal strength between the two antennae varies, the receiver will opt to receive the signal from the stronger antennae. This switching can be very rapid and is usually unnoticeable. True diversity wireless systems are usually far less sensitive to radio interference and blockage than single-antennae systems.

19. Lavalier Mics The familiar 'interviewer's collar pin', which consists of a small, usually electret microphone worn at the chest, clipped to clothing. This can either be corded or wireless, though the latter is usually preferred. The wireless version runs into a transmitter, usually worn on the belt. Lavalier mics can be powered by batteries or phantom power, depending on the make of the mic. They have also been good for miking up wind instruments, clipped to the edge of the 'bell'.

20. Bass Mics These are very large diaphragm, usually dynamic microphones. Since they are usually employed in situations that produce very loud sound pressure levels, they are very sturdy and have lousy high-frequency response. Typically found inside bass drums of drum sets at rock concerts

21. Pressure Zone Microphones A general purpose microphone for amplifying a large source of sound, like a choir or a stage performance. These typically use condenser pickups, mounted a few millimeters over a flat surface, usually a metal plate integrated into the microphone. The concept is the sound reaching the metal plate will bounce back into the pickup, adding to the sound directly going into the pickup. They are also known as Boundary Microphones or Phase-Coherent Cardioids . They have remarkably good pickup, and when placed properly, give very little feedback for sound reinforcement. They are not very discerning in what they pick up, so they aren't that good for recording.

22. Boom Microphone The boom microphone is very popular in film and television production. A directional mic is mounted on a boom arm and positioned just out of camera frame, as shown on the right. The cable is wrapped once or twice around the boom arm. Booms have the advantage of freeing up subjects from having to worry about microphones. They can move freely without disturbing the sound, and concerns about microphone technique are eliminated. You can make a simple boom from just about anything which is the right shape. A microphone stand with its legs removed is a good option, or even a broomstick or fishing pole. A good boom will have some sort of isolating mechanism for the microphone to prevent vibrations being transferred to the mic. This may involve elastic suspensions, foam padding, etc.

23. The distance between the microphone and subject must be carefully controlled. The mic must be as close as possible without any chance of getting in frame (you might want to allow a safety margin in case the framing changes unexpectedly). It must also maintain a reasonably consistent distance to avoid fluctuating audio levels. Make sure the boom doesn't cast a show on the scene. In the example on the right, the sound operator is also acting as a guide for the camera operator as they walk backwards, keeping a constant distance from the walking subjects.

25. Directional Properties microphone directional characteristics .

27. Omni directional Uses: Capturing ambient noise; Situations where sound is coming from many directions; Situations where the mic position must remain fixed while the sound source is moving. Notes: Although omni directional mics are very useful in the right situation, picking up sound from every direction is not usually what you need. Omni sound is very general and unfocused - if you are trying to capture sound from a particular subject or area it is likely to be overwhelmed by other noise.

29. Hypercardioid This is exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern. It is very directional and eliminates most sound from the sides and rear. Due to the long thin design of hyper cardioids, they are often referred to as shotgun microphones. Uses: Isolating the sound from a subject or direction when there is a lot of ambient noise; Picking up sound from a subject at a distance. Notes: By removing all the ambient noise, unidirectional sound can sometimes be a little unnatural. It may help to add a discreet audio bed from another mic (i.e. constant background noise at a low level). You need to be careful to keep the sound consistent. If the mic doesn't stay pointed at the subject you will lose the audio. Shotguns can have an area of increased sensitivity directly to the rear.

30. Bidirectional Uses a figure-of-eight pattern and picks up sound equally from two opposite directions. Uses: As you can imagine, there aren't a lot of situations which require this polar pattern. One possibility would be an interview with two people facing each other (with the mic between them).

31. Variable Directionality Some microphones allow you to vary the directional characteristics by selecting omni, cardioid or shotgun patterns. This feature is sometimes found on video camera microphones, with the idea that you can adjust the directionality to suit the angle of zoom, e.g. have a shotgun mic for long zooms. Some models can even automatically follow the lens zoom angle so the directionality changes from cardioid to shotgun as you zoom in. Although this seems like a good idea (and can sometimes be handy), variable zoom microphones don't perform particularly well and they often make a noise while zooming. Using different mics will usually produce better results.

33. Microphone Impedance

34. Microphone Impedance When dealing with microphones, one consideration which is often misunderstood or overlooked is the microphone's impedance rating. Perhaps this is because impedance isn't a "critical" factor; that is, microphones will still continue to operate whether or not the best impedance rating is used. However, in order to ensure the best quality and most reliable audio, attention should be paid to getting this factor right. If you want the short answer, here it is: Low impedance is better than high impedance. microphone impedance

35. What is Impedance? Impedance is an electronics term which measures the amount of opposition a device has to an AC current (such as an audio signal). Technically speaking, it is the combined effect of capacitance, inductance, and resistance on a signal. Impedance is measured in ohms, shown with the Greek Omega symbol Ω or the letter Z . A microphone with the specification 600Ω has an impedance of 600 ohms.

37. Which Impedance to Choose? High impedance microphones are usually quite cheap. Their main disadvantage is that they do not perform well over long distance cables - after about 5 or 10 meters they begin producing poor quality audio (in particular a loss of high frequencies). In any case these mics are not a good choice for serious work. In fact, although not completely reliable, one of the clues to a microphone's overall quality is the impedance rating.

38. Microphone Frequency Response

39. Microphone Frequency Response Frequency response refers to the way a microphone responds to different frequencies. It is a characteristic of all microphones that some frequencies are exaggerated and others are attenuated (reduced). For example, a frequency response which favors high frequencies means that the resulting audio output will sound more trebly than the original sound.

40. Frequency Response Charts A microphone's frequency response pattern is shown using a chart like the one below and referred to as a frequency response curve. The x axis shows frequency in Hertz, the y axis shows response in decibels. A higher value means that frequency will be exaggerated, a lower value means the frequency is attenuated. In this example, frequencies around 5 - kHz are boosted while frequencies above 10kHz and below 100Hz are attenuated. This is a typical response curve for a vocal microphone. microphone frequency response .

41. Which Response Curve is Best? An ideal "flat" frequency response means that the microphone is equally sensitive to all frequencies. In this case, no frequencies would be exaggerated or reduced (the chart above would show a flat line), resulting in a more accurate representation of the original sound. We therefore say that a flat frequency response produces the purest audio. In the real world a perfectly flat response is not possible and even the best "flat response" microphones have some deviation. More importantly, it should be noted that a flat frequency response is not always the most desirable option. In many cases a tailored frequency response is more useful. For example, a response pattern designed to emphasize the frequencies in a human voice would be well suited to picking up speech in an environment with lots of low-frequency background noise. The main thing is to avoid response patterns which emphasize the wrong frequencies. For example, a vocal mic is a poor choice for picking up the low frequencies of a bass drum.

42. Frequency Response Ranges You will often see frequency response quoted as a range between two figures. This is a simple (or perhaps "simplistic") way to see which frequencies a microphone is capable of capturing effectively. For example, a microphone which is said to have a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz can reproduce all frequencies within this range. Frequencies outside this range will be reproduced to a much lesser extent or not at all. This specification makes no mention of the response curve, or how successfully the various frequencies will be reproduced. Like many specifications, it should be taken as a guide only. Condenser vs Dynamic Condenser microphones generally have flatter frequency responses than dynamic. All other things being equal, this would usually mean that a condenser is more desirable if accurate sound is a prime consideration

43. How to Use Microphones

44. How to Use Microphones Introduction The microphone (mic) is a ubiquitous piece of equipment. Found in everything from telephones to computers to recording studios, microphones are part of our daily life. Few people think about the microphone in their telephone when they use it. Some people think about the microphone on their video camera when they use it. All professionals pay careful attention to their microphones whenever they use them. Don't make the mistake that many amateurs make and use whatever mic is at hand (e.g. using a vocal mic for a bass drum). Also, don't make the mistake of assuming that using a microphone is easy. Microphone technique is a learned skill - plugging it in and pointing it isn't always enough. The microphone is perhaps the most critical part of the audio chain (assuming that all other components are at least acceptable quality). A good quality microphone will provide you with the basis for excellent audio, whereas a poor quality microphone will mean poor quality audio - no matter how good the rest of the system is.

46. Directionality Decide which type of directional pattern best fits your needs. Remember that it's usually better to use a less directional mic in a position close to the sound source, than to be further away using a hypercardioid. For more information see microphone directional characteristics . Frequency Response Make sure the mic's frequency response is appropriate for the intended use. As a rule of thumb flat response patterns are best, but in many cases a tailored response will be even better. For more information see microphone frequency response . Impedance The rule of thumb is: Low impedance is better than high impedance. For more information see microphone impedance

47. Handling Noise Remember that the diaphragm works by converting vibrations from sound waves into an electrical signal. Unless the microphone has some sort of protection system, the diaphragm can't tell the difference between a desirable sound wave vibration and any other sort of vibration (such as a person tapping the microphone casing). Any sort of vibration at all will become part of the generated audio signal. If your mic is likely to be subjected to any sort of handling noise or vibration, you will need a mic which will help prevent this noise from being picked up. High quality hand-held mics usually attempt to isolate the diaphragm from vibrations using foam padding, suspension, or some other method. Low quality mics tend to transfer vibrations from the casing right into the diaphragm, resulting in a terrible noise. Note that lavalier mics don't usually have protection from handling noise, simply because they are too small to incorporate any padding. It is therefore important to make sure they won't be moved or bumped

48. Purchasing a Microphone If you can afford it, it makes sense to buy a range of microphones and use the most appropriate one for each job. If your budget is more limited, think about all the different things you need to use the mic for and try to find something which will do a reasonable job of as many of them as possible. For vocalists a simple cardioid dynamic mic (such as the Sure SM58) is a good starting point. For video makers, a useful option is a condenser mic with selectable directionality, so you can change between cardioid and hypercardioid. If you can afford three mics, consider a hand-held dynamic, a shotgun condenser, and a lapel mic.

49. How to Position a Microphone Distance The golden rule of microphone placement is get the distance right . In general, place the microphone as close as practical to the sound source without getting so close that you introduce unwanted effects). The aim is to achieve a good balance between the subject sound and the ambient noise. In most cases you want the subject sound to be the clear focus, filled out with a moderate or low level of ambient noise. The desired balance will vary depending on the situation and the required effect. For example, interviews usually work best with very low ambient noise. However if you want to point out to your audience that the surroundings are very noisy you could hold the mic slightly further away from the subject.

51. Phase Problems When using more than one microphone you need to be wary of phasing , or cancellation . Due to the way sound waves interfere with each other, problems can occur when the same sound source is picked up from different mics placed at slightly different distances. A common example is an interview situation in which two people each have a hand-held mic - when one person talks they are picked up by both mics and the resulting interference creates a phasing effect.

52. Think Laterally You don't always have to conform to standard ways of doing things. As long as you're not placing a microphone in danger there's no reason not to use them in unusual positions. For example, lavalier mics can be very versatile due to their small size - they can be placed in positions which would be unrealistic for larger mics Guitar amps are miced very closely. This helps keep the sound isolated from the rest of the stage noise. Theoretically the amp will not create any level burst strong enough to distort the microphone. Snare drum mics need to be close to the skin without getting in the way of the drummer or risking damage .

53. Microphone Stands, Mounts & Clamps