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Electrical dictornary
Product Manager:                 Karen Feinstein
Project Editor:                  Ibrey Woodall
Packaging design:                Jonathan Pennell


    These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431.
The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the Electrical Engineering Dictionary CRCnetBASE
CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRC Press
LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for the licensee’s
internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materials from other
sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright notices are given
with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced without their written
permission.

WARRANTY
   The information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been
made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their uses.

© 2000 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2170-0
International Standard Series Number 1097-9568




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Preface

       One can only appreciate the magnitude of effort required to develop a dictionary by
       actually experiencing it. Although I had written nine other books, I certainly did not
       know what I was getting into when in January of 1996 I agreed to serve as Editor-in-
       Chief for this project. Now, after 2 1/2 years I understand.
          Unlike other books that I have written, creating this dictionary was more a test
       of will and stamina and an exercise in project management than mere writing. And
       although I have managed organizations of up to 80 academics, nothing is more like
       “herding cats” than motivating an international collection of almost 200 distinguished
       engineers, scientists, and educators scattered around the globe almost entirely via
       email. Yet, I think there is no other way to undertake a project like this. I still marvel
       at how Noah Webster must have managed to construct his English Dictionary without
       the benefits of modern communication.
          But this project, as much as it is a monument to individual will, is really the
       collaborative work of many brilliant and dedicated men and women. This is their
       dictionary and your dictionary.

                                                                Phillip A. Laplante, PE, Ph.D.
                                                                                Editor-in-Chief


                                                                                    President
                                                         Pennsylvania Institute of Technology
                                                                         Media, Pennsylvania




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
Editorial Board

         E.R. Davies                                     Andrew Kahng
         University of London                            University of California at Berkeley
         Associate Editor: Signal and                    Co-Editor: Digital electronics, VLSI,
             Image Processing                               hardware description language

         Mike Fiddy                                      Mark Kinsler
         University of Massachusetts, Lowell             Editor: Power systems
         Editor: Electro-optical and lightwave systems

         Mike Golio                                      Lauren Laplante
         Rockwell Collins                                Public Service Electric and Gas
         Editor: Microwave systems                       Editor: Properties of materials

         Marco Gori                                      Sudhakar Muddu
         University of Florence                          Silicon Graphics
         Associate Editor: Information Processing        Co-Editor: Digital electronics, VLSI,
                                                              hardware description language

         Ling Guan                                       Meredith Nole
         University of Sydney                            American Efficient Lighting
         Editor: Communications and information          Editor: Illumination
             processing

         Bob Herrick                                     Amos Omondi
         Purdue University                               Flinders University
         Editor: RF, radio and television                Editor: Computer engineering (I/O and storage)

         Jeff Honchell                                   Ian Oppermann
         Purdue University                               University of Sydney
         Associate Editor: RF, radio and television      Associate Editor: Communication

         Jin Jiang                                       John Prince
         University of Western Ontario                   University of Arizona
         Editor: Circuits and systems                    Editor: Packaging

         Tadeusz Kaczorek                                Mark Reed
         Warsaw University of Technology                 Yale University
         Editor: Control systems                         Editor: Microelectronics and solid state devices




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
David Shively                                     Eugene Veklerov
        Shively Engineering                               Lawrence Berkeley Labs
        Editor: Electromagnetics                          Editor: Signal and image processing

        Tim Skvarenina                                    Janusz Zalewski
        Purdue University                                 University of Central Florida
        Editor: Electric machines and power electronics   Editor: Computer engineering (processors)




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
Foreword

        How was the dictionary constructed?
        As I knew this project would require a divide-and-conquer approach with fault-
        tolerance, I sought to partition the dictionary by defining areas that covered all aspects
        of Electrical Engineering. I then matched these up to IEEE defined interest areas to
        ensure that complete coverage was provided. This created a great deal of overlap,
        which was intentional. I knew that terms needed to be defined several different ways,
        depending on usage and I needed to ensure that every term would be defined at least
        once.
           The mapping of the Dictionary’s areas to the IEEE interest areas are as follows:
               Power systems                               Circuits and systems
               • Power Engineering                         • Circuits and Systems
               • Power Electronics                         • Instruments and Measurements

               Electric motors and machines                Control systems
               • Power Engineering                         • Control Systems
               • Power Electronics                         • Robotics and Automation

               Digital electronics, VLSI, hardware         Electromagnetics
                            description language           • Electromagnetic Compatibility
               •Consumer Electronics                       • Magnetics
               •Electronic Devices
               •Industrial Electronics
               •Instruments and Measurements               Computer engineering (processors)
                                                           • Computer
               Microelectronics and solid state devices
               • Industrial Electronics                    Computer engineering (I/O and storage)
               • Instruments and Measurements              • Computer

               RF, radio, and television                   Microwave systems
               • Broadcast Technology                      • Antennas and Propagation
                                                           • Microwave Theory and Techniques
               Communications and information processing
               • Communications                            Electro-optical and lightwave systems
               • Information Theory                        • Lasers and Electro-Optics
               • Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
               • Reliability                               Illumination

               Signal and image processing                 Properties of materials
               • Signal Processing                         • Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
               • Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
                                                           Packaging
                                                           • Components, Packaging, and
                                                           • Manufacturing Technology


          Note that Software Engineering was not included as an area, and most software
        terms have been omitted. Those that were included were done so because they relate
        to some aspect of assembly language programming or low-level control, or artificial
        intelligence and robotics. For those interested in software engineering terms, CRC’s




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
forthcoming Comprehensive Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Tech-
        nology will include those terms.
          Several other IEEE interest areas were not explicitly assigned to area editors. How-
        ever, after discussing this fact with the Editorial Board, it was decided that relevant
        terms of a general nature would be picked up and terms that were not tagged for the
        dictionary from these areas were probably too esoteric to be included.
          These interest areas encompass:
                Aerospace and Electronic Systems      Geosience and Remote Sensing
                Education                             Industry Applications
                Engineering in Medicine and Biology   Nuclear and Plasma Science
                Engineering Management                Oceanic Engineering
                Professional Communications           Ultrasonic, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
                Social Implications of Technology     Vehicular Technology

           Given the Area Editor structure, constructing the dictionary then consisted of the
        following steps:
           1.   Creating a terms list for each area
           2.   Defining terms
           3.   Cross-checking terms within areas
           4.   Cross-checking terms across areas
           5.   Compiling and proofing the terms and definitions
           6.   Reviewing compiled dictionary
           7.   Final proofreading
           The first and most important task undertaken by the area editors was to develop a
        list of terms to be defined. A terms list is a list of terms (without definitions), proper
        names (such as important historical figures or companies), or acronyms relating to
        Electrical Engineering. What went into each terms list was left to the discretion of the
        area editor based on the recommendations of the contributing authors. However, lists
        were to include all technical terms that relate to the area (and subareas). Technical
        terms of a historical nature were only included if it was noted in the definition that
        the term is “not used” in modern engineering or that the term is “historical” only.
        Although the number of terms in each list varied somewhat, each area’s terms list
        consisted of approximately 700 items.
           Once the terms lists were created, they were merged and scrutinized for any obvious
        omissions. These missing terms were then assigned to the appropriate area editor.
        At this point the area editors and their contributing authors (there were 5 to 20
        contributing authors per area) began the painstaking task of term definition. This
        process took many months. Once all of the terms and their definitions were collected,
        the process of converting, merging, and editing began.
           The dictionary included contributions from almost 200 contributors from 17 coun-
        tries. Although authors were provided with a set of guidelines to write terms def-
        initions, they were free to exercise their own judgment and to use their own style.




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
As a result, the entries vary widely in content from short, one-sentence definitions to
        rather long dissertations. While I tried to provide some homogeneity in the process of
        editing, I neither wanted to tread on the feet of the experts and possibly corrupt the
        meaning of the definitions (after all, I am not an expert in any of the representative
        areas of the dictionary) nor did I want to interfere with the individual styles of the
        authors. As a result, I think the dictionary contains a diverse and rich exposition
        that collectively provides good insights into the areas intended to be covered by the
        dictionary. Moreover, I was pleased to find the resultant collection much more lively,
        personal, and user-friendly than typical dictionaries.
           Finally, we took advantage of the rich CRC library of handbooks, including The
        Control Handbook, Electronics Handbook, Image Processing Handbook, Circuits and
        Filters Handbook, and The Electrical Engineering Handbook, to pick up any defini-
        tions that were missing or incomplete. About 1000 terms were take from the CRC
        handbooks. We also borrowed, with permission from IEEE, about 40 definitions that
        could not be found elsewhere or could not be improved upon.
           Despite the incredible support from my area editors, individual contributors, and
        staff at CRC Press, the final task of arbitrating conflicting definitions, rewording those
        that did not seem descriptive enough, and identifying missing ones was left to me. I
        hope that I have not failed you terribly in my task.


        How to use the dictionary
        The dictionary is organized like a standard language dictionary except that not ev-
        ery word used in the dictionary is defined there (this would necessitate a complete
        embedding of an English dictionary). However, we tried to define most non-obvious
        technical terms used in the definition of another term.
           In some cases more than one definition is given for a term. These are denoted (1),
        (2), (3), . . ., etc. Multiple definitions were given in cases where the term has multiple
        distinct meanings in differing fields, or when more than one equivalent but uniquely
        descriptive definition was available to help increase understanding. In a few cases, I
        just couldn’t decide between two definitions. Pick the definition that seems to fit your
        situation most closely. The notation 1., 2., etc. is used to itemize certain elements of
        a definition and are not to be confused with multiple definitions.
           Acronym terms are listed by their expanded name. Under the acronym the reader is
        referred to that term. For example, if you look up “RISC” you will find “See reduced
        instruction set computer,” where the definition can be found. The only exceptions
        are in the cases where the expanded acronym might not make sense, or where the
        acronym itself has become a word (such as “laser” or “sonar”).
           While I chose to include some commonly used symbols (largely upon the recom-
        mendations of the contributors and area editors), this was not a principle focus of the
        dictionary and I am sure that many have been omitted.




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
Finally, we tried to avoid proprietary names and tradenames where possible. Some
        have crept in because of their importance, however.

        Acknowledgments
        A project of this scope literally requires hundreds of participants. I would like to take
        this moment to thank these participants both collectively and individually. I thank,
        in no particular order:

           • The editorial board members and contributors. Although not all partici-
             pated at an equal level, all contributed in some way to the production of
             this work.
           • Ron Powers, CRC President of Book Publishing, for conceiving this dictio-
             nary, believing in me, and providing incredible support and encouragement.
           • Frank MacCrory, Norma Trueblood, Nora Konopka, Carole Sweatman, and
             my wife Nancy for converting, typing, and/or entering many of the terms.
           • Jill Welch, Nora Konopka, Ron Powers, Susan Fox, Karen Feinstein, Joe
             Ganzi, Gerry Axelrod, and others from CRC for editorial support.
           • CRC Comprehensive Dictionary of Mathematics and CRC Comprehensive
             Dictionary of Physics editor Stan Gibilisco for sharing many ideas with me.
           • My friend Peter Gordon for many of the biographical entries.
           • Lisa Levine for providing excellent copy editing of the final manuscript.
           Finally to my wife Nancy and children Christopher and Charlotte for their incredible
        patience and endurance while I literally spent hundreds of hours to enable the birth
        of this dictionary. This achievement is as much theirs as it is mine.
           Please accept my apologies if anyone was left out — this was not intentional and
        will be remedied in future printings of this dictionary.

        How to Report Errors/Omissions
        Because of the magnitude of this undertaking and because we attempted to develop
        new definitions completely from scratch, we have surely omitted (though not deliber-
        ately) many terms. In addition, some definitions are possibly incomplete, weak, or even
        incorrect. But we wish to evolve and improve this dictionary in subsequent printings
        and editions. You are encouraged to participate in this collaborative, global process.
        Please send any suggested corrections, improvements, or new terms to be added (along
        with suggested definitions) to me at p.laplante@ieee.org or plaplante@pit.edu.
        If your submission is incorporated, you will be recognized as a contributor in future
        editions of the dictionary.




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
Editor-in-Chief

        Phil Laplante is the President of Pennsylvania Institute of Technology, a two-year,
        private, college that focuses on technology training and re-training. Prior to this,
        he was the founding dean of the BCC/NJIT Technology and Engineering Center in
        Southern New Jersey. He was also Associate Professor of Computer Science and
        Chair of the Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics Department at Fairleigh
        Dickinson University, New Jersey. In addition to his academic career, Dr. Laplante
        spent almost eight years as a software engineer designing avionics systems, a microwave
        CAD engineer, a software systems test engineer, and a consultant.
           He has written dozens of articles for journals, newsletters, magazines, and confer-
        ences, mostly on real-time computing and image processing. He has authored 10 other
        technical books and edits the journal, Real-Time Imaging, as well as two book series
        including the CRC Press series on Image Processing.
           Dr. Laplante received his B.S., M.Eng., and Ph.D. in Computer Science, Electrical
        Engineering, and Computer Science, respectively, from Stevens Institute of Technology
        and an M.B.A. from the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.
           He is a senior member of IEEE and a member of ACM and numerous other pro-
        fessional societies, program committees, and advisory boards. He is a licensed profes-
        sional engineer in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
           Dr. Laplante is married with two children and resides in Pennsylvania.




© 2000 CRC Press LLC
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© 2000 CRC Press LLC
[20] Gibson, Jerry D., Ed., The Mobile Communications Handbook, Boca Raton, FL:
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© 2000 CRC Press LLC
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© 2000 CRC Press LLC
Contributors


James T. Aberle                   Partha P. Banjeree
Arizona State University          University of Alabama
Tempe, AZ                         Huntsville, AL

Giovanni Adorni                   Ishmael (“Terry”) Banks
Università di Parma               American Electric Power Company
Parma, Italy                      Athens, OH

Ashfaq Ahmed                      Walter Banzhaf
Purdue University                 University of Hartford
West Lafayette, IN                Hartford, CT

A. E. A. Almaini                  Ottis L. Barron
Napier University                 University of Tennessee at Martin
Edinburgh, Scotland               Martin, TN

Earle M. Alexander IV             Robert A. Bartkowiak
San Rafael, CA                    Penn State University at Lehigh Valley
                                  Fogelsville, PA
Jim Andrew
CISRA                             Richard M. Bass
North Ryde, Australia             Georgia Institute of Technology
                                  Atlanta, GA
James Antonakos
Broome County Community College   Michael R. Bastian
Binghampton, NY                   Brigham Young University
                                  Provo, UT
Eduard Ayguade
Barcelona, Spain                  Jeffrey S. Beasley
                                  New Mexico State University
Bibhuti B. Banerjee               Las Cruces, NM
Dexter Magnetic Materials
Fremont, CA                       Lars Bengtsson
                                  Halmsted University
                                  Halmsted, Sweden




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Mi Bi                                Antonio Chella
Tai Seng Industrial Estate           University of Palermo
Singapore                            Palermo, Italy

Edoardo Biagioni                     C. H. Chen
SCS                                  University of Massachusetts
Pittsburgh, PA                       N. Dartmouth, MA

David L. Blanchard                   Zheru Chi
Purdue University Calumet            Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hammond, IN                          Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Wayne Bonzyk                         Shamala Chickamenahalli
Colman, SD                           Wayne State University
                                     Detroit, MI
R. W. Boyd
University of Rochester              Christos Christodoulou
Rochester, NY                        University of Central Florida
                                     Orlando, FL
M. Braae
University of Cape Town              Badrul Chowdhury
Rondebosch, South Africa             University of Wyoming
                                     Laramie, Wyoming
Doug Burges
University of Wisconsin              Dominic J. Ciardullo
Madison, WI                          Nassau Community College
                                     Garden City, NY
Nick Buris
Motorola                             Andrew Cobb
Schaumburg, IL                       New Albany, IN

Jose Roberto Camacho                 Christopher J. Conant
Universidade Federal de Uberlindia   Broome County Community College
Uberlindia, Brazil                   Binghamton, NY

Gerard-Andre Capolino                Robin Cravey
University of Picardie               NASA Langley Research Center
Amiens, France                       Hampton, VA

Lee W. Casperson                     George W. Crawford
Portland State University            Penn State University
Portland, OR                         McKeesport, PA




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
John K. Daher                       Andrzej Dzielinski
Georgia Institute of Technology     ISEP
Atlanta, GA                         Warsaw University of Technology
                                    Warsaw, Poland
Fredrik Dahlgren
Chalmers University of Technology   Jack East
Gothenburg, Sweden                  University of Michigan
                                    Ann Arbor, MI
E. R. Davies
University of London                Sandra Eitnier
Surrey, England                     San Diego, CA

Ronald F. DeMara                    Samir El-Ghazaly
University of Central Florida       Arizona State University
Orlando, FL                         Tempe, AZ

William E. DeWitt                   Irv Englander
Purdue University                   Bentley College
West Lafayette, IN                  Waltham, MA

Alex Domijan                        Ivan Fair
University of Florida               Technical University of Nova Scotia
Gainesville, FL                     Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Bob Dony                            Gang Feng
University of Guelph                University of New South Wales
Guelph, Ontario, Canada             Kensington, Australia

Tom Downs                           Peter M. Fenwick
University of Queensland            University of Auckland
Brisbane, Australia                 Auckland, New Zealand

Marvin Drake                        Paul Fieguth
The MITRE Corporation               University of Waterloo
Bedford, MA                         Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Lawrence P. Dunleavy                Igor Filanovsky
University of South Florida         University of Alberta
Tampa, FL                           Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Scott C. Dunning                    Wladyslau Findeisen
University of Maine                 Warsaw University of Technology
Orono, ME                           Warsaw, Poland




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Dion Fralick                   P. R. Hemmer
NASA Langley Research Center   RL/EROP
Hampton, VA                    Hanscom Air Force Base, MA

Lawrence Fryda                 Vincent Heuring
Central Michigan University    University of Colorado
Mt. Pleasant, MI               Boulder, CO

Mumtaz B. Gawargy              Andreas Hirstein
Concordia University           Swiss Electrotechnical Association
Montreal, Quebec, Canada       Fehraltorf, Switzerland

Frank Gerlitz                  Robert J. Hofinger
Washtenaw College              Purdue University School of
Ann Arbor, MI                    Technology at Columbus
                               Columbus, IN
Antonio Augusto Gorni
COSIPA                         Michael Honig
Cubatao, Brazil                Northwestern University
                               Evanston, IL
Lee Goudelock
Laurel, MS                     Yan Hui
                               Northern Telecom
Alex Grant                     Nepean, Ontario, Canada
Institut für Signal- und
   Informationsverarbeitung    Suresh Hungenahally
Zurich, Switzerland            Griffth University
                               Nathan, Queensland, Australia
Thomas G. Habetler
Georgia Tech                   Iqbal Husain
Atlanta, GA                    University of Akron
                               Akron, OH
Haldun Hadimioglu
Polytechnic University         Eoin Hyden
Brooklyn, NY                   Madison, NJ

Dave Halchin                   Marija Ilic
RF MicroDevices                MIT
Greensboro, NC                 Cambridge, MA

Thomas L. Harman               Mark Janos
University of Houston          Uniphase Fiber Components
Houston, TX                    Sydney, Australia




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Albert Jelalian                      David Kelley
Jelalian Science & Engineering       Penn State University
Bedford, MA                          University Park, PA

Anthony Johnson                      D. Kennedy
New Jersey Institute of Technology   Ryerson Polytechnic Institute
Newark, NJ                           Toronto, Ontario, Canada

C. Bruce Johnson                     Mohan Ketkar
Phoenix, AZ                          University of Houston
                                     Houston, TX
Brendan Jones
Optus Communications                 Jerzy Klamka
Sydney, Australia                    Silesian Technical University
                                     Gliwice, Poland
Suganda Jutamulia
In-Harmony Technology Corp.          Krzysztof Kozlowski
Petaluma, CA                         Technical University of Poznan
                                     Poznan, Poland
Richard Y. Kain
University of Minnesota              Ron Land
Minneapolis, MN                      Penn State University
                                     New Kensington, PA
Dikshitulu K. Kalluri
University of Massachusetts          Robert D. Laramore
Lowell, MA                           Cedarville College
                                     Cedarville, OH
Alex Kalu
Savannah State University            Joy Laskar
Savannah, GA                         Georgia Institute of Technology
                                     Atlanta, GA
Gary Kamerman
FastMetrix                           Matti Latva-aho
Huntsville, AL                       University of Oulu
                                     Linannmaa, Oulu, Finland
Avishay Katz
EPRI                                 Thomas S. Laverghetta
Palo Alto, CA                        Indiana University-Purdue University
                                        at Fort Wayne
Wilson E. Kazibwe                    Fort Wayne, IN
Telegyr Systems
San Jose, CA                         J. N. Lee
                                     Naval Research Laboratory
                                     Washington, D. C.




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Fred Leonberger                       John A. McNeill
UT Photonics                          Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Bloomfield, CT                         Worcester, MA

Ging Li-Wang                          David P. Millard
Dexter Magnetic Materials             Georgia Institute of Technology
Fremont, CA                           Atlanta, GA

Yilu Liu                              Monte Miller
Virginia Tech                         Rockwell Semiconductor Systems
Blacksburg, VA                        Newbury Park, CA

Jean Jacques Loiseau                  Linn F. Mollenauer
Institute Recherche en Cybernetique   AT&T Bell Labs
Nantes, France                        Holmdel, NJ

Harry MacDonald                       Mauro Mongiardo
San Diego, CA                         University of Perugia
                                      Perugia, Italy
Chris Mack
FINLE Technologies                    Michael A. Morgan
Austin, TX                            Naval Postgraduate School
                                      Monterey, CA
Krzysztov Malinowski
Warsaw University of Technology       Amir Mortazawi
Warsaw, Poland                        University of Central Florida
                                      Orlando, FL
S. Manoharan
University of Auckland                Michael S. Munoz
Auckland, New Zealand                 TRW Corporation

Horacio J. Marquez                    Paolo Nesi
University of Alberta                 University of Florence
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada             Florence, Italy

Francesco Masulli                     M. Nieto-Vesperinas
University of Genoa                   Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales
Genoa, Italy                          Madrid, Spain

Vincent P. McGinn                     Kenneth V. Noren
Northern Illinois University          University of Idaho
DeKalb, IL                            Moscow, ID




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Behrooz Nowrouzian                  Marek Perkowski
University of Alberta               Portland State University
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada           Portland, OR

Terrence P. O’Connor                Roman Pichna
Purdue University School of         University of Oulu
   Technology at New Albany         Oulu, Finland
New Albany, IN
                                    A. H. Pierson
Ben O. Oni                          Pierson Scientific Associates, Inc.
Tuskegee University                 Andover, MA
Tuskegee, AL
                                    Pragasen Pillay
Thomas H. Ortmeyer                  Clarkson University
Clarkson University                 Potsdam, NY
Potsdam, NY
                                    Agostina Poggi
Ron P. O’Toole                      Università dí Parma
Cedar Rapids, IA                    Parma, Italy

Tony Ottosson                       Aun Neow Poo
Chalmers University of Technology   Postgraduate School of Engineering
Göteburg, Sweden                    National University of Singapore
                                    Singapore
J. R. Parker
University of Calgary               Ramas Ramaswami
Calgary, Alberta, Canada            MultiDisciplinary Research
                                    Ypsilanti, MI
Stefan Parkval
Royal Institute of Technology       Satiskuman J. Ranade
Stockholm, Sweden                   New Mexico State University
                                    Las Cruces, NM
Joseph E. Pascente
Downers Grove, IL                   Lars K. Rasmussen
                                    Centre for Wireless Communications
Russell W. Patterson                Singapore
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, TN                     Walter Rawle
                                    Ericsson, Inc.
Steven Pekarek                      Lynchburg, VA
University of Missouri
Rolla, MO                           C. J. Reddy
                                    NASA Langley Research Center
                                    Hampton, VA




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Greg Reese                            Manfred Schindler
Dayton, OH                            ATN Microwave
                                      North Billerica, MA
Joseph M. Reinhardt
University of Iowa                    Warren Seely
Iowa City, IA                         Motorola
                                      Scottsdale, AZ
Nabeel Riza
University of Central Florida         Yun Shi
Orlando, FL                           New Jersey Institute of Technology
                                      Newark, NJ
John A. Robinson
Memorial University of Newfoundland   Mikael Skoglund
St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada      Chalmers University of Technology
                                      Göteborg, Sweden
Eric Rogers
University of Southampton             Rodney Daryl Slone
Highfield, Southampton, England        University of Kentucky
                                      Lexington, KY
Christian Ronse
Université Louis Pasteur              Keyue M. Smedley
Strasbourg, France                    University of California
                                      Irvine, CA
Pieter van Rooyen
University of Pretoria                William Smith
Pretoria, South Africa                University of Kentucky
                                      Lexington, KY
Ahmed Saifuddin
Communication Research Lab            Babs Soller
Tokyo, Japan                          University of Massachusetts Medical Center
                                      Worcester, MA
Robert Sarfi
ABB Power T & D Co., Inc.             Y. H. Song
Cary, NC                              Brunel University
                                      Uxbridge, England
Simon Saunders
University of Surrey                  Janusz Sosnowski
Guildford, England                    Institute of Computer Science
                                      Warsaw, Poland
Helmut Schillinger
IOQ                                   Elvino Sousa
Jena, Germany                         University of Toronto
                                      Toronto, Ontario, Canada




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Philip M. Spray                          Pieter van Rooyen
Amarillo, TX                             University of Pretoria
                                         South Africa
Joe Staudinger
Motorola                                 Jonas Vasell
Tempe, AZ                                Chalmers University of Technology
                                         Göteborg, Sweden
Roman Stemprok
Denton, TX                               John L. Volakis
                                         University of Michigan
Diana Stewart                            Ann Arbor, MI
Purdue University School of Technology
  at New Albany                          Annette von Jouanne
New Albany, IN                           Oregon State University
                                         Corvallis, OR
Francis Swarts
University of the Witwatersrand          Liancheng Wang
Johannesburg, South Africa               ABB Power T & D Co., Inc.
                                         Cary, NC
Andrzej Swierniak
Silesian Technical University            Ronald W. Waynant
Gliwice, Poland                          FDA/CDRH
                                         Rockville, MD
Daniel Tabak
George Mason University                  Larry Wear
Fairfax, VA                              Sacramento, CA

Tadashi Takagi                           Wilson X. Wen
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation          AI Systems
Ofuna, Kamakura, Japan                   Talstra Labs
                                         Clayton, Australia
Jaakko Talvitie
University of Oulu                       Barry Wilkinson
Oulu, Finland                            University of North Carolina
                                         Charlotte, NC
Hamid A. Toliyat
Texas A&M University                     Robert E. Wilson
College Station, TX                      Western Area Power Administration
                                         Montrose, CA
Austin Truitt
Texas Instruments                        Stacy S. Wilson
Dallas, TX                               Western Kentucky University
                                         Bowling Green, KY




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Denise M. Wolf                          Stanislaw H. Zak
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory   Purdue University
Berkeley, CA                            West Lafayette, IN

E. Yaz                                  Qing Zhao
University of Arkansas                  University of Western Ontario
Fayetteville, Arkansas                  London, Ontario, Canada

Pochi Yeh                               Jizhong Zhu
University of California                National University of Singapore
Santa Barbara, CA                       Singapore

Jeffrey Young                           Omar Zia
University of Idaho                     Marietta, GA
Moscow, ID




© 2000 by CRC Press LLC
µ0     common symbol for permeability of
                                                   free space constant. µ0 = 1.257 × 10−16
                                                   henrys/meter.

         Special                                   µr
                                                   ability.
                                                            common symbol for relative perme-



        Symbols                                    ω      common symbol for radian frequency
                                                   in radians/second. ω = 2 · π · frequency.

                                                   θ+    common symbol for positive transition
α-level set    a crisp set of elements belong-     angle in degrees.
ing to a fuzzy set A at least to a degree α
                                                   θ−     common symbol for negative transi-
             Aα = {x ∈ X | µA (x) ≥ α}             tion angle in degrees.

See also crisp set, fuzzy set.                     θcond    common symbol for conduction an-
                                                   gle in degrees.
 f           common symbol for bandwidth, in
hertz.                                             θsat    common symbol for saturation angle
                                                   in degrees.
 rGaAs      common symbol for gallium ar-
senide relative dielectric constant. rGaAs =       θCC      common symbol for FET channel-
12.8.                                              to-case thermal resistance in ◦ C/watt.

                                                   θJ C    common symbol for bipolar junction-
         common symbol for silicon relative
    rSi
                                                   to-case thermal resistance in ◦ C/watt.
dielectric constant. rSi = 11.8.
                                                   A∗       common symbol for Richardson’s
    0      symbol for permitivity of free space.   constant. A∗ = 8.7 amperes · cm/◦ K
    0   = 8.849 × 10−12 farad/meter.
                                                   BVGD             See gate-to-drain breakdown
    r common symbol for relative dielectric        voltage.
constant.
                                                   BVGS           See gate-to-source breakdown
ηDC     common symbol for DC to RF con-            voltage.
version efficiency. Expressed as a percent-
age.                                               dv/dt       rate of change of voltage with-
                                                   stand capability without spurious turn-on of
ηa    common symbol for power added ef-            the device.
ficiency. Expressed as a percentage.
                                                   Hci        See intrinsic coercive force.
ηt     common symbol for total or true effi-
ciency. Expressed as a percentage.                 ne     common symbol for excess noise in
                                                   watts.
  opt    common symbol for source reflec-
tion coefficient for optimum noise perfor-          ns h        common symbol for shot noise in
mance.                                             watts.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
nt     common symbol for thermal noise in           deux indices,” IRIA Rapport Laboria, No.
watts.                                              31, Sept. 1973.

10base2        a type of coaxial cable used to      2-D Fornasini–Marchesini model            a 2-D
connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The           model described by the equations
10 refers to the transfer rate used on standard
Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The base             xi+1,j +1 = A0 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j
means that the network uses baseband com-                          + A2 xi,j +1 + Buij (1a)
munication rather than broadband communi-                    yij = Cxij + Duij         (1b)
cations, and the 2 stands for the maximum
length of cable segment, 185 meters (almost         i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers)
200). This type of cable is also called “thin”      here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector,
Ethernet, because it is a smaller diameter ca-      uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is
ble than the 10base5 cables.                        the output vector Ak (k = 0, 1, 2), B, C, D
                                                    are real matrices. A 2-D model described by
10base5       a type of coaxial cable used to       the equations
connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The
                                                     xi+1,j +1 = A1 xi+1,j + A2 xi,j +1
10 refers to the transfer rate used on stan-
dard Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The                       + B1 ui+1,j + B2 ui,j +1 (2)
base means that the network uses baseband
                                                    i, j ∈ Z+ and (1b) is called the second 2-D
communication rather than broadband com-
                                                    Fornasini–Marchesini model, where xij , uij ,
munications, and the 5 stands for the max-
                                                    and yij are defined in the same way as for (1),
imum length of cable segment of approxi-
                                                    Ak , Bk (k = 0, 1, 2) are real matrices. The
mately 500 meters. This type of cable is also
                                                    model (1) is a particular case of (2).
called “thick” Ethernet, because it is a larger
diameter cable than the 10base2 cables.
                                                    2-D general model        a 2-D model de-
                                                    scribed by the equations
10baseT        a type of coaxial cable used to
connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The               xi+1,j +1 = A0 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j
10 refers to the transfer rate used on standard                     + A2 xi,j +1 + B0 uij
Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The base
means that the network uses baseband com-                           + B1 ui+1,j + B2 ui,j +1
munication rather than broadband communi-                     yij = Cxij + Duij
cations, and the T stands for twisted (wire)
cable.                                              i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers)
                                                    here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector, uij ∈
2-D Attasi model            a 2-D model described   R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is the output
by the equations                                    vector and Ak , Bk (k = 0, 1, 2), C, D are real
                                                    matrices. In particular case for B1 = B2 = 0
       xi+1,j +1 = −A1 A2 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j          we obtain the first 2-D Fornasini–Marchesini
                                                    model and for A0 = 0 and B0 = 0 we obtain
                   + A2 xi,j +1 + Buij
                                                    the second 2-D Fornasini–Marchesini model.
             yij = Cxij + Duij
                                                    2-D polynomial matrix equation           a 2-D
i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers).        equation of the form
Here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector,
uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is                    AX + BY = C           (1)
the output vector, and A1 , A2 , B, C, D are
real matrices. The model was introduced by          where A ∈ R k×p [s], B ∈ R k×q [s], C ∈
Attasi in “Systemes lineaires homogenes a           R k×m [s] are given, by a solution to (1) we


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
mean any pair X ∈ R p×m [s], Y ∈ R q×m [s]              The algorithm is based on the row compres-
satisfying the equation. The equation (1)               sion of suitable matrices.
has a solution if and only if the matrices
[A, B, C] and [A, B, 0] are column equiva-              2-D Z-transform         F (z1 , z2 ) of a dis-
lent or the greatest common left divisor of A           crete 2-D function fij satisfying the condi-
and B is a left divisor of C. The 2-D equation          tion fij = 0 for i < 0 or/and j < 0 is
                                                        defined by
               AX + Y B = C           (2)
                                                                                   ∞    ∞
                                                                                                   −i −j
A∈     R k×p[s], B ∈     R q×m [s],
                                 C∈         R k×m [s]             F (z1 , z2 ) =              fij z1 z2
are given, is called the bilateral 2-D polyno-                                     i=0 j =0

mial matrix equation. By a solution to (2) we           An 2-D discrete fij has the 2-D Z-transform
mean any pair X ∈ R p×m [s], Y ∈ R k×q [s]              if the sum
satisfying the equation. The equation has a                               ∞   ∞
solution if and only if the matrices                                                     −i    −j
                                                                                    fij z1 z2
                                                                         i=0 j =0
                 A 0            AC
                         and
                 0 B            0 B                     exists.
are equivalent.                                         2DEGFET        See high electron mobility
                                                        transistor(HEMT).
2-D Roesser model        a 2-D model de-
scribed by the equations                                2LG         See double phase ground fault.
      h
     xi+1,j                      h
                   A1 A2        xij         B1          3-dB bandwidth        for a causal low-pass
               =                       +       u
      v
     xi,j +1       A3 A4         v
                                xij         B2 ij       or bandpass filter with a frequency function
i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers),            H (j ω) the frequency at which | H (j ω) |dB
                                                        is less than 3 dB down from the peak value
                           h
                          xij                           | H (ωP ) |.
               yij = C     v    + Duij
                          xij
                                                        3-level laser      a laser in which the most
        h                v
Here xij ∈ R n1 and xij ∈ R n2 are the hori-            important transitions involve only three en-
zontal and vertical local state vectors, respec-        ergy states; usually refers to a laser in which
tively, uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p        the lower level of the laser transition is sepa-
is the output vector and A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , B1 ,       rated from the ground state by much less than
B2 , C, D are real matrices. The model was              the thermal energy kT. Contrast with 4-level
introduced by R.P. Roesser in “A discrete               laser.
state-space model for linear image process-
ing,” IEEE Trans. Autom. Contr., AC-20,                 3-level system       a quantum mechanical
No. 1, 1975, pp. 1-10.                                  system whose interaction with one or more
                                                        electromagnetic fields can be described by
2-D shuffle algorithm an extension of the                considering primarily three energy levels.
Luenberger shuffle algorithm for 1-D case.               For example, the cascade, vee, and lambda
The 2-D shuffle algorithm can be used for                systems are 3-level systems.
checking the regularity condition
                                                        4-level laser      a laser in which the most
     det [Ez1 z2 − A0 − A1 z1 − A2 z2 ] = 0             important transitions involve only four en-
                                                        ergy states; usually refers to a laser in which
for some (z1 , z2 ) ∈ C×C of the singular gen-          the lower level of the laser transition is sep-
eral model ( See singular 2-D general model).           arated from the ground state by much more


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
than the thermal energy kT . Contrast with       ty of the image. For example a leak factor of
                                                 31
3-level laser.                                   32 the prediction decay is maintained at the
                                                 center of the dynamic range.
45 Mbs DPCM for NTSC color video
a codec wherein a subjectively pleasing pic-
                                                        −             31 −
ture is required at the receiver. This does            XL = 128 +        X − 128 .
not require transparent coding quality typical                        32
of TV signals. The output bit-rate for video         Finally, a clipper at the coder and decoder
matches the DS3 44.736 Megabits per second       is employed to prevent quantization errors.
rate. The coding is done by PCM coding the
NTSC composite video signal at three times       90% withstand voltage            a measure of
the color subcarrier frequency using 8 bit per   the practical lightning or switching-surge im-
pixel. Prediction of current pixel is obtained   pulse withstand capability of a piece of power
by averaging the pixel three after current and   equipment. This voltage withstand level is
681 pixels before next to maintain the sub-      two standard deviations above the BIL of the
carrier phase. A leak factor is chosen before    equipment.
computing prediction error to main the quali-




c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
two-port networks. Sometimes referred to
                                                    as chain parameters. ABCD parameters are


                     A
                                                    widely used to model cascaded connections
                                                    of two-port microwave networks, in which
                                                    case the ABCD matrix is defined for each
                                                    two-port network. ABCD parameters can
                                                    also be used in analytic formalisms for prop-
a posteriori probability           See posterior    agating Gaussian beams and light rays. Ray
statistics.                                         matrices and beam matrices are similar but
                                                    are often regarded as distinct.
a priori probability        See prior statistics.      ABC parameters have a particularly use-
                                                    ful property in circuit analysis where the
A-mode display        returned ultrasound           composite ABCD parameters of two cas-
echoes displayed as amplitude versus depth          caded networks are the matrix products of
into the body.                                      the ABCD parameters of the two individual
                                                    circuits. ABCD parameters are defined as
A-site     in a ferroelectric material with the
chemical formula ABO3 , the crystalline lo-                     v1        AB       v2
                                                                     =
cation of the A atom.                                           i1        CD       i2

A/D        See analog-to-digital converter.         where v1 and v2 are the voltages on ports one
                                                    and two, and i1 and i2 are the branch currents
AAL         See ATM adaptation layer.               into ports one and two.

ABC         See absorbing boundary condition.       aberration     an imperfection of an optical
                                                    system that leads to a blurred or a distorted
ABCD           propagation of an optical ray        image.
through a system can be described by a sim-
ple 2×2 matrix. In ray optics, the character-       abnormal event any external or program-
istic of a system is given by the correspond-       generated event that makes further normal
ing ray matrix relating the ray’s position from     program execution impossible or undesir-
the axis and slope at the input to those at the     able, resulting in a system interrupt. Exam-
output.                                             ples of abnormal events include system de-
                                                    tection of power failure; attempt to divide by
ABCD formalism         analytic method using        0; attempt to execute privileged instruction
two-by-two ABCD matrices for propagating            without privileged status; memory parity er-
Gaussian beams and light rays in a wide va-         ror.
riety of optical systems.
                                                    abort       (1) in computer systems, to termi-
ABCD law         analytic formula for trans-        nate the attempt to complete the transaction,
forming a Gaussian beam parameter from              usually because there is a deadlock or be-
one reference plane to another in paraxial op-      cause completing the transaction would re-
tics, sometimes called the Kogelnik transfor-       sult in a system state that is not compati-
mation. ABCD refers to the ABCD matrix.             ble with “correct” behavior, as defined by a
                                                    consistency model, such as sequential con-
ABCD matrix       the matrix containing             sistency.
ABCD parameters. See ABCD parameters.                   (2) in an accelerator, terminating the ac-
                                                    celeration process prematurely, either by in-
ABCD parameters         a convenient mathe-         hibiting the injection mechanism or by re-
matical form that can be used to characterize       moving circulating beam to some sort of


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
dump. This is generally done to prevent in-         absolute sensitivity       denoted S(y, x), is
jury to some personnel or damage to acceler-        simply the partial derivative of y with respect
ator components.                                    to x, i.e., S(y, x) = ∂y/∂x, and is used to
                                                    establish the relationships between absolute
ABR         See available bit rate.                 changes. See sensitivity, sensitivity measure,
                                                    relative sensitivity, semi-relative sensitivity.
absolute address          an address within an
instruction that directly indicates a location in   absolute stability    occurs when the net-
the program’s address space. Compare with           work function H (s) has only left half-plane
relative addressing.                                poles.

absolute addressing      an addressing mode         absorber        generic term used to describe
where the address of the instruction operand        material used to absorb electromagnetic en-
in memory is a part of the instruction so that      ergy.     Generally made of polyurethane
no calculation of an effective address by the       foam and impregnated with carbon (and fire-
CPU is necessary.                                   retardant salts), it is most frequently used to
   For example, in the Motorola M68000 ar-          line the walls, floors and ceilings of anechoic
chitecture instruction ADD 5000,D1, a 16-bit        chambers to reduce or eliminate reflections
word operand, stored in memory at the word          from these surfaces.
address 5000, is added to the lower word in
register D1. The address “5000” is an exam-         absorbing boundary condition (ABC)          a
ple of using the absolute addressing mode.          fictitious boundary introduced in differential
See also addressing mode.                           equation methods to truncate the computa-
                                                    tional space at a finite distance without, in
absolute encoder           an optical device        principle, creating any reflections.
mounted to the shaft of a motor consisting
of a disc with a pattern and light sources and      absorption       (1) process that dissipates en-
detectors. The combination of light detectors       ergy and causes a decrease in the amplitude
receiving light depends on the position of the      and intensity of a propagating wave between
rotor and the pattern employed (typically the       an input and output reference plane.
Gray code). Thus, absolute position infor-              (2) reduction in the number of photons of a
mation is obtained. The higher the resolution       specific wavelength or energy incident upon
required, the larger the number of detectors        a material. Energy transferred to the material
needed. See also encoder.                           may result in a change in the electronic struc-
                                                    ture, or in the relative movement of atoms in
absolute moment The pth order absolute              the material (vibration or rotation).
moment µp of a random variable X is the                 (3) process by which atoms or molecules
expectation of the absolute value of X raised       stick to a surface. If a bond is formed, it is
to the pth power:                                   termed chemisorption, while the normal case
                                                    is physisorption. The absorption process pro-
                 µp = E[|X|]p .                     ceeds due to, and is supported by, the fact that
                                                    this is a lower energy state.
See also central moment, central absolute
moment. See also expectation.                       absorption coefficient (1) in a passive de-
                                                    vice, the negative ratio of the power absorbed
absolute pressure      units to measure gas         (pabsorbed = pin −pout ) ratioed to the power in
pressure in a vacuum chamber with zero be-          (pin = pincident − preflected ) per unit length (l),
ing a perfect vacuum. Normally referred to          usually expressed in units of 1/wavelength or
as psia (pounds per square inch absolute).          1/meter.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
(2) factor describing the fractional atten-   rameter are closest to the parameters of an
uation of light with distance traversed in a      ideal capacitor. Hence, not only a capaci-
medium, generally expressed as an exponen-        tance is measured in terms of capacitance (in
tial factor, such as k in the function e−kx ,     resistive ratio arms bridges), but the induc-
with units of (length)-1. Also called attenu-     tance as well is measured in terms of capac-
ation coefficient.                                 itance (Hay and Owen bridges).
                                                     The AC bridges with ratio arms that are
absorption cross section       energy ab-         tightly coupled inductances allow measure-
sorbed by the scattering medium, normal-          ment of a very small difference between cur-
ized to the wavenumber. It has dimensions         rents in these inductances, and this fact is
of area.                                          used in very sensitive capacitance transduc-
                                                  ers.
absorption edge        the optical wavelength
or photon energy corresponding to the sep-        AC circuit electrical network in which the
aration of valence and conduction bands in        voltage polarity and directions of current flow
solids; at shorter wavelengths, or higher pho-    change continuously, and often periodically.
ton energies than the absorption edge, the ab-    Thus, such networks contain alternating cur-
sorption increases strongly.                      rents as opposed to direct currents, thereby
                                                  giving rise to the term.
absorption grating          (1) a diffraction
grating where alternate grating periods are
                                                  AC coupling       a method of connecting two
opaque.
                                                  circuits that allows displacement current to
   (2) an optical grating characterized by        flow while preventing conductive currents.
spatially periodic variation in the absorption    Reactive impedance devices (e.g., capacitors
of light. Absorption gratings are generally       and inductive transformers) are used to pro-
less efficient than phase gratings.                vide continuity of alternating current flow
                                                  between two circuits while simultaneously
absorption optical fiber       the amount of       blocking the flow of direct current.
optical power in an optical fiber captured
by defect and impurity centers in the energy
                                                  AC motor         an electromechanical sys-
bandgap of the fiber material and lost in the
                                                  tem that converts alternating current electri-
form of longwave infrared radiation.
                                                  cal power into mechanical power.
AC        See alternating current.
                                                  AC plasma display          a display that em-
AC bridge          one of a wide group of         ploys an internal capacitive dielectric layer
bridge circuits used for measurements of re-      to limit the gas discharge current.
sistances, inductances, and capacitances, and
to provide AC signal in the bridge transducers    AC steady-state power          the average
including resistors, inductors, and capacitors.   power delivered by a sinusoidal source to a
    The Wheatstone bridge can be used with        network, expressed as
a sinusoidal power supply, and with an AC
detector (headphones, oscilloscope), one can                 P =| V | · | I | cos(θ )
use essentially the same procedure for mea-              √              √
surement of resistors as in DC applications.      where 2· | V | and 2· | I | are the peak
Only a small number of other AC bridges are       values, respectively, of the AC steady-state
used in modern electric and electronic equip-     voltage and current at the terminals. θ rep-
ment. A strong selection factor was the fact      resents the phase angle by which the voltage
that in a standard capacitor the electrical pa-   leads the current.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
AC/AC converter         a power electronics       ation error to a constraint on the gain of the
device in which an AC input voltage of some       open loop system. The relevant equations
magnitude, frequency, and number of phases        are ea = Ka and Ka = lims→inf ty s 2 q(s),
                                                              1

is changed to an AC output with changes to        where q(s) is the transfer function model
any of the previously mentioned parameters.       of the open loop system, including the con-
AC/AC converters usually rectify the input        troller and the process in cascade, and s is
source to a DC voltage and then invert the        the Laplace variable. See also position error
DC voltage to the desired AC voltage.             constant, velocity error constant.

AC/DC converter             See rectifier.         accelerator      (1) a positive electrode in a
                                                  vacuum tube to accelerate emitted electrons
AC-DC integrated system       a power sys-        from its cathode by coulomb force in a de-
tem containing both AC and DC transmission        sired direction.
lines.                                               (2) a machine used to impart large kinetic
                                                  energies to charged particles such as elec-
ACARS          aircraft communications ad-        trons, protons, and atomic nuclei. The ac-
dressing and reporting. A digital commu-          celerated particles are used to probe nuclear
nications link using the VHF spectrum for         or subnuclear phenomena in industrial and
two-way transmission of data between an air-      medical applications.
craft and ground. It is used primarily in civil
aviation applications.
                                                  acceptable delay         the voice signal de-
                                                  lay that results in inconvenience in the voice
ACC         See automatic chroma control.
                                                  communication. A typically quoted value is
                                                  300 ms.
accelerated testing         tests conducted at
higher stress levels than normal operation but
                                                  acceptance      in an accelerator, it defines
in a shorter period of time for the specific
                                                  how "large" a beam will fit without scrap-
purpose to induce failure faster.
                                                  ing into the limiting aperture of a transport
                                                  line. The acceptance is the phase-space vol-
accelerating power          the excess electric
                                                  ume within which the beam must lie to be
power at a synchronous machine unit which
                                                  transmitted through an optical system with-
cannot be transmitted to the load because of
                                                  out losses. From an experimenters point
a short circuit near its terminals. This energy
                                                  of view acceptance is the phase-space vol-
gives rise to increasing rotor angle.
                                                  ume intercepted by an experimenter’s detec-
                                                  tor system.
acceleration error         the final steady dif-
ference between a parabolic setpoint and the
process output in a unity feedback control        acceptor      (1) an impurity in a semicon-
system. Thus it is the asymptotic error in po-    ductor that donates a free hole to the valence
sition that arises in a closed loop system that   band.
is commanded to move with constant acceler-          (2) a dopant species that traps electrons,
ation. See also position error, velocity error.   especially with regard to semiconductors.

acceleration error constant          a gain Ka    access channel      a channel in a communi-
from which acceleration error ea is read-         cations network that is typically allocated for
ily determined. The acceleration error con-       the purpose of setting up calls or communi-
stant is a concept that is useful in the design   cation sessions. Typically the users share the
of unity feedback control systems, since it       access channel using some multiple access
transforms a constraint on the final acceler-      algorithm such as ALOHA or CSMA.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
access control       a means of allowing ac-        time until the desired data rotates under the
cess to an object based on the type of ac-          head. (LW)
cess sought, the accessor’s privileges, and the
owner’s policy.
                                                    accidental rate      the rate of false coinci-
                                                    dences in the electronic counter experiment
access control list       a list of items associ-
                                                    produced by products of the reactions of more
ated with a file or other object; the list con-
                                                    than one beam particle within the time reso-
tains the identities of users that are permitted
                                                    lution of the apparatus.
access to the associated file. There is infor-
mation (usually in the form of a set of bits)
about the types of access (such as read, write,     accumulation       (1) an increase in the ma-
or delete) permitted to the user.                   jority carrier concentration of a region of
                                                    semiconductor due to an externally applied
access control matrix           a tabular repre-    electric field.
sentation of the modes of access permitted
from active entities (programs or processes)        accumulator         (1) a register in the CPU
to passive entities (objects, files, or devices).    (processor) that stores one of the operands
A typical format associates a row with an ac-       prior to the execution of an operation, and
tive entity or subject and a column with an         into which the result of the operation is
object; the modes of access permitted from          stored. An accumulator serves as an implicit
that active entity to the associated passive en-    source and destination of many of the pro-
tity are listed in the table entry.                 cessor instructions. For example, register A
                                                    of the Intel 8085 is an accumulator. See also
access line     a communication line that           CPU .
connects a user’s terminal equipment to a
switching node.                                         (2) the storage ring in which successive
                                                    pulses of particles are collected to create a
access mechanism         a circuit board or an      particle beam of reasonable intensity for col-
integrated chip that allows a given part of a       liding beams.
computer system to access another part. This
is typically performed by using a specific ac-       achievable rate region         for a multiple
cess protocol.                                      terminal communications system, a set of
                                                    rate-vectors for which there exist codes such
access protocol     a set of rules that estab-      that the probability of making a decoding er-
lishes communication among different parts.         ror can be made arbitrarily small. See also
These can involve both hardware and soft-           capacity region, multiple access channel.
ware specifications.

access right        permission to perform an        achromatic the quality of a transport line
operation on an object, usually specified as         or optical system where particle momentum
the type of operation that is permitted, such       has no effect on its trajectory through the sys-
as read, write, or delete. Access rights can        tem. In an achromatic device or system, the
be included in access control lists, capability     output beam displacement or divergence (or
lists, or in an overall access control matrix.      both) is independent of the input beam’s mo-
                                                    mentum. If a system of lenses is achromatic,
access time      the total time needed to re-       all particles of the same momentum will have
trieve data from memory. For a disk drive           equal path lengths through the system.
this is the sum of the time to position the
read/write head over the desired track and the      ACI      See adjacent channel interference.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
acknowledge        (1) a signal which indicates     another signal in a second cell, or with fixed
that some operation, such as a data transfer,       signals on a mask.
has successfully been completed.
   (2) to detect the successful completion of       acousto-optic deflector device         device
an operation and produce a signal indicating        where acousto-optic interaction deflects the
the success.                                        incident beam linearly as a function of the
                                                    input frequency of the RF signal driving the
acoustic attenuation      the degree of am-         device.
plitude suppression suffered by the acous-
tic wave traveling along the acousto-optic          acousto-optic device          descriptor of
medium.                                             acousto-optic cells of any design; generally
                                                    describes a cell plus its transducer struc-
acoustic laser    a laser (or maser) in which       ture(s), and may encompass either bulk,
the amplified field consists of soundwaves or         guided-wave, or fiber-optic devices.
phonons rather than electromagnetic waves;
phonon laser or phaser.                             acousto-optic effect       the interaction of
                                                    light with sound waves and in particular the
acoustic memory         a form of circulating       modification of the properties of a light wave
memory in which information is encoded in           by its interactions with an electrically con-
acoustic waves, typically propagated through        trollable sound wave. See also Brillouin
a trough of mercury. Now obsolete.                  scattering.
acoustic velocity        the velocity of the
                                                    acousto-optic frequency excisor        similar
acoustic signal traveling along the acousto-
                                                    to an acousto-optic spectrum analyzer where
optic medium.
                                                    the RF temporal spectrum is spatially and se-
                                                    lectively blocked to filter the RF signal feed-
acoustic wave         a propagating periodic
                                                    ing the Bragg cell.
pressure wave with amplitude representing
either longitudinal or shear particle displace-
ment within the wave medium; shear waves            acousto-optic instantaneous spectrum an-
are prohibited in gaseous and liquid media.         alyzer in Bragg mode device in which the
                                                    temporal spectrum of a radio frequency sig-
acousto-optic cell       a device consisting of     nal is instantaneously and spatially resolved
a photo-elastic medium in which a propa-            in the optical domain using a Fourier trans-
gating acoustic wave causes refractive-index        form lens and a RF signal-fed Bragg cell.
changes, proportional to acoustic wave am-
plitude, that act as a phase grating for diffrac-   acousto-optic modulator      a device that
tion of light. See also Bragg cell.                 modifies the amplitude or phase of a light
                                                    wave by means of the acousto-optic effect.
acousto-optic channelized radiometer
See acousto-optic instantaneous spectrum            acousto-optic processor       an optical sys-
analyzer in Bragg mode.                             tem that incorporates acousto-optic cells con-
                                                    figured to perform any of a number of math-
acousto-optic correlator       an optical sys-      ematical functions such as Fourier trans-
tem that consists of at least one acousto-          form, ambiguity transforms, and other time-
optic cell, imaging optics between cells and        frequency transforms.
fixed masks, and photodetectors whose out-
puts correspond to the correlation function of      acousto-optic scanner    a device that uses
the acoustic wave signal within one cell with       an acoustic wave in a photoelastic medium


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
to deflect light to different angular positions    acousto-optics        the area of study of in-
based on the frequency of the acoustic wave.      teraction of light and sound in media, and
                                                  its utilization in applications such as signal
acousto-optic space integrating convolver         processing and filtering.
 device that is the same as an acousto-optic
space integrating convolver except that it im-    ACP       See adjacent channel power.
plements the convolution operation.
                                                  acquisition       (1) in digital communica-
acousto-optic space integrating correlator        tions systems, the process of acquiring syn-
 an acousto-optic implementation of the cor-      chronism with the received signal. There
relation function where two RF signals are        are several levels of acquisitions, and for a
spatially impressed on two diffracted beams       given communication system several of them
from Bragg cells, and a Fourier transform         have to be performed in the process of setting
lens spatially integrates these beams onto a      up a communication link: frequency, phase,
point sensor that generates a photo current       spreading code, symbol, frame, etc.
representing the correlation function.               (2) in analog communications systems,
                                                  the process of initially estimating signal pa-
acousto-optic spectrum analyzer            an     rameters (for example carrier frequency off-
acousto-optic processor that produces at a        set, phase offset) required in order to begin
photodetector output array the Fourier de-        demodulation of the received signal.
composition of the electrical drive signal of        (3) in vision processing, the process by
an acousto-optic device.                          which a scene (physical phenomenon) is
                                                  converted into a suitable format that al-
                                                  lows for its storage or retrieval. See also
acousto-optic time integrating convolver
                                                  synchronization.
 same as the acousto-optic time integrating
correlator, except implements the signal con-
                                                  across the line starter a motor starter that
volution operation. See acousto-optic time
                                                  applies full line voltage to the motor to start.
integrating correlator.
                                                  This is also referred to as “hard starting” be-
                                                  cause it causes high starting currents. Larger
acousto-optic time integrating correlator         motors require reduced voltage or “soft start-
 an acousto-optic implementation of the cor-      ing.”
relation function where two RF signals are
spatially impressed on two diffracted beams       ACRR        See adjacent channel reuse ratio.
from Bragg cells, and a time integrating sen-
sor generates the spatially distributed corre-    ACSR      aluminum cable, steel-reinforced.
lation results.                                   A kind of overhead electric power conduc-
                                                  tor made up of a central stranded steel cable
acousto-optic triple product processor            overlaid with strands of aluminum.
signal processor that implements a triple inte-
gration operation using generally both space      ACT       See anticomet tail.
and time dimensions.
                                                  action potential     a propagating change in
acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF)         an     the conductivity and potential across a nerve
acousto-optic device that selects specific op-     cell’s membrane; a nerve impulse in common
tical frequencies from a broadband optical        parlance.
beam, depending on the number and frequen-
cies of acoustic waves generated in the de-       activation function     in an artificial neural
vice.                                             network, a function that maps the net output


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
of a neuron to a smaller set of values. This        active load      a transistor connected so as to
set is usually [0, 1]. Typical functions are the    replace a function that would conventionally
sigmoid function or singularity functions like      be performed by a passive component such
the step or ramp.                                   as a resistor, capacitor, or inductor.

active contour       a deformable template          active load-pull measurement          a mea-
matching method that, by minimizing the             surement method where transfer characteris-
energy function associated with a specific           tics of a device can be measured by electri-
model (i.e., a specific characterization of the      cally changing the load impedance seen from
shape of an object), deforms the model in           the device. In an active load-pull measure-
conformation to salient image features.             ment, the load impedance is defined by using
                                                    an output signal from the device and an in-
                                                    jected signal from the output of the device.
active device       a device that can convert
energy from a DC bias source to a signal at
                                                    active logic       a digital logic that operates
an RF frequency. Active devices are required
                                                    all of the time in the active, dissipative region
in oscillators and amplifiers.
                                                    of the electronic amplifiers from which it is
                                                    constructed. The output of such a gate is
active filter      (1) a filter that has an en-       determined primarily by the gate and not by
ergy gain greater than one, that is, a filter that   the load.
outputs more energy than it absorbs.
   (2) a form of power electronic converter         active magnetic bearing          a magnetic
designed to effectively cancel harmonic cur-        bearing that requires input energy for stable
rents by injecting currents that are equal and      support during operation. Generally imple-
opposite to, or 180◦ out of phase with, the tar-    mented with one or more electromagnets and
get harmonics. Active filters allow the out-         controllers.
put current to be controlled and provide sta-
ble operation against AC source impedance           active mixer a mixer that uses three termi-
variations without interfering with the system      nal devices such as FET rather than diodes as
impedance.                                          nonlinear element. One advantage of active
   The main type of active filter is the series      mixers is that they can provide conversion
type in which a voltage is added in series with     gain.
an existing bus voltage. The other type is the
parallel type in which a current is injected        active network         an electrical network
into the bus and cancels the line current har-      that contains some solid state devices such as
monics.                                             bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) or metal-
                                                    oxide-silicon field effect transistors (FETs)
                                                    operating in their active region of the volt-
active impedance        the impedance at the
                                                    age vs. current characteristic. To ensure that
input of a single antenna element of an ar-
                                                    these devices are operating in the active re-
ray with all the other elements of the array
                                                    gion, they must be supplied with proper DC
excited.
                                                    biasing.

active layer        See active region.              active neuron       a neuron with a non-zero
                                                    output. Most neurons have an activation
active learning       a form of machine learn-      threshold. The output of such a neuron has
ing where the learning system is able to in-        zero output until this threshold is reached.
teract with its environment so as to affect the
generation of training data.                        active power       See real power.


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
active power line conditioner       a device      ACTV         See advanced compatible tele-
which senses disturbances on a power line         vision.
and injects compensating voltages or currents
to restore the line’s proper waveform.            acuity      sharpness. The ability of the eye
                                                  to discern between two small objects closely
active RC filter         an electronic circuit     spaced, as on a display.
made up of resistors, capacitors, and opera-
tional amplifiers that provide well-controlled     adaptability the capability of a system to
linear frequency-dependent functions, e.g.,       change to suit the prevailing conditions, espe-
low-, high-, and bandpass filters.                 cially by automatic adjustment of parameters
                                                  through some initialization procedure or by
active redundancy         a circuit redundancy    training.
technique that assures fault-tolerance by de-
                                                  adaptation layer        control layer of a mul-
tecting the existence of faults and performing
                                                  tilayer controller, situated above the direct
some action to remove the faulty hardware,
                                                  control layer and — usually — also above the
e.g., by standby sparing.
                                                  optimizing control layer, required to intro-
                                                  duce changes into the decision mechanisms
active region        semiconductor material       of the layer (or layers) below this adaptation
doped such that electrons and/or holes are        layer; for example adaptation layer of the in-
free to move when the material is biased. In      dustrial controller may be responsible for ad-
the final fabricated device, the active regions    justing the model used by the optimizing con-
are usually confined to very small portions of     trol and the decision rules used by the direct
the wafer material.                               (regulation) control mechanisms.

active-high       (1) a logic signal having its   adapter        a typical term from personal
asserted state as the logic ONE state.            computers. A circuit board containing the
   (2) a logic signal having the logic ONE        interface toward an additional peripheral de-
state as the higher voltage of the two states.    vice. For example, a graphic adapter (inter-
                                                  face boards like EGA, VGA, CGA), a game
active-low       (1) a logic signal having its    controller, a SCSI controller, a PCMCI inter-
asserted state as the logic ZERO state.           face, etc.
   (2) a logic signal having its logic ONE
                                                  adaptive algorithm       (1) a method for ad-
state as the lower voltage of the two states;
                                                  justing the parameters of a filter to satisfy an
inverted logic.
                                                  objective (e.g., minimize a cost function).
                                                     (2) an algorithm whose properties are ad-
actuator        (1) a transducer that converts    justed continuously during execution with
electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy to     the objective of optimizing some criterion.
effective motion. For example in robots, ac-
tuators set the manipulator in motion through     adaptive antenna        antenna, or array of
actuation of the joints. Industrial robots        antennas, whose performance characteristics
are equipped with motors that are typically       can be adapted by some means; e.g., the
electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. See also       pattern of an array can be changed when
industrial robot.                                 the phasing of each of the array elements is
   (2) in computers, a device, usually me-        changed.
chanical in nature, that is controlled by a
computer, e.g., a printer paper mechanism or      adaptive array    an array that adapts itself
a disk drive head positioning mechanism.          to maximize the reception of a desired sig-


c   2000 by CRC Press LLC
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Electrical dictornary

  • 2. Product Manager: Karen Feinstein Project Editor: Ibrey Woodall Packaging design: Jonathan Pennell These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the Electrical Engineering Dictionary CRCnetBASE CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRC Press LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for the licensee’s internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materials from other sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright notices are given with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced without their written permission. WARRANTY The information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their uses. © 2000 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2170-0 International Standard Series Number 1097-9568 © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 3. Preface One can only appreciate the magnitude of effort required to develop a dictionary by actually experiencing it. Although I had written nine other books, I certainly did not know what I was getting into when in January of 1996 I agreed to serve as Editor-in- Chief for this project. Now, after 2 1/2 years I understand. Unlike other books that I have written, creating this dictionary was more a test of will and stamina and an exercise in project management than mere writing. And although I have managed organizations of up to 80 academics, nothing is more like “herding cats” than motivating an international collection of almost 200 distinguished engineers, scientists, and educators scattered around the globe almost entirely via email. Yet, I think there is no other way to undertake a project like this. I still marvel at how Noah Webster must have managed to construct his English Dictionary without the benefits of modern communication. But this project, as much as it is a monument to individual will, is really the collaborative work of many brilliant and dedicated men and women. This is their dictionary and your dictionary. Phillip A. Laplante, PE, Ph.D. Editor-in-Chief President Pennsylvania Institute of Technology Media, Pennsylvania © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 4. Editorial Board E.R. Davies Andrew Kahng University of London University of California at Berkeley Associate Editor: Signal and Co-Editor: Digital electronics, VLSI, Image Processing hardware description language Mike Fiddy Mark Kinsler University of Massachusetts, Lowell Editor: Power systems Editor: Electro-optical and lightwave systems Mike Golio Lauren Laplante Rockwell Collins Public Service Electric and Gas Editor: Microwave systems Editor: Properties of materials Marco Gori Sudhakar Muddu University of Florence Silicon Graphics Associate Editor: Information Processing Co-Editor: Digital electronics, VLSI, hardware description language Ling Guan Meredith Nole University of Sydney American Efficient Lighting Editor: Communications and information Editor: Illumination processing Bob Herrick Amos Omondi Purdue University Flinders University Editor: RF, radio and television Editor: Computer engineering (I/O and storage) Jeff Honchell Ian Oppermann Purdue University University of Sydney Associate Editor: RF, radio and television Associate Editor: Communication Jin Jiang John Prince University of Western Ontario University of Arizona Editor: Circuits and systems Editor: Packaging Tadeusz Kaczorek Mark Reed Warsaw University of Technology Yale University Editor: Control systems Editor: Microelectronics and solid state devices © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 5. David Shively Eugene Veklerov Shively Engineering Lawrence Berkeley Labs Editor: Electromagnetics Editor: Signal and image processing Tim Skvarenina Janusz Zalewski Purdue University University of Central Florida Editor: Electric machines and power electronics Editor: Computer engineering (processors) © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 6. Foreword How was the dictionary constructed? As I knew this project would require a divide-and-conquer approach with fault- tolerance, I sought to partition the dictionary by defining areas that covered all aspects of Electrical Engineering. I then matched these up to IEEE defined interest areas to ensure that complete coverage was provided. This created a great deal of overlap, which was intentional. I knew that terms needed to be defined several different ways, depending on usage and I needed to ensure that every term would be defined at least once. The mapping of the Dictionary’s areas to the IEEE interest areas are as follows: Power systems Circuits and systems • Power Engineering • Circuits and Systems • Power Electronics • Instruments and Measurements Electric motors and machines Control systems • Power Engineering • Control Systems • Power Electronics • Robotics and Automation Digital electronics, VLSI, hardware Electromagnetics description language • Electromagnetic Compatibility •Consumer Electronics • Magnetics •Electronic Devices •Industrial Electronics •Instruments and Measurements Computer engineering (processors) • Computer Microelectronics and solid state devices • Industrial Electronics Computer engineering (I/O and storage) • Instruments and Measurements • Computer RF, radio, and television Microwave systems • Broadcast Technology • Antennas and Propagation • Microwave Theory and Techniques Communications and information processing • Communications Electro-optical and lightwave systems • Information Theory • Lasers and Electro-Optics • Systems, Man, and Cybernetics • Reliability Illumination Signal and image processing Properties of materials • Signal Processing • Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation • Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Packaging • Components, Packaging, and • Manufacturing Technology Note that Software Engineering was not included as an area, and most software terms have been omitted. Those that were included were done so because they relate to some aspect of assembly language programming or low-level control, or artificial intelligence and robotics. For those interested in software engineering terms, CRC’s © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 7. forthcoming Comprehensive Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Tech- nology will include those terms. Several other IEEE interest areas were not explicitly assigned to area editors. How- ever, after discussing this fact with the Editorial Board, it was decided that relevant terms of a general nature would be picked up and terms that were not tagged for the dictionary from these areas were probably too esoteric to be included. These interest areas encompass: Aerospace and Electronic Systems Geosience and Remote Sensing Education Industry Applications Engineering in Medicine and Biology Nuclear and Plasma Science Engineering Management Oceanic Engineering Professional Communications Ultrasonic, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control Social Implications of Technology Vehicular Technology Given the Area Editor structure, constructing the dictionary then consisted of the following steps: 1. Creating a terms list for each area 2. Defining terms 3. Cross-checking terms within areas 4. Cross-checking terms across areas 5. Compiling and proofing the terms and definitions 6. Reviewing compiled dictionary 7. Final proofreading The first and most important task undertaken by the area editors was to develop a list of terms to be defined. A terms list is a list of terms (without definitions), proper names (such as important historical figures or companies), or acronyms relating to Electrical Engineering. What went into each terms list was left to the discretion of the area editor based on the recommendations of the contributing authors. However, lists were to include all technical terms that relate to the area (and subareas). Technical terms of a historical nature were only included if it was noted in the definition that the term is “not used” in modern engineering or that the term is “historical” only. Although the number of terms in each list varied somewhat, each area’s terms list consisted of approximately 700 items. Once the terms lists were created, they were merged and scrutinized for any obvious omissions. These missing terms were then assigned to the appropriate area editor. At this point the area editors and their contributing authors (there were 5 to 20 contributing authors per area) began the painstaking task of term definition. This process took many months. Once all of the terms and their definitions were collected, the process of converting, merging, and editing began. The dictionary included contributions from almost 200 contributors from 17 coun- tries. Although authors were provided with a set of guidelines to write terms def- initions, they were free to exercise their own judgment and to use their own style. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 8. As a result, the entries vary widely in content from short, one-sentence definitions to rather long dissertations. While I tried to provide some homogeneity in the process of editing, I neither wanted to tread on the feet of the experts and possibly corrupt the meaning of the definitions (after all, I am not an expert in any of the representative areas of the dictionary) nor did I want to interfere with the individual styles of the authors. As a result, I think the dictionary contains a diverse and rich exposition that collectively provides good insights into the areas intended to be covered by the dictionary. Moreover, I was pleased to find the resultant collection much more lively, personal, and user-friendly than typical dictionaries. Finally, we took advantage of the rich CRC library of handbooks, including The Control Handbook, Electronics Handbook, Image Processing Handbook, Circuits and Filters Handbook, and The Electrical Engineering Handbook, to pick up any defini- tions that were missing or incomplete. About 1000 terms were take from the CRC handbooks. We also borrowed, with permission from IEEE, about 40 definitions that could not be found elsewhere or could not be improved upon. Despite the incredible support from my area editors, individual contributors, and staff at CRC Press, the final task of arbitrating conflicting definitions, rewording those that did not seem descriptive enough, and identifying missing ones was left to me. I hope that I have not failed you terribly in my task. How to use the dictionary The dictionary is organized like a standard language dictionary except that not ev- ery word used in the dictionary is defined there (this would necessitate a complete embedding of an English dictionary). However, we tried to define most non-obvious technical terms used in the definition of another term. In some cases more than one definition is given for a term. These are denoted (1), (2), (3), . . ., etc. Multiple definitions were given in cases where the term has multiple distinct meanings in differing fields, or when more than one equivalent but uniquely descriptive definition was available to help increase understanding. In a few cases, I just couldn’t decide between two definitions. Pick the definition that seems to fit your situation most closely. The notation 1., 2., etc. is used to itemize certain elements of a definition and are not to be confused with multiple definitions. Acronym terms are listed by their expanded name. Under the acronym the reader is referred to that term. For example, if you look up “RISC” you will find “See reduced instruction set computer,” where the definition can be found. The only exceptions are in the cases where the expanded acronym might not make sense, or where the acronym itself has become a word (such as “laser” or “sonar”). While I chose to include some commonly used symbols (largely upon the recom- mendations of the contributors and area editors), this was not a principle focus of the dictionary and I am sure that many have been omitted. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 9. Finally, we tried to avoid proprietary names and tradenames where possible. Some have crept in because of their importance, however. Acknowledgments A project of this scope literally requires hundreds of participants. I would like to take this moment to thank these participants both collectively and individually. I thank, in no particular order: • The editorial board members and contributors. Although not all partici- pated at an equal level, all contributed in some way to the production of this work. • Ron Powers, CRC President of Book Publishing, for conceiving this dictio- nary, believing in me, and providing incredible support and encouragement. • Frank MacCrory, Norma Trueblood, Nora Konopka, Carole Sweatman, and my wife Nancy for converting, typing, and/or entering many of the terms. • Jill Welch, Nora Konopka, Ron Powers, Susan Fox, Karen Feinstein, Joe Ganzi, Gerry Axelrod, and others from CRC for editorial support. • CRC Comprehensive Dictionary of Mathematics and CRC Comprehensive Dictionary of Physics editor Stan Gibilisco for sharing many ideas with me. • My friend Peter Gordon for many of the biographical entries. • Lisa Levine for providing excellent copy editing of the final manuscript. Finally to my wife Nancy and children Christopher and Charlotte for their incredible patience and endurance while I literally spent hundreds of hours to enable the birth of this dictionary. This achievement is as much theirs as it is mine. Please accept my apologies if anyone was left out — this was not intentional and will be remedied in future printings of this dictionary. How to Report Errors/Omissions Because of the magnitude of this undertaking and because we attempted to develop new definitions completely from scratch, we have surely omitted (though not deliber- ately) many terms. In addition, some definitions are possibly incomplete, weak, or even incorrect. But we wish to evolve and improve this dictionary in subsequent printings and editions. You are encouraged to participate in this collaborative, global process. Please send any suggested corrections, improvements, or new terms to be added (along with suggested definitions) to me at p.laplante@ieee.org or plaplante@pit.edu. If your submission is incorporated, you will be recognized as a contributor in future editions of the dictionary. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 10. Editor-in-Chief Phil Laplante is the President of Pennsylvania Institute of Technology, a two-year, private, college that focuses on technology training and re-training. Prior to this, he was the founding dean of the BCC/NJIT Technology and Engineering Center in Southern New Jersey. He was also Associate Professor of Computer Science and Chair of the Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics Department at Fairleigh Dickinson University, New Jersey. In addition to his academic career, Dr. Laplante spent almost eight years as a software engineer designing avionics systems, a microwave CAD engineer, a software systems test engineer, and a consultant. He has written dozens of articles for journals, newsletters, magazines, and confer- ences, mostly on real-time computing and image processing. He has authored 10 other technical books and edits the journal, Real-Time Imaging, as well as two book series including the CRC Press series on Image Processing. Dr. Laplante received his B.S., M.Eng., and Ph.D. in Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, and Computer Science, respectively, from Stevens Institute of Technology and an M.B.A. from the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. He is a senior member of IEEE and a member of ACM and numerous other pro- fessional societies, program committees, and advisory boards. He is a licensed profes- sional engineer in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Dr. Laplante is married with two children and resides in Pennsylvania. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 11. References [1] Attasi, Systemes lineaires homgenes a deux indices, IRIA Rapprot Laboria, No. 31, Sept. 1973. [2] Baxter, K., Capacitive Sensors, IEEE Press, 1997. [3] Biey and Premoli, A., Cauer and MCPER Functions for Low-Q Filter Design, St. Saphorin: Georgi, 1980. [4] Blostein, L., Some bounds on the sensitivity in RLC networks, Proceedings of the 1st Allerton Conference on Circuits and Systems Theory, 1963, pp. 488–501. [5] Boutin, A.C., The misunderstood twin-T oscillator, IEEE Circuits and Systems Magazine, Dec. 1980, pp. 8–13. [6] Chen, W.-K., Ed., The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1995. [7] Clarke and Hess, D.T., Communication Circuits: Analysis and Design, Addison- Wesley, 1971. [8] Coultes, E. and Watson, W., Synchronous machine models by standstill frequency re- sponse tests, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS 100(4), 1480–1489, 1981. [9] Dorf, R.C., Ed., The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1997. [10] Enslow, H., Multiprocessor organization, Computing Surveys, 9(1), 103–129, 1977. [11] Filanovsky, M., Piskarev, V.A., and Stromsmoe, K.A., Nonsymmetric multivibrators with an auxiliary RC-circuit, Proc. IEEE, 131, 141–146, 1984. [12] Filanovsky, M. and Piskarev, V.A., Sensing and measurement of dc current using a trans- former and RL-multivibrator, IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst., 38, 1366–1370, 1991. [13] Filanovsky, M., Qiu, S.-S., and Kothapalli, G., Sinusoidal oscillator with voltage con- trolled frequency and amplitude, Intl. J. Electron., 68, 95–112, 1990. [14] Frerking, C., Oscillator Design and Temperature Compensation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978. [15] Fornasini and Marchesini, G., Double-indexed dynamical systems, Mathematical Sys- tems Theory, 1978, pp. 59–72. [16] Franco, Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 1988. [17] Held, N. and Kerr, A.R., Conversion loss and noise of microwave and millimeter-wave mixers: Part 1, Theory and Part 2, Experiment, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, MTT-26, 49, 1978. [18] Hennessy, L. and Patterson, D.A., Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Ap- proach, 2nd ed., Kaufmann, 1996. [19] Huelsman, P. and Allen, P.E., Introduction to the Theory and Design of Active Filters, McGraw-Hill, 1980. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 12. [20] Gibson, Jerry D., Ed., The Mobile Communications Handbook, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1996. [21] Huising, H., Van Rossum, G.A., and Van der Lee, M., Two-wire bridge-to-frequency converter, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, SC-22, 343–349, 1987. [22] IEEE Committee Report, Proposed excitation system definitons for synchronous ma- chines, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS-88(8), Au- gust 1969. [23] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical Engineering, 6th ed., 1996. [24] Jouppi, N.P., The nonuniform distribution of instruction-level and machine prallelism and its effect on performance, IEEE Transactions on Computers, 38(12), 1645– 1658, Dec. 1989. [25] Kaczorek, Linear Control Systems, Vol. 2, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1993. [26] Kaczorek, The singular general model of 2-D systems and its solution, IEEE Transac- tions on Automatic Control, AC-33(11), 1060–1061, 1988. [27] Kaczorek, Two-Dimensional Linear Systems, Springer-Verlag, 1985. [28] Kaplan, -Z., Saaroni, R., and Zuckert, B., Analytical and experimental approaches for the design of low-distortion Wien bridge oscillators, IEEE Transactions on Instru- mentation and Measurement, IM-30, 147–151, 1981. [29] Katevenis, G.H., Reduced Instruction Set Computer Architectures for VLSI, MIT Press, 1985. [30] Kurek, The general state-space model for a two-dimensional linear digital system, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, AC-30(6), 600–601, 1985. [31] Krause, C., Wasynczuk, O., and Sudhoff, S.D., Analysis of Electric Machinery, IEEE Press, 1995. [32] Levine, W.S., Ed., The Control Handbook, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1995. [33] Morf, Levy, B.C., and Kung, S.Y., New results in 2-D systems theory, Proc. IEEE, 65(6), 861–872, 1977. [34] Myers, J., Advances in Computer Architecture, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982. [35] Neubert, K.P., Instrument Transducers, Clarendon Press, 1975. [36] Qiu, S.-S. and Filanovsky, I.M., Periodic solutions of the Van der Pol equation with mod- erate values of damping coefficient, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, CAS-34, 913–918, 1987. [37] Orchard, J., Loss sensitivities in singly and doubly terminated filters, IEEE Transac- tions on Circuits and Systems, CAS-26, 293–297, 1979. [38] Pallas-Ar´ ny and Webster, J.G., Sensor and Signal Conditioning, New York: John a Wiley & Sons, 1991. [39] Patterson, A. and Ditzel, D.R., The case for the RISC, Computer Architecture News, 8(6), 25–33, 1980. [40] Patterson, A. and Sequin, C.H., A VLSI RISC, IEEE Computer, 15(9), 8–21, 1982. [41] Pederson, O. and Mayaram, K., Analog Integrated Circuits for Communication, Kluwer, 1991. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 13. [42] Radin, The 801 Minicomputer, IBM J. Res. Devel., 21(3), 237–246, 1983. [43] Ramamurthi and Gersho, A., IEEE Transactions on Communications, 34(1), 1105–1115, 1986. [44] Roesser, P., A discrete state-space model for linear image processing, IEEE Transac- tions on Automatic Control, AC-20(1), 1–10, 1975. [45] Russ, J.C., Ed., The Image Processing Handbook, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1994. [46] Rosenbrock, H.H., Computer-Aided Control System Design, Academic Press, 1974. [47] Smith, Modern Communication Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 1986. [48] Strauss, Wave Generation and Shaping, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1970. [49] Tabak, RISC Systems and Applications, Research Studies Press and Wiley, 1996. [50] Thomas and Clarke, C.A., Eds., Handbook of Electrical Instruments and Measur- ing Techniques, Prentice-Hall, 1967. [51] Whittaker, J.C., Ed., The Electronics Handbook, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1996. [52] Youla and Gnavi, G., Notes of n-dimensional system theory, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, 26(2), 105–111, 1979. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
  • 14. Contributors James T. Aberle Partha P. Banjeree Arizona State University University of Alabama Tempe, AZ Huntsville, AL Giovanni Adorni Ishmael (“Terry”) Banks Università di Parma American Electric Power Company Parma, Italy Athens, OH Ashfaq Ahmed Walter Banzhaf Purdue University University of Hartford West Lafayette, IN Hartford, CT A. E. A. Almaini Ottis L. Barron Napier University University of Tennessee at Martin Edinburgh, Scotland Martin, TN Earle M. Alexander IV Robert A. Bartkowiak San Rafael, CA Penn State University at Lehigh Valley Fogelsville, PA Jim Andrew CISRA Richard M. Bass North Ryde, Australia Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, GA James Antonakos Broome County Community College Michael R. Bastian Binghampton, NY Brigham Young University Provo, UT Eduard Ayguade Barcelona, Spain Jeffrey S. Beasley New Mexico State University Bibhuti B. Banerjee Las Cruces, NM Dexter Magnetic Materials Fremont, CA Lars Bengtsson Halmsted University Halmsted, Sweden © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 15. Mi Bi Antonio Chella Tai Seng Industrial Estate University of Palermo Singapore Palermo, Italy Edoardo Biagioni C. H. Chen SCS University of Massachusetts Pittsburgh, PA N. Dartmouth, MA David L. Blanchard Zheru Chi Purdue University Calumet Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hammond, IN Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong Wayne Bonzyk Shamala Chickamenahalli Colman, SD Wayne State University Detroit, MI R. W. Boyd University of Rochester Christos Christodoulou Rochester, NY University of Central Florida Orlando, FL M. Braae University of Cape Town Badrul Chowdhury Rondebosch, South Africa University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming Doug Burges University of Wisconsin Dominic J. Ciardullo Madison, WI Nassau Community College Garden City, NY Nick Buris Motorola Andrew Cobb Schaumburg, IL New Albany, IN Jose Roberto Camacho Christopher J. Conant Universidade Federal de Uberlindia Broome County Community College Uberlindia, Brazil Binghamton, NY Gerard-Andre Capolino Robin Cravey University of Picardie NASA Langley Research Center Amiens, France Hampton, VA Lee W. Casperson George W. Crawford Portland State University Penn State University Portland, OR McKeesport, PA © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 16. John K. Daher Andrzej Dzielinski Georgia Institute of Technology ISEP Atlanta, GA Warsaw University of Technology Warsaw, Poland Fredrik Dahlgren Chalmers University of Technology Jack East Gothenburg, Sweden University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI E. R. Davies University of London Sandra Eitnier Surrey, England San Diego, CA Ronald F. DeMara Samir El-Ghazaly University of Central Florida Arizona State University Orlando, FL Tempe, AZ William E. DeWitt Irv Englander Purdue University Bentley College West Lafayette, IN Waltham, MA Alex Domijan Ivan Fair University of Florida Technical University of Nova Scotia Gainesville, FL Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Bob Dony Gang Feng University of Guelph University of New South Wales Guelph, Ontario, Canada Kensington, Australia Tom Downs Peter M. Fenwick University of Queensland University of Auckland Brisbane, Australia Auckland, New Zealand Marvin Drake Paul Fieguth The MITRE Corporation University of Waterloo Bedford, MA Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Lawrence P. Dunleavy Igor Filanovsky University of South Florida University of Alberta Tampa, FL Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Scott C. Dunning Wladyslau Findeisen University of Maine Warsaw University of Technology Orono, ME Warsaw, Poland © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 17. Dion Fralick P. R. Hemmer NASA Langley Research Center RL/EROP Hampton, VA Hanscom Air Force Base, MA Lawrence Fryda Vincent Heuring Central Michigan University University of Colorado Mt. Pleasant, MI Boulder, CO Mumtaz B. Gawargy Andreas Hirstein Concordia University Swiss Electrotechnical Association Montreal, Quebec, Canada Fehraltorf, Switzerland Frank Gerlitz Robert J. Hofinger Washtenaw College Purdue University School of Ann Arbor, MI Technology at Columbus Columbus, IN Antonio Augusto Gorni COSIPA Michael Honig Cubatao, Brazil Northwestern University Evanston, IL Lee Goudelock Laurel, MS Yan Hui Northern Telecom Alex Grant Nepean, Ontario, Canada Institut für Signal- und Informationsverarbeitung Suresh Hungenahally Zurich, Switzerland Griffth University Nathan, Queensland, Australia Thomas G. Habetler Georgia Tech Iqbal Husain Atlanta, GA University of Akron Akron, OH Haldun Hadimioglu Polytechnic University Eoin Hyden Brooklyn, NY Madison, NJ Dave Halchin Marija Ilic RF MicroDevices MIT Greensboro, NC Cambridge, MA Thomas L. Harman Mark Janos University of Houston Uniphase Fiber Components Houston, TX Sydney, Australia © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 18. Albert Jelalian David Kelley Jelalian Science & Engineering Penn State University Bedford, MA University Park, PA Anthony Johnson D. Kennedy New Jersey Institute of Technology Ryerson Polytechnic Institute Newark, NJ Toronto, Ontario, Canada C. Bruce Johnson Mohan Ketkar Phoenix, AZ University of Houston Houston, TX Brendan Jones Optus Communications Jerzy Klamka Sydney, Australia Silesian Technical University Gliwice, Poland Suganda Jutamulia In-Harmony Technology Corp. Krzysztof Kozlowski Petaluma, CA Technical University of Poznan Poznan, Poland Richard Y. Kain University of Minnesota Ron Land Minneapolis, MN Penn State University New Kensington, PA Dikshitulu K. Kalluri University of Massachusetts Robert D. Laramore Lowell, MA Cedarville College Cedarville, OH Alex Kalu Savannah State University Joy Laskar Savannah, GA Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, GA Gary Kamerman FastMetrix Matti Latva-aho Huntsville, AL University of Oulu Linannmaa, Oulu, Finland Avishay Katz EPRI Thomas S. Laverghetta Palo Alto, CA Indiana University-Purdue University at Fort Wayne Wilson E. Kazibwe Fort Wayne, IN Telegyr Systems San Jose, CA J. N. Lee Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D. C. © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 19. Fred Leonberger John A. McNeill UT Photonics Worcester Polytechnic Institute Bloomfield, CT Worcester, MA Ging Li-Wang David P. Millard Dexter Magnetic Materials Georgia Institute of Technology Fremont, CA Atlanta, GA Yilu Liu Monte Miller Virginia Tech Rockwell Semiconductor Systems Blacksburg, VA Newbury Park, CA Jean Jacques Loiseau Linn F. Mollenauer Institute Recherche en Cybernetique AT&T Bell Labs Nantes, France Holmdel, NJ Harry MacDonald Mauro Mongiardo San Diego, CA University of Perugia Perugia, Italy Chris Mack FINLE Technologies Michael A. Morgan Austin, TX Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA Krzysztov Malinowski Warsaw University of Technology Amir Mortazawi Warsaw, Poland University of Central Florida Orlando, FL S. Manoharan University of Auckland Michael S. Munoz Auckland, New Zealand TRW Corporation Horacio J. Marquez Paolo Nesi University of Alberta University of Florence Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Florence, Italy Francesco Masulli M. Nieto-Vesperinas University of Genoa Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales Genoa, Italy Madrid, Spain Vincent P. McGinn Kenneth V. Noren Northern Illinois University University of Idaho DeKalb, IL Moscow, ID © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 20. Behrooz Nowrouzian Marek Perkowski University of Alberta Portland State University Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Portland, OR Terrence P. O’Connor Roman Pichna Purdue University School of University of Oulu Technology at New Albany Oulu, Finland New Albany, IN A. H. Pierson Ben O. Oni Pierson Scientific Associates, Inc. Tuskegee University Andover, MA Tuskegee, AL Pragasen Pillay Thomas H. Ortmeyer Clarkson University Clarkson University Potsdam, NY Potsdam, NY Agostina Poggi Ron P. O’Toole Università dí Parma Cedar Rapids, IA Parma, Italy Tony Ottosson Aun Neow Poo Chalmers University of Technology Postgraduate School of Engineering Göteburg, Sweden National University of Singapore Singapore J. R. Parker University of Calgary Ramas Ramaswami Calgary, Alberta, Canada MultiDisciplinary Research Ypsilanti, MI Stefan Parkval Royal Institute of Technology Satiskuman J. Ranade Stockholm, Sweden New Mexico State University Las Cruces, NM Joseph E. Pascente Downers Grove, IL Lars K. Rasmussen Centre for Wireless Communications Russell W. Patterson Singapore Tennessee Valley Authority Chattanooga, TN Walter Rawle Ericsson, Inc. Steven Pekarek Lynchburg, VA University of Missouri Rolla, MO C. J. Reddy NASA Langley Research Center Hampton, VA © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 21. Greg Reese Manfred Schindler Dayton, OH ATN Microwave North Billerica, MA Joseph M. Reinhardt University of Iowa Warren Seely Iowa City, IA Motorola Scottsdale, AZ Nabeel Riza University of Central Florida Yun Shi Orlando, FL New Jersey Institute of Technology Newark, NJ John A. Robinson Memorial University of Newfoundland Mikael Skoglund St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada Chalmers University of Technology Göteborg, Sweden Eric Rogers University of Southampton Rodney Daryl Slone Highfield, Southampton, England University of Kentucky Lexington, KY Christian Ronse Université Louis Pasteur Keyue M. Smedley Strasbourg, France University of California Irvine, CA Pieter van Rooyen University of Pretoria William Smith Pretoria, South Africa University of Kentucky Lexington, KY Ahmed Saifuddin Communication Research Lab Babs Soller Tokyo, Japan University of Massachusetts Medical Center Worcester, MA Robert Sarfi ABB Power T & D Co., Inc. Y. H. Song Cary, NC Brunel University Uxbridge, England Simon Saunders University of Surrey Janusz Sosnowski Guildford, England Institute of Computer Science Warsaw, Poland Helmut Schillinger IOQ Elvino Sousa Jena, Germany University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 22. Philip M. Spray Pieter van Rooyen Amarillo, TX University of Pretoria South Africa Joe Staudinger Motorola Jonas Vasell Tempe, AZ Chalmers University of Technology Göteborg, Sweden Roman Stemprok Denton, TX John L. Volakis University of Michigan Diana Stewart Ann Arbor, MI Purdue University School of Technology at New Albany Annette von Jouanne New Albany, IN Oregon State University Corvallis, OR Francis Swarts University of the Witwatersrand Liancheng Wang Johannesburg, South Africa ABB Power T & D Co., Inc. Cary, NC Andrzej Swierniak Silesian Technical University Ronald W. Waynant Gliwice, Poland FDA/CDRH Rockville, MD Daniel Tabak George Mason University Larry Wear Fairfax, VA Sacramento, CA Tadashi Takagi Wilson X. Wen Mitsubishi Electric Corporation AI Systems Ofuna, Kamakura, Japan Talstra Labs Clayton, Australia Jaakko Talvitie University of Oulu Barry Wilkinson Oulu, Finland University of North Carolina Charlotte, NC Hamid A. Toliyat Texas A&M University Robert E. Wilson College Station, TX Western Area Power Administration Montrose, CA Austin Truitt Texas Instruments Stacy S. Wilson Dallas, TX Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, KY © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 23. Denise M. Wolf Stanislaw H. Zak Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Purdue University Berkeley, CA West Lafayette, IN E. Yaz Qing Zhao University of Arkansas University of Western Ontario Fayetteville, Arkansas London, Ontario, Canada Pochi Yeh Jizhong Zhu University of California National University of Singapore Santa Barbara, CA Singapore Jeffrey Young Omar Zia University of Idaho Marietta, GA Moscow, ID © 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 24. µ0 common symbol for permeability of free space constant. µ0 = 1.257 × 10−16 henrys/meter. Special µr ability. common symbol for relative perme- Symbols ω common symbol for radian frequency in radians/second. ω = 2 · π · frequency. θ+ common symbol for positive transition α-level set a crisp set of elements belong- angle in degrees. ing to a fuzzy set A at least to a degree α θ− common symbol for negative transi- Aα = {x ∈ X | µA (x) ≥ α} tion angle in degrees. See also crisp set, fuzzy set. θcond common symbol for conduction an- gle in degrees. f common symbol for bandwidth, in hertz. θsat common symbol for saturation angle in degrees. rGaAs common symbol for gallium ar- senide relative dielectric constant. rGaAs = θCC common symbol for FET channel- 12.8. to-case thermal resistance in ◦ C/watt. θJ C common symbol for bipolar junction- common symbol for silicon relative rSi to-case thermal resistance in ◦ C/watt. dielectric constant. rSi = 11.8. A∗ common symbol for Richardson’s 0 symbol for permitivity of free space. constant. A∗ = 8.7 amperes · cm/◦ K 0 = 8.849 × 10−12 farad/meter. BVGD See gate-to-drain breakdown r common symbol for relative dielectric voltage. constant. BVGS See gate-to-source breakdown ηDC common symbol for DC to RF con- voltage. version efficiency. Expressed as a percent- age. dv/dt rate of change of voltage with- stand capability without spurious turn-on of ηa common symbol for power added ef- the device. ficiency. Expressed as a percentage. Hci See intrinsic coercive force. ηt common symbol for total or true effi- ciency. Expressed as a percentage. ne common symbol for excess noise in watts. opt common symbol for source reflec- tion coefficient for optimum noise perfor- ns h common symbol for shot noise in mance. watts. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 25. nt common symbol for thermal noise in deux indices,” IRIA Rapport Laboria, No. watts. 31, Sept. 1973. 10base2 a type of coaxial cable used to 2-D Fornasini–Marchesini model a 2-D connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The model described by the equations 10 refers to the transfer rate used on standard Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The base xi+1,j +1 = A0 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j means that the network uses baseband com- + A2 xi,j +1 + Buij (1a) munication rather than broadband communi- yij = Cxij + Duij (1b) cations, and the 2 stands for the maximum length of cable segment, 185 meters (almost i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers) 200). This type of cable is also called “thin” here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector, Ethernet, because it is a smaller diameter ca- uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is ble than the 10base5 cables. the output vector Ak (k = 0, 1, 2), B, C, D are real matrices. A 2-D model described by 10base5 a type of coaxial cable used to the equations connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The xi+1,j +1 = A1 xi+1,j + A2 xi,j +1 10 refers to the transfer rate used on stan- dard Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The + B1 ui+1,j + B2 ui,j +1 (2) base means that the network uses baseband i, j ∈ Z+ and (1b) is called the second 2-D communication rather than broadband com- Fornasini–Marchesini model, where xij , uij , munications, and the 5 stands for the max- and yij are defined in the same way as for (1), imum length of cable segment of approxi- Ak , Bk (k = 0, 1, 2) are real matrices. The mately 500 meters. This type of cable is also model (1) is a particular case of (2). called “thick” Ethernet, because it is a larger diameter cable than the 10base2 cables. 2-D general model a 2-D model de- scribed by the equations 10baseT a type of coaxial cable used to connect nodes on an Ethernet network. The xi+1,j +1 = A0 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j 10 refers to the transfer rate used on standard + A2 xi,j +1 + B0 uij Ethernet, 10 megabits per second. The base means that the network uses baseband com- + B1 ui+1,j + B2 ui,j +1 munication rather than broadband communi- yij = Cxij + Duij cations, and the T stands for twisted (wire) cable. i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers) here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector, uij ∈ 2-D Attasi model a 2-D model described R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is the output by the equations vector and Ak , Bk (k = 0, 1, 2), C, D are real matrices. In particular case for B1 = B2 = 0 xi+1,j +1 = −A1 A2 xi,j + A1 xi+1,j we obtain the first 2-D Fornasini–Marchesini model and for A0 = 0 and B0 = 0 we obtain + A2 xi,j +1 + Buij the second 2-D Fornasini–Marchesini model. yij = Cxij + Duij 2-D polynomial matrix equation a 2-D i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers). equation of the form Here xij ∈ R n is the local state vector, uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p is AX + BY = C (1) the output vector, and A1 , A2 , B, C, D are real matrices. The model was introduced by where A ∈ R k×p [s], B ∈ R k×q [s], C ∈ Attasi in “Systemes lineaires homogenes a R k×m [s] are given, by a solution to (1) we c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 26. mean any pair X ∈ R p×m [s], Y ∈ R q×m [s] The algorithm is based on the row compres- satisfying the equation. The equation (1) sion of suitable matrices. has a solution if and only if the matrices [A, B, C] and [A, B, 0] are column equiva- 2-D Z-transform F (z1 , z2 ) of a dis- lent or the greatest common left divisor of A crete 2-D function fij satisfying the condi- and B is a left divisor of C. The 2-D equation tion fij = 0 for i < 0 or/and j < 0 is defined by AX + Y B = C (2) ∞ ∞ −i −j A∈ R k×p[s], B ∈ R q×m [s], C∈ R k×m [s] F (z1 , z2 ) = fij z1 z2 are given, is called the bilateral 2-D polyno- i=0 j =0 mial matrix equation. By a solution to (2) we An 2-D discrete fij has the 2-D Z-transform mean any pair X ∈ R p×m [s], Y ∈ R k×q [s] if the sum satisfying the equation. The equation has a ∞ ∞ solution if and only if the matrices −i −j fij z1 z2 i=0 j =0 A 0 AC and 0 B 0 B exists. are equivalent. 2DEGFET See high electron mobility transistor(HEMT). 2-D Roesser model a 2-D model de- scribed by the equations 2LG See double phase ground fault. h xi+1,j h A1 A2 xij B1 3-dB bandwidth for a causal low-pass = + u v xi,j +1 A3 A4 v xij B2 ij or bandpass filter with a frequency function i, j ∈ Z+ (the set of nonnegative integers), H (j ω) the frequency at which | H (j ω) |dB is less than 3 dB down from the peak value h xij | H (ωP ) |. yij = C v + Duij xij 3-level laser a laser in which the most h v Here xij ∈ R n1 and xij ∈ R n2 are the hori- important transitions involve only three en- zontal and vertical local state vectors, respec- ergy states; usually refers to a laser in which tively, uij ∈ R m is the input vector, yij ∈ R p the lower level of the laser transition is sepa- is the output vector and A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , B1 , rated from the ground state by much less than B2 , C, D are real matrices. The model was the thermal energy kT. Contrast with 4-level introduced by R.P. Roesser in “A discrete laser. state-space model for linear image process- ing,” IEEE Trans. Autom. Contr., AC-20, 3-level system a quantum mechanical No. 1, 1975, pp. 1-10. system whose interaction with one or more electromagnetic fields can be described by 2-D shuffle algorithm an extension of the considering primarily three energy levels. Luenberger shuffle algorithm for 1-D case. For example, the cascade, vee, and lambda The 2-D shuffle algorithm can be used for systems are 3-level systems. checking the regularity condition 4-level laser a laser in which the most det [Ez1 z2 − A0 − A1 z1 − A2 z2 ] = 0 important transitions involve only four en- ergy states; usually refers to a laser in which for some (z1 , z2 ) ∈ C×C of the singular gen- the lower level of the laser transition is sep- eral model ( See singular 2-D general model). arated from the ground state by much more c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 27. than the thermal energy kT . Contrast with ty of the image. For example a leak factor of 31 3-level laser. 32 the prediction decay is maintained at the center of the dynamic range. 45 Mbs DPCM for NTSC color video a codec wherein a subjectively pleasing pic- − 31 − ture is required at the receiver. This does XL = 128 + X − 128 . not require transparent coding quality typical 32 of TV signals. The output bit-rate for video Finally, a clipper at the coder and decoder matches the DS3 44.736 Megabits per second is employed to prevent quantization errors. rate. The coding is done by PCM coding the NTSC composite video signal at three times 90% withstand voltage a measure of the color subcarrier frequency using 8 bit per the practical lightning or switching-surge im- pixel. Prediction of current pixel is obtained pulse withstand capability of a piece of power by averaging the pixel three after current and equipment. This voltage withstand level is 681 pixels before next to maintain the sub- two standard deviations above the BIL of the carrier phase. A leak factor is chosen before equipment. computing prediction error to main the quali- c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 28. two-port networks. Sometimes referred to as chain parameters. ABCD parameters are A widely used to model cascaded connections of two-port microwave networks, in which case the ABCD matrix is defined for each two-port network. ABCD parameters can also be used in analytic formalisms for prop- a posteriori probability See posterior agating Gaussian beams and light rays. Ray statistics. matrices and beam matrices are similar but are often regarded as distinct. a priori probability See prior statistics. ABC parameters have a particularly use- ful property in circuit analysis where the A-mode display returned ultrasound composite ABCD parameters of two cas- echoes displayed as amplitude versus depth caded networks are the matrix products of into the body. the ABCD parameters of the two individual circuits. ABCD parameters are defined as A-site in a ferroelectric material with the chemical formula ABO3 , the crystalline lo- v1 AB v2 = cation of the A atom. i1 CD i2 A/D See analog-to-digital converter. where v1 and v2 are the voltages on ports one and two, and i1 and i2 are the branch currents AAL See ATM adaptation layer. into ports one and two. ABC See absorbing boundary condition. aberration an imperfection of an optical system that leads to a blurred or a distorted ABCD propagation of an optical ray image. through a system can be described by a sim- ple 2×2 matrix. In ray optics, the character- abnormal event any external or program- istic of a system is given by the correspond- generated event that makes further normal ing ray matrix relating the ray’s position from program execution impossible or undesir- the axis and slope at the input to those at the able, resulting in a system interrupt. Exam- output. ples of abnormal events include system de- tection of power failure; attempt to divide by ABCD formalism analytic method using 0; attempt to execute privileged instruction two-by-two ABCD matrices for propagating without privileged status; memory parity er- Gaussian beams and light rays in a wide va- ror. riety of optical systems. abort (1) in computer systems, to termi- ABCD law analytic formula for trans- nate the attempt to complete the transaction, forming a Gaussian beam parameter from usually because there is a deadlock or be- one reference plane to another in paraxial op- cause completing the transaction would re- tics, sometimes called the Kogelnik transfor- sult in a system state that is not compati- mation. ABCD refers to the ABCD matrix. ble with “correct” behavior, as defined by a consistency model, such as sequential con- ABCD matrix the matrix containing sistency. ABCD parameters. See ABCD parameters. (2) in an accelerator, terminating the ac- celeration process prematurely, either by in- ABCD parameters a convenient mathe- hibiting the injection mechanism or by re- matical form that can be used to characterize moving circulating beam to some sort of c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 29. dump. This is generally done to prevent in- absolute sensitivity denoted S(y, x), is jury to some personnel or damage to acceler- simply the partial derivative of y with respect ator components. to x, i.e., S(y, x) = ∂y/∂x, and is used to establish the relationships between absolute ABR See available bit rate. changes. See sensitivity, sensitivity measure, relative sensitivity, semi-relative sensitivity. absolute address an address within an instruction that directly indicates a location in absolute stability occurs when the net- the program’s address space. Compare with work function H (s) has only left half-plane relative addressing. poles. absolute addressing an addressing mode absorber generic term used to describe where the address of the instruction operand material used to absorb electromagnetic en- in memory is a part of the instruction so that ergy. Generally made of polyurethane no calculation of an effective address by the foam and impregnated with carbon (and fire- CPU is necessary. retardant salts), it is most frequently used to For example, in the Motorola M68000 ar- line the walls, floors and ceilings of anechoic chitecture instruction ADD 5000,D1, a 16-bit chambers to reduce or eliminate reflections word operand, stored in memory at the word from these surfaces. address 5000, is added to the lower word in register D1. The address “5000” is an exam- absorbing boundary condition (ABC) a ple of using the absolute addressing mode. fictitious boundary introduced in differential See also addressing mode. equation methods to truncate the computa- tional space at a finite distance without, in absolute encoder an optical device principle, creating any reflections. mounted to the shaft of a motor consisting of a disc with a pattern and light sources and absorption (1) process that dissipates en- detectors. The combination of light detectors ergy and causes a decrease in the amplitude receiving light depends on the position of the and intensity of a propagating wave between rotor and the pattern employed (typically the an input and output reference plane. Gray code). Thus, absolute position infor- (2) reduction in the number of photons of a mation is obtained. The higher the resolution specific wavelength or energy incident upon required, the larger the number of detectors a material. Energy transferred to the material needed. See also encoder. may result in a change in the electronic struc- ture, or in the relative movement of atoms in absolute moment The pth order absolute the material (vibration or rotation). moment µp of a random variable X is the (3) process by which atoms or molecules expectation of the absolute value of X raised stick to a surface. If a bond is formed, it is to the pth power: termed chemisorption, while the normal case is physisorption. The absorption process pro- µp = E[|X|]p . ceeds due to, and is supported by, the fact that this is a lower energy state. See also central moment, central absolute moment. See also expectation. absorption coefficient (1) in a passive de- vice, the negative ratio of the power absorbed absolute pressure units to measure gas (pabsorbed = pin −pout ) ratioed to the power in pressure in a vacuum chamber with zero be- (pin = pincident − preflected ) per unit length (l), ing a perfect vacuum. Normally referred to usually expressed in units of 1/wavelength or as psia (pounds per square inch absolute). 1/meter. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 30. (2) factor describing the fractional atten- rameter are closest to the parameters of an uation of light with distance traversed in a ideal capacitor. Hence, not only a capaci- medium, generally expressed as an exponen- tance is measured in terms of capacitance (in tial factor, such as k in the function e−kx , resistive ratio arms bridges), but the induc- with units of (length)-1. Also called attenu- tance as well is measured in terms of capac- ation coefficient. itance (Hay and Owen bridges). The AC bridges with ratio arms that are absorption cross section energy ab- tightly coupled inductances allow measure- sorbed by the scattering medium, normal- ment of a very small difference between cur- ized to the wavenumber. It has dimensions rents in these inductances, and this fact is of area. used in very sensitive capacitance transduc- ers. absorption edge the optical wavelength or photon energy corresponding to the sep- AC circuit electrical network in which the aration of valence and conduction bands in voltage polarity and directions of current flow solids; at shorter wavelengths, or higher pho- change continuously, and often periodically. ton energies than the absorption edge, the ab- Thus, such networks contain alternating cur- sorption increases strongly. rents as opposed to direct currents, thereby giving rise to the term. absorption grating (1) a diffraction grating where alternate grating periods are AC coupling a method of connecting two opaque. circuits that allows displacement current to (2) an optical grating characterized by flow while preventing conductive currents. spatially periodic variation in the absorption Reactive impedance devices (e.g., capacitors of light. Absorption gratings are generally and inductive transformers) are used to pro- less efficient than phase gratings. vide continuity of alternating current flow between two circuits while simultaneously absorption optical fiber the amount of blocking the flow of direct current. optical power in an optical fiber captured by defect and impurity centers in the energy AC motor an electromechanical sys- bandgap of the fiber material and lost in the tem that converts alternating current electri- form of longwave infrared radiation. cal power into mechanical power. AC See alternating current. AC plasma display a display that em- AC bridge one of a wide group of ploys an internal capacitive dielectric layer bridge circuits used for measurements of re- to limit the gas discharge current. sistances, inductances, and capacitances, and to provide AC signal in the bridge transducers AC steady-state power the average including resistors, inductors, and capacitors. power delivered by a sinusoidal source to a The Wheatstone bridge can be used with network, expressed as a sinusoidal power supply, and with an AC detector (headphones, oscilloscope), one can P =| V | · | I | cos(θ ) use essentially the same procedure for mea- √ √ surement of resistors as in DC applications. where 2· | V | and 2· | I | are the peak Only a small number of other AC bridges are values, respectively, of the AC steady-state used in modern electric and electronic equip- voltage and current at the terminals. θ rep- ment. A strong selection factor was the fact resents the phase angle by which the voltage that in a standard capacitor the electrical pa- leads the current. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 31. AC/AC converter a power electronics ation error to a constraint on the gain of the device in which an AC input voltage of some open loop system. The relevant equations magnitude, frequency, and number of phases are ea = Ka and Ka = lims→inf ty s 2 q(s), 1 is changed to an AC output with changes to where q(s) is the transfer function model any of the previously mentioned parameters. of the open loop system, including the con- AC/AC converters usually rectify the input troller and the process in cascade, and s is source to a DC voltage and then invert the the Laplace variable. See also position error DC voltage to the desired AC voltage. constant, velocity error constant. AC/DC converter See rectifier. accelerator (1) a positive electrode in a vacuum tube to accelerate emitted electrons AC-DC integrated system a power sys- from its cathode by coulomb force in a de- tem containing both AC and DC transmission sired direction. lines. (2) a machine used to impart large kinetic energies to charged particles such as elec- ACARS aircraft communications ad- trons, protons, and atomic nuclei. The ac- dressing and reporting. A digital commu- celerated particles are used to probe nuclear nications link using the VHF spectrum for or subnuclear phenomena in industrial and two-way transmission of data between an air- medical applications. craft and ground. It is used primarily in civil aviation applications. acceptable delay the voice signal de- lay that results in inconvenience in the voice ACC See automatic chroma control. communication. A typically quoted value is 300 ms. accelerated testing tests conducted at higher stress levels than normal operation but acceptance in an accelerator, it defines in a shorter period of time for the specific how "large" a beam will fit without scrap- purpose to induce failure faster. ing into the limiting aperture of a transport line. The acceptance is the phase-space vol- accelerating power the excess electric ume within which the beam must lie to be power at a synchronous machine unit which transmitted through an optical system with- cannot be transmitted to the load because of out losses. From an experimenters point a short circuit near its terminals. This energy of view acceptance is the phase-space vol- gives rise to increasing rotor angle. ume intercepted by an experimenter’s detec- tor system. acceleration error the final steady dif- ference between a parabolic setpoint and the process output in a unity feedback control acceptor (1) an impurity in a semicon- system. Thus it is the asymptotic error in po- ductor that donates a free hole to the valence sition that arises in a closed loop system that band. is commanded to move with constant acceler- (2) a dopant species that traps electrons, ation. See also position error, velocity error. especially with regard to semiconductors. acceleration error constant a gain Ka access channel a channel in a communi- from which acceleration error ea is read- cations network that is typically allocated for ily determined. The acceleration error con- the purpose of setting up calls or communi- stant is a concept that is useful in the design cation sessions. Typically the users share the of unity feedback control systems, since it access channel using some multiple access transforms a constraint on the final acceler- algorithm such as ALOHA or CSMA. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 32. access control a means of allowing ac- time until the desired data rotates under the cess to an object based on the type of ac- head. (LW) cess sought, the accessor’s privileges, and the owner’s policy. accidental rate the rate of false coinci- dences in the electronic counter experiment access control list a list of items associ- produced by products of the reactions of more ated with a file or other object; the list con- than one beam particle within the time reso- tains the identities of users that are permitted lution of the apparatus. access to the associated file. There is infor- mation (usually in the form of a set of bits) about the types of access (such as read, write, accumulation (1) an increase in the ma- or delete) permitted to the user. jority carrier concentration of a region of semiconductor due to an externally applied access control matrix a tabular repre- electric field. sentation of the modes of access permitted from active entities (programs or processes) accumulator (1) a register in the CPU to passive entities (objects, files, or devices). (processor) that stores one of the operands A typical format associates a row with an ac- prior to the execution of an operation, and tive entity or subject and a column with an into which the result of the operation is object; the modes of access permitted from stored. An accumulator serves as an implicit that active entity to the associated passive en- source and destination of many of the pro- tity are listed in the table entry. cessor instructions. For example, register A of the Intel 8085 is an accumulator. See also access line a communication line that CPU . connects a user’s terminal equipment to a switching node. (2) the storage ring in which successive pulses of particles are collected to create a access mechanism a circuit board or an particle beam of reasonable intensity for col- integrated chip that allows a given part of a liding beams. computer system to access another part. This is typically performed by using a specific ac- achievable rate region for a multiple cess protocol. terminal communications system, a set of rate-vectors for which there exist codes such access protocol a set of rules that estab- that the probability of making a decoding er- lishes communication among different parts. ror can be made arbitrarily small. See also These can involve both hardware and soft- capacity region, multiple access channel. ware specifications. access right permission to perform an achromatic the quality of a transport line operation on an object, usually specified as or optical system where particle momentum the type of operation that is permitted, such has no effect on its trajectory through the sys- as read, write, or delete. Access rights can tem. In an achromatic device or system, the be included in access control lists, capability output beam displacement or divergence (or lists, or in an overall access control matrix. both) is independent of the input beam’s mo- mentum. If a system of lenses is achromatic, access time the total time needed to re- all particles of the same momentum will have trieve data from memory. For a disk drive equal path lengths through the system. this is the sum of the time to position the read/write head over the desired track and the ACI See adjacent channel interference. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 33. acknowledge (1) a signal which indicates another signal in a second cell, or with fixed that some operation, such as a data transfer, signals on a mask. has successfully been completed. (2) to detect the successful completion of acousto-optic deflector device device an operation and produce a signal indicating where acousto-optic interaction deflects the the success. incident beam linearly as a function of the input frequency of the RF signal driving the acoustic attenuation the degree of am- device. plitude suppression suffered by the acous- tic wave traveling along the acousto-optic acousto-optic device descriptor of medium. acousto-optic cells of any design; generally describes a cell plus its transducer struc- acoustic laser a laser (or maser) in which ture(s), and may encompass either bulk, the amplified field consists of soundwaves or guided-wave, or fiber-optic devices. phonons rather than electromagnetic waves; phonon laser or phaser. acousto-optic effect the interaction of light with sound waves and in particular the acoustic memory a form of circulating modification of the properties of a light wave memory in which information is encoded in by its interactions with an electrically con- acoustic waves, typically propagated through trollable sound wave. See also Brillouin a trough of mercury. Now obsolete. scattering. acoustic velocity the velocity of the acousto-optic frequency excisor similar acoustic signal traveling along the acousto- to an acousto-optic spectrum analyzer where optic medium. the RF temporal spectrum is spatially and se- lectively blocked to filter the RF signal feed- acoustic wave a propagating periodic ing the Bragg cell. pressure wave with amplitude representing either longitudinal or shear particle displace- ment within the wave medium; shear waves acousto-optic instantaneous spectrum an- are prohibited in gaseous and liquid media. alyzer in Bragg mode device in which the temporal spectrum of a radio frequency sig- acousto-optic cell a device consisting of nal is instantaneously and spatially resolved a photo-elastic medium in which a propa- in the optical domain using a Fourier trans- gating acoustic wave causes refractive-index form lens and a RF signal-fed Bragg cell. changes, proportional to acoustic wave am- plitude, that act as a phase grating for diffrac- acousto-optic modulator a device that tion of light. See also Bragg cell. modifies the amplitude or phase of a light wave by means of the acousto-optic effect. acousto-optic channelized radiometer See acousto-optic instantaneous spectrum acousto-optic processor an optical sys- analyzer in Bragg mode. tem that incorporates acousto-optic cells con- figured to perform any of a number of math- acousto-optic correlator an optical sys- ematical functions such as Fourier trans- tem that consists of at least one acousto- form, ambiguity transforms, and other time- optic cell, imaging optics between cells and frequency transforms. fixed masks, and photodetectors whose out- puts correspond to the correlation function of acousto-optic scanner a device that uses the acoustic wave signal within one cell with an acoustic wave in a photoelastic medium c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 34. to deflect light to different angular positions acousto-optics the area of study of in- based on the frequency of the acoustic wave. teraction of light and sound in media, and its utilization in applications such as signal acousto-optic space integrating convolver processing and filtering. device that is the same as an acousto-optic space integrating convolver except that it im- ACP See adjacent channel power. plements the convolution operation. acquisition (1) in digital communica- acousto-optic space integrating correlator tions systems, the process of acquiring syn- an acousto-optic implementation of the cor- chronism with the received signal. There relation function where two RF signals are are several levels of acquisitions, and for a spatially impressed on two diffracted beams given communication system several of them from Bragg cells, and a Fourier transform have to be performed in the process of setting lens spatially integrates these beams onto a up a communication link: frequency, phase, point sensor that generates a photo current spreading code, symbol, frame, etc. representing the correlation function. (2) in analog communications systems, the process of initially estimating signal pa- acousto-optic spectrum analyzer an rameters (for example carrier frequency off- acousto-optic processor that produces at a set, phase offset) required in order to begin photodetector output array the Fourier de- demodulation of the received signal. composition of the electrical drive signal of (3) in vision processing, the process by an acousto-optic device. which a scene (physical phenomenon) is converted into a suitable format that al- lows for its storage or retrieval. See also acousto-optic time integrating convolver synchronization. same as the acousto-optic time integrating correlator, except implements the signal con- across the line starter a motor starter that volution operation. See acousto-optic time applies full line voltage to the motor to start. integrating correlator. This is also referred to as “hard starting” be- cause it causes high starting currents. Larger acousto-optic time integrating correlator motors require reduced voltage or “soft start- an acousto-optic implementation of the cor- ing.” relation function where two RF signals are spatially impressed on two diffracted beams ACRR See adjacent channel reuse ratio. from Bragg cells, and a time integrating sen- sor generates the spatially distributed corre- ACSR aluminum cable, steel-reinforced. lation results. A kind of overhead electric power conduc- tor made up of a central stranded steel cable acousto-optic triple product processor overlaid with strands of aluminum. signal processor that implements a triple inte- gration operation using generally both space ACT See anticomet tail. and time dimensions. action potential a propagating change in acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) an the conductivity and potential across a nerve acousto-optic device that selects specific op- cell’s membrane; a nerve impulse in common tical frequencies from a broadband optical parlance. beam, depending on the number and frequen- cies of acoustic waves generated in the de- activation function in an artificial neural vice. network, a function that maps the net output c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 35. of a neuron to a smaller set of values. This active load a transistor connected so as to set is usually [0, 1]. Typical functions are the replace a function that would conventionally sigmoid function or singularity functions like be performed by a passive component such the step or ramp. as a resistor, capacitor, or inductor. active contour a deformable template active load-pull measurement a mea- matching method that, by minimizing the surement method where transfer characteris- energy function associated with a specific tics of a device can be measured by electri- model (i.e., a specific characterization of the cally changing the load impedance seen from shape of an object), deforms the model in the device. In an active load-pull measure- conformation to salient image features. ment, the load impedance is defined by using an output signal from the device and an in- jected signal from the output of the device. active device a device that can convert energy from a DC bias source to a signal at active logic a digital logic that operates an RF frequency. Active devices are required all of the time in the active, dissipative region in oscillators and amplifiers. of the electronic amplifiers from which it is constructed. The output of such a gate is active filter (1) a filter that has an en- determined primarily by the gate and not by ergy gain greater than one, that is, a filter that the load. outputs more energy than it absorbs. (2) a form of power electronic converter active magnetic bearing a magnetic designed to effectively cancel harmonic cur- bearing that requires input energy for stable rents by injecting currents that are equal and support during operation. Generally imple- opposite to, or 180◦ out of phase with, the tar- mented with one or more electromagnets and get harmonics. Active filters allow the out- controllers. put current to be controlled and provide sta- ble operation against AC source impedance active mixer a mixer that uses three termi- variations without interfering with the system nal devices such as FET rather than diodes as impedance. nonlinear element. One advantage of active The main type of active filter is the series mixers is that they can provide conversion type in which a voltage is added in series with gain. an existing bus voltage. The other type is the parallel type in which a current is injected active network an electrical network into the bus and cancels the line current har- that contains some solid state devices such as monics. bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) or metal- oxide-silicon field effect transistors (FETs) operating in their active region of the volt- active impedance the impedance at the age vs. current characteristic. To ensure that input of a single antenna element of an ar- these devices are operating in the active re- ray with all the other elements of the array gion, they must be supplied with proper DC excited. biasing. active layer See active region. active neuron a neuron with a non-zero output. Most neurons have an activation active learning a form of machine learn- threshold. The output of such a neuron has ing where the learning system is able to in- zero output until this threshold is reached. teract with its environment so as to affect the generation of training data. active power See real power. c 2000 by CRC Press LLC
  • 36. active power line conditioner a device ACTV See advanced compatible tele- which senses disturbances on a power line vision. and injects compensating voltages or currents to restore the line’s proper waveform. acuity sharpness. The ability of the eye to discern between two small objects closely active RC filter an electronic circuit spaced, as on a display. made up of resistors, capacitors, and opera- tional amplifiers that provide well-controlled adaptability the capability of a system to linear frequency-dependent functions, e.g., change to suit the prevailing conditions, espe- low-, high-, and bandpass filters. cially by automatic adjustment of parameters through some initialization procedure or by active redundancy a circuit redundancy training. technique that assures fault-tolerance by de- adaptation layer control layer of a mul- tecting the existence of faults and performing tilayer controller, situated above the direct some action to remove the faulty hardware, control layer and — usually — also above the e.g., by standby sparing. optimizing control layer, required to intro- duce changes into the decision mechanisms active region semiconductor material of the layer (or layers) below this adaptation doped such that electrons and/or holes are layer; for example adaptation layer of the in- free to move when the material is biased. In dustrial controller may be responsible for ad- the final fabricated device, the active regions justing the model used by the optimizing con- are usually confined to very small portions of trol and the decision rules used by the direct the wafer material. (regulation) control mechanisms. active-high (1) a logic signal having its adapter a typical term from personal asserted state as the logic ONE state. computers. A circuit board containing the (2) a logic signal having the logic ONE interface toward an additional peripheral de- state as the higher voltage of the two states. vice. For example, a graphic adapter (inter- face boards like EGA, VGA, CGA), a game active-low (1) a logic signal having its controller, a SCSI controller, a PCMCI inter- asserted state as the logic ZERO state. face, etc. (2) a logic signal having its logic ONE adaptive algorithm (1) a method for ad- state as the lower voltage of the two states; justing the parameters of a filter to satisfy an inverted logic. objective (e.g., minimize a cost function). (2) an algorithm whose properties are ad- actuator (1) a transducer that converts justed continuously during execution with electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy to the objective of optimizing some criterion. effective motion. For example in robots, ac- tuators set the manipulator in motion through adaptive antenna antenna, or array of actuation of the joints. Industrial robots antennas, whose performance characteristics are equipped with motors that are typically can be adapted by some means; e.g., the electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. See also pattern of an array can be changed when industrial robot. the phasing of each of the array elements is (2) in computers, a device, usually me- changed. chanical in nature, that is controlled by a computer, e.g., a printer paper mechanism or adaptive array an array that adapts itself a disk drive head positioning mechanism. to maximize the reception of a desired sig- c 2000 by CRC Press LLC