1. Technical academic writing differs across cultures, but for engineering papers the differences are minor as the genre is formulaic, data-centered, and uses graphical elements like equations.
2. Some Asian cultures place more emphasis on rhetorical devices and citation which are seen as marks of erudition. Confucian cultures also accept claims from authority without full analysis and prefer extended sentences.
3. Learners may over-emphasize generating text from their own grammar knowledge rather than working from language models, and tend to link everything together without analyzing logical connections. Effective interventions include using editors, information designers, and logicians as instructors.
Academic writing: cultural obstacles and interventions
1. Technical academic writing in Asia:
obstacles and interventions
Lawrie Hunter
Kochi University of Technology
Japan
http://lawriehunter.com
2. No need to take notes :^o
You can download this powerpoint
(and many more)
from
http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/
or
lawriehunter.com
or
slideshare.net/rolenzo
3. Dimensions Island of Shikoku
of
Media Object Compehensibility
KUT
Lawrie Hunter
Kochi University of Technology
http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/
3
4. Background
1971~ 1987 Technical rewriter, Techwrite,
Maths instructor Tokyo
Guidance counsellor 1990~ Freelance academic rewriter,
Maths teacher trainer Japan
1996~ Super translation team
1990~ Assoc. professor, English Japanese construction ministry
1993~ Assoc. professor, English, World Water Forum Kyoto
intercultural communication Advertising industry
Major universities
1996~ founder, KUT
1998~ Referee, CATaC confs
EFL CALL
1999~ Editorial team, JALTCALL confs
EFL Critical thinking
2004~ Reviewer, Web Based
ESP technical writing
Communities, CALL, IJLT, etc.
EAP for engineers
5. Hunter
the style dossier approach
KUT scenario RATIONALE
Since 2002: Japanese government scholarships
for foreign students in technical doctoral programmes.
! the foreign students are required to publish
2+ refereed papers and a dissertation in English
demand for new technical academic writing courses
6. Hunter
the style dossier approach
KUT scenario RATIONALE
Applicants are screened for academic English knowledge and skill,
BUT
1. There are no extensions in the 3 year programme
2. Research topics are highly granular.
3. Technical RP writing genres are highly granular.
further L2 acquisition
to the point of near-independence
during the study period
is NOT a realistic strategy.
Need for a pragmatic approach.
8. Design Scenario
Hayles 2012 cites Hamilton 1991:
Percent of science papers never cited
within 5 years:
____%
Percent of humanities papers never cited
within 5 years:
____%
9. Design Scenario
Hayles 2012 cites Hamilton 1991:
Percent of science papers never cited
within 5 years:
22.4%
Percent of humanities papers never cited
within 5 years:
93.1%
10. The TAW* DESIGN
CONSTRAINTS
CURRICULUM
internal external
duration focus trialled
2 journal
LEARNER 3-year,
publications
PROFILE no extension
yielding 50% yielding 50% required
1 year NON-
autonomous autonomous
45 hours grammar
writers writers
demands necessitates
necessitates
EDITOR / ENGLI S H S KI LLS EAP
MENTOR constrained to confined to
process P UB LI S HAB I LI TY TAW*
S KI LLS
argument
construction / information
analysis structures
conciseness
information
rhetorical organizations
structures
readability
and devices
*Technical Academic Writing,
L. Hunter.
Minami no kaze Press 2012 *Technical Academic Writing
11. Technical academic writing in Asia:
obstacles and interventions
How does academic writing differ in EAP
various cultures?
1
cultural
variation
How do we set global standards?
2 global
standards
Is there a problem of English as the
lingua franca of academia?
3 ELF:
problems?
12. Technical academic writing in Asia:
cultural
variation
obstacles and interventions
How does academic writing differ in various cultures?
For engineers, not so much.
TAW* is
1. formulaic
2. data-centered
3. graphically scaffolded (equations, graphs, charts)
*TAW = technical academic writing
13. cultural
variation
Asian culture: perceptions
1. Some Asian cultures (esp. former British
colonies) tend towards more use of rhetorical
devices.
2. Rhetorical devices seen as a mark of erudition
14. cultural
variation
Asian culture: perceptions
Confucian cultures
1. Citation:
a. more frequently
b. more valued ['good quoting' is a sign of erudition]
2. Acceptance of authority
-tendency to overclaim others' findings
in summary/abstraction exercises
3. Admiration of extended sentences
-difficulty with orchestration of
own logical structures
15. cultural
variation
LEARNER CULTURE: production techniques
1. Tendency to over-emphasize generation of text
from own grammar knowledge
tendency to undervalue working from language models.
2. Tendency to link everything.
16. cultural
variation
201X Culture
-a recent development
1
17. cultural
variation
201X CULTURE: life in a low-text world
Twitter! SMS! Blogs! Like! Unfriend!
Intensifying problems:
1. Excessive terseness
2. "Optimism" about communication (whatever)
3. Step skipping in persuasion
4. Life is troublesome = can't be bothered
18. Possible approaches
2. layer view
most TAW
grammar/surface features programs
work here
usage/convention
most TAW
writers start
document format writing here
(simulacrum
argument of argument)
supporting claim
RP language
research
generation
design/results should start
here
18
19. TAW best practice
Niche language Writing work
acquisition to focusing on
near-independence argument and
in TAW info-structures
Training in
the use of
Preparation
language models:
for work with
Style Dossier
an editor
Preparation
for work with
a mentor
19
22. cultural
variation
Interventions
1. editor as instructor
2. information designer as instructor
3. logician as instructor
4. learner as client
22
23. cultural
variation
Intervention 1:
editor as
instructor
23
24. cultural
variation
1. Editor as instructor
a. Tasks: analysis, repair => demonstrate
b. Rewrite tasks to perfection
c. Use checklists of own LF* problems
d. Style dossier
* language features, lexical items crucial to a given
communication move in TAW
25. Dossier collection tasks
cultural
variation
A. Research writing register (FAE) models
B. Informal discussion register models
C. Glossary
26. Reframing:
cultural
client:advisor => user:consultant variation
Language knowledge Language skills Task modes
Write-edit-rewrite
(uncoded to coded)
Language structures vs. Using text structures
information structures Summarizing Information structure
Technical Data commentary mapping
Writing II Text structures: G-S, P-P-S, .... Using lexical units to show
info structures Swales & Feak exercises
Registers Editing through a checklist
Dossier collection work
Language features in RP
Ambiguity sections
Optimizing readability Write-edit-rewrite
Readability (stress position, topic -subject-verb proximity (uncoded to coded)
position) -single function for 1 unit of
discourse
Research Readability work
-emphasis at syntactic closure
Writing Rhetorical moves: points
framing, relationships, cohesion Swales & Feak exercises
Avoiding ambiguity
RP structure Creating, maintaining
cohesion Dossier manipulation
RP lexical units Use, application of register
knowledge
27. Reframing:
cultural
client:advisor => user:consultant variation
Language knowledge Language skills Task modes
Write-edit-rewrite
(uncoded to coded)
Language structures vs. Using text structures
information structures
Claim: when we add dossier
Summarizing work, no additional knowledge
Information structure
Technical Data commentary
Text structures: G-S, P-P-S, ....
or skillsmapping
are required
Writing II Using lexical units to show
info structures Swales & Feak exercises
Registers Editing through a checklist
Dossier collection work
Language features in RP
Ambiguity sections
Optimizing readability Write-edit-rewrite
Readability (stress position, topic -subject-verb proximity (uncoded to coded)
position) -single function for 1 unit of
discourse
Research Readability work
-emphasis at syntactic closure
Writing Rhetorical moves: points
framing, relationships, cohesion Swales & Feak exercises
Avoiding ambiguity
RP structure Creating, maintaining
cohesion Dossier manipulation
RP lexical units Use, application of register
knowledge
28. cultural
variation
From the editor/mentor POV:
1. Reviewer comments on language aspects of RPs
are almost always vague.
a. mostly blanket comments
b. few examples of problem types.
2. Reviewer feedback does not include
confirmation
of success vis a vis language features.
29. cultural
variation
From the editor/mentor POV:
1. "Style dossier" vetting of RPs as language models
reveals a number of papers with significant problems
with grammar, register and readability.
2. Journals compete heavily for significant content,
and may overlook English problems when the content
is significant and well data-ed – or when the author is
well-known.
3. As well, multi-author papers are often patchwork.
30. cultural
Editor POV intervention variation
Men must be taught as if you taught them not,
And things unknown propos'd as things forgot.
Pope, "Essay on Criticism" Pt. III. L. 15.
31. cultural
variation
Intervention 2:
information
designer as
instructor
31
32. cultural
variation
2. Information designer as instructor
a. teach pattern recognition / metalanguage
(naive, e.g. "looking at" marked parallel text)
b. coded feedback on tasks
c. non-linguistic approach to structure related LFs
d. Novakian concept mapping (relations highlighted)
e. Style dossier as essential, central
33. INFAE FAE
cultural
variation
Artemether is one of the most effective as instructor is one of the most effective
2.in the artemisinin group most
Information designer Artemether
drugs drugs in the artemisinin group most
commonly used in malaria cocktail s, known commonly used in malaria cocktails known
as ACTs.
a. teach pattern recognition / as ACTs. metalanguage
(naive, e.g. "looking at"
“In most cases, if resistance is observed in marked parallel tube usually leads to
“Resistance in a test text)
laboratory studies, resistance in patients resistance at some stage down the line in
will eventually be observed ,” study leader patients,” study leader Sanjeev Krishna
Sanjeev Krishna told AFP of the findings told AFP of the findings published in
published in BioMed Central publishers’ BioMed Central publishers’ Malaria
Malaria Journal. Journal.
“The question is how soon resistance will
occur.” “The question is how far down the line.”
The study did not examine the patients’ The study did not look at the patients’
response to drugs, and the implications actual response to drugs, and “what that
regarding treatment failure have not yet might mean in terms of treatment failure,
been investigated. That is an urgent topic we have yet to assess. We don’t know.”
for further study.
A statement said the resistance was caused
The data suggest that the resistance was by genetic mutations in a parasite
34. cultural
variation
2. Information designer as instructor
CODED FEEDBACK mentor feedback marks:
b. coded feedback on tasks agr
awk
mistake with subject-verb agreement
A phrase or sentence is awkward (awkward = not smooth)
cas This language is casual, not formal.
comb Combine sentences.
conj This is a conjunction (don’t start a sentence with it).
gr grammar mistake
non-std this phrasing is not standard
par mistake with parallel structure
redundant (some information has been repeated,
red
e.g. The temperature was also recorded as well.
pronoun reference problem (what is the reference? is it correct
ref form?)
rep repetitive
rephr Rephrase this.
run-on This is a run-on sentence; it's too long to be readable.
sp spelling mistake
S-V The subject and verb in a sentence do not agr ee in some way.
You have used the wrong verb tense (past/present/future)
tense
e.g. Yesterday I am going to Tokushima.
vag This phrasing is vague or ambiguous.
Change from the passive voice to active voice, or vice versa.
voice e.g. The ball was hit by the batter. ('voice' means change to
“The batter hit the ball.”)
windy This writing is run-on, it could and should be much shorter.
word Find a better word for your meaning.
Add something here (often an article).
verb Add a verb here.
35. cultural
variation
LEARNER CULTURE: production techniques
Rhetorical conflation
1. Logical narrative
... in order to prove...
... compared....
2. Reseach Paper narrative (formulaic, surface marked)
3. Claim narrative (argument)
[The above 3 forms are not differentiated in the learners' experience.]
36. cultural
variation
Editor POV
-antidote to rhetorical conflation
Teach discourse analysis as information analysis.
-learning to produce a language is largely a matter of
actively hearing it*. This calls for appealing, attractive,
"cool" input. Be shameless!
*and not analyzing it
37. cultural
variation
Core content Background Persuasion
Rhetorical
structure
Information
organization
Information
structures
lawrie hunter
38. cultural
variation
Core content Background Persuasion
lawrie hunter
39. cultural
variation
Rhetorical
structure
Information
organization
Information
structures
lawrie hunter
40. cultural
variation
Background
Central message
information
Argument layer Target content discard
Knowledge structure layer avoid discard
40
41. cultural
variation
Structure Node content Link type
Argument Rhetorical relations
Independent clauses
structure (e.g. argument)
Knowledge Nouns Attribute, compare, classify,
structure Noun phrases sequence, cause-effect
41
42. cultural
variation
Intervention 3:
logician as
instructor
42
43. cultural
variation
3. logician as instructor
a. macro view:
-argument
-rhetorical devices
-logic links
b. micro view:
-language features impacting on TAW moves
-conventions
44. cultural
variation
Learner culture: "whatever"
Tendency when reading to ignore markers of
info-organization,
info-structures,
rhetorical devices
-results in misuse of markers when writing
45. From the editor/mentor POV:
Learners tend to miss steps in argument chains.
E.g. "Ms. Walter's neighbor heard her smoke
alarm sounding. He knocked on the door, but
there was no answer. He called the police and the
fire department. The police arrived first, and they
knocked the door down."
Why did the police knock the door down?
-common: incomplete chains of argument
46. cultural
variation
From the editor/mentor POV:
Teach pattern recognition:
e.g. find all the logic links in this abstract
e.g. find all the sentences without logic links
47. cultural
variation
From the editor/mentor POV:
In informal learner writing about own research:
general-to-specific takes the form:
This reflects:
a. the template nature of the TAW RP
b. that the RP format is a metaphor for argument
48. cultural
variation
From the editor/mentor POV:
Impact: this results in conference presentation structure:
-which is argument-wise a failure in a paper:
But what would be better?
Toulmin => modified Toulmin => Cmap discourse
49. cultural
variation
Intervention 4:
learner as
client
49
50. cultural
variation
4. learner as client
a. Writing center:
DO edit student writing
-but with coded feedback
-clients must know curriculum
b. WC emphasis on learning
-only edit small chunks, to perfection
-learning in chunk x applied to chunk x+1
51. cultural
variation
201X Culture
-a recent development
52. cultural
variation
201X CULTURE: life in a low-text world
Twitter! SMS! Blogs! Like! Unfriend!
Intensifying problems:
1. Excessive terseness
2. "Optimism" about communication (whatever)
3. Step skipping in persuasion
4. Life is troublesome = can't be bothered
53. cultural
variation
LEARNER CULTURE: self-perception
View of self as static vis a vis language
View of self as externally manipulated
54. Editor POV: self-perception
Class orientation handout
SSP students have three years to publish two academic research papers and write a PhD
dissertation. (Please note that a paper and a dissertation require different kinds of
writing.)
There are several strategies for EAP students to produce acceptable research papers:
1. Become a very good writer of academic English and write your own very good papers
without help.
2. Become a pretty good writer of academic English, and get a native speaker to check
your grammar.
3. Become a better, but still weak writer of academic English, and get a native speaker to
do a complete rewrite for you.
4. Do not learn to write academic English well, and find a native speaker to 'ghost-write'
your paper for you.
5. Steal parts of other researchers' papers and combine them to make your own paper.
Which strategies will work for you?
55. Editor POV: self-perception
Self-assess strategy tool
Entry Setting Final user success
Independent writer
Strong enough
grammar knowledge Model-using independent
and composition skill writer
time constraints
Some Model-using aided writer
grammar knowledge latent development
and composition skill
Heavily aided writer
minor/no
Insufficient development
Ongoing mentored writer
grammar knowledge
and composition skill
Ghost-written writer
56. Editor POV: self-perception
Entry Settin g Final user success
1. In this kind of work, first the 'user' must know Strong enough Independent writer
grammar knowledge and
-the tools and objects involved composition skill Model-using independent
-how to talk about them. time constraints
writer
Some
grammar knowledge and Model-using aided writer
latent development
composition skill
Heavily aided writer
2. Second, time and again Insufficient
minor/no developme n t
the user must articulate anew his/her course grammar knowledge and Ongoing mentored writer
composition skill
through the strategy network Ghost-written writer
from entry to final user success.
3. This ongoing rearticulation consists of
-self observation of success and time constraints
-calculation of learning objective achievement probability*.
4. Native rewriter resource availability/affordability are also key factors in deciding
strategy.
*Not everyone will learn to write 'from scratch' well
and even those who could learn to do so
may not have sufficient short-term (or even long-term) time.
57. cultural
variation
Editor POV: self assessment
Degree of mastery
1. awareness of a language feature (LF)
2. articulate awareness of a LF
(can define, give example, identify)
3. evaluative awareness
(can identify LF problems;
can assess LF correctness)
4. editorial
(can repair/refine LF instances)
(can apply to problem solving where LF not present)
[Forms 1~4 are not differentiated in learners' experience.]
58. cultural
variation
Learner culture: self-management
I can't!
Tendency to accept that independent successful
writing performance is personally impossible.
Deadline: tomorrow!
Tendency to underestimate writing process time.
Hope for the best!
Tendency to finally 'just send' the paper.
60. How do we set global standards? EAP
In TAW the standards are already there,
but they are not linguistic standards. 1
cultural
variation
2 global
standards
TAW standards hinge on quality of
findings and accessibility of argument.
3 ELF:
problems?
61. Is there a problem of English as the EAP
lingua franca of academia?
1
cultural
variation
2 global
standards
3 ELF:
problems?
62. ELF:
cultural
ELF: a problem that will go away? problems?
variation
• McKnight history of RP
• Robot scientist: future of RP / argument
• Kowalski: computational linguistics as future
of argument BY HUMANS
• Hayles' technogenesis and the evolution from
content orientation to problem orientation.
63. Daunting: robot scientist:
ontology-based readability
Work on ontology-based research writing * :
reforming how scientific research is written/read.
“Use of Natural Language is a great hindrance
when using computers to store and analyse data
hence the growing importance of text-mining.
We argue that the content of scientific papers
should increasingly be expressed in formal languages.
Is writing a scientific paper closer to
writing poetry or a computer program?”
EXPO: An Ontology of Scientific Research. Ross D. King & Larisa N. Soldatova
http://www-tsujii.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/jw-tmnlpo/RossKing.pdf 63
64. Daunting:
ontology-based readability
EXPO: An Ontology of Scientific Research. Ross D. King & Larisa N. Soldatova
http://www-tsujii.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/jw-tmnlpo/RossKing.pdf 64
65. Daunting:
ontology-based readability
EXPO* and the Robot Scientist
EXPO: An Ontology of Scientific Research. Ross D. King & Larisa N. Soldatova
http://www-tsujii.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/jw-tmnlpo/RossKing.pdf 65
66. Daunting:
ontology-based readability
EXPO* and the Robot Scientist
Work on ontology-based research writing * :
reforming how scientific research is written/read.
Can humans now experience knowledge differently,
thanks to machine interface work,
i.e. through a formal language imposed for the machine’s sake?
Will this reform how we read? how we think?
What about LOT, the language of thought?
EXPO: An Ontology of Scientific Research. Ross D. King & Larisa N. Soldatova
http://www-tsujii.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/jw-tmnlpo/RossKing.pdf 66
68. References
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