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Food and Beverage Production, First Semester

Food and Beverage Production

Diploma
In Hotel & Hospitality Management
Subject Code-HM-11

School of Distance Education
Karnataka State Open University, Karnataka

Compiled & Printed by ECDL Educations Private Ltd.

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Copyright 2012, Karnataka State Open University
All Rights Reserved
Compiled and Printed
By
ECDL Educations Private Limited
For,
School of Distance Education
Karnataka State Open University


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Preface
Food is an essential part of human existence, as we all have heard of
the same old story of cooking, after the discovery of Fire. But, with advent
of Eating out in Hotels, restaurants, and the modernization has brought
a big change in the eating habit of Humans.
Today’s Food business is billion dollar industry, and with demands
on the increase, it needs more skilled and technically educated persons.
We have put across the latest developments in the food & food
Industry, which would help you to gain the excellence in achieving
success in the field of Food & Beverage Production
ECDL…


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CONTENTS
BLOCK –I
UNIT
1.

2.

3.

4.

UNIT
5

6.

7.

8.

UNIT
9.

10.

Topic
Aims &
Objectives of
cooking food

Contents
1.1 Foundation ingredients, Raising agents
1.2 Methods of Cooking, Salt- Flavoring and Seasonings
1.3 Washing, peeling, Scrapping, cutting of vegetables
1.4 Method of mixing foods, methods of cooking foods
Stock & Sauces 2.1 Meaning, uses, ) Types of stock
2.2 Uses of stock, Basic preparation method
2.3 Sauces, Thickening agents used in sauces
2.4 Mother sauce, Derivatives of Mother sauces
Salami,
3.1 Meaning of Salami, ingredients of salami
Sausages,
3.2 Manufacturing of Salami, varieties
3.3 Sausages
3.4 Types of Sausages
Commodities
4.1 Cereals, ) Types of Cereals
4.2 Pulses, Types of pulses
4.3 Yoghurt, Varieties of Yoghurt
4.4 Cream, Types of Cream
BLOCK –II
Topic
Contents
Kitchen
5.1 Kitchen equipment‘s
equipment
5.2 Large equipment, mechanical equipment.
5.3 Utensils & small equipment
5.4 Cooking fuels
Kitchen
6.1 The type of establishment
organizations
6.2 Kitchen Brigade in star grade hotel
6.3 Duties and responsibilities of kitchen staff
6.4 Modern Kitchen organization.
Herbs, Spices,
7.1 Herbs & its uses.
condiments
7.2 Varieties of Herbs
7.3 Meaning of spices, condiments and uses
7.4 Varieties of Spices & condiments
Sandwiches
8.1 sandwiches
8.2 Types of Sandwiches
8.3 Types of Spread & filling
8.4 Preparation of Sandwich
BLOCK –III
Topic
Contents
Vegetable,
9.1 Vegetables, Types of Vegetables
Fruit & nuts
9.2 Cooking of Vegetables
9.3 Fruits, Types of Fruits
9.4 Nuts, Variety of Nuts
Hors d‘ oeuvre 10. 1 Introduction Hors d‘oeuvre
10.2 Types of Hors d‘oeuvre


Page No.
9
10-12
13-14
15-16
19
20-22
23-24
25-26
29
30
31
32
34
35-37
38-39
40-41
Page No.
47
48-49
50
51-52
54
55
56-57
58
60
61-62
63-64
65
67
68
69
70
Page No.
75
76-79
80-83
84-87
89
90-91

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11.

12.

UNIT
13.

14.

15.

16.

10.3 Canapés, Snack food , Dumpling
10.4 Recipes of Hors d‘ oeuvre
Soups
11.1 Soups,
11.2 Types of soups
11.3 Thick soup, thin soup
11.4 Garnishing of Soups
Fish , Chicken 12.1 Classification, cuts, Selection, cooking of fish
& Egg cookery 12.2 Chicken- Selection procedures, cuts, and preparation
12.3 Introduction to egg cookery, Structure of an egg
12. 4 Selection of egg, Uses of egg in cookery
BLOCK –IV
Topic
Contents
Butchery
13.1 Meat, Mutton & Lamb, Beef & Veal, cuts
13.2 Game, By region
13.3 Cooking of game birds or animals
13.4 Meaning of fillet, steak sirloin steak. Bacon, ham, gammon
International 14.1 Chinese cuisine-characteristics, ingredients used
Cuisines
14.2 Thai cuisine: Characteristics, ingredients used,
14.3 Italian cuisine: Characteristics, ingredients used
14.4 Arabic cuisine: characteristics, ingredients used
Bakery
15.1 Equipment‘s, Identification, Uses and handling
Ingredients - Qualitative and quantitative measures
15.2 Hot & Cold Desserts
15.3 Bread making, Cakes, cookies
15.4 Indian Sweets
Storage &
16.1 Food storage
Reheating
16.2 Storage life of foods
16.3 Various methods of food storage
16.4 Rechauffe or reheating of food


92-93
94
96
97
98
99
101-102
103-104
105-106
107
Page No.
113
114-115
116
117
119
120-121
122-123
124
126-127
128-130
131-134
135-138
140
141
142
143

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UNIT-1
AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD
CONTENTS
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Foundation Ingredients-Fats, Oils & their uses
1.3 Raising Agents-Their uses & types
1.4 Sweetening Agents
1.5 Salt & uses
1.6 Thickening Agents
1.7 Flavoring & Seasoning
1.8 Preparation of Ingredients
1.9 Cutting of Vegetables
1.10 Method of mixing food
1.11 Method of cooking food
1.12 Lesson Summary
1.13 Key Words
1.14 Questions to Solve
1.15 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to demonstrate appropriate skills, and
show an understanding of the following:
◘ Aims and objectives of cooking food
◘ Advantages of cooking food
◘ Cooking materials
◘Food constituents
◘ Effects of cooking food on food constituents
◘ Effects of cooking food on various ingredients
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Cooking is an art through which an unpalatable food is made tastier and above all
facilitate and hasten digestion for human digestive system, to be subsequently
assimilated by body as nutrients & other vitamins. This varies according to the process
of cooking.
Cooking process changes the Texture, color, and adds flavor to the food. To cook
food heat must be introduced. The heat breaks down the cellulose in the plant, softens
tissues in the meat, transform and blends flavors within
the food, destroys bacteria and makes food suitable for
human consumption.
The aim or the intention of cooking is to see that the
food is cooked, undergoes a physical change sometimes a
chemical change and whether the food is acceptable or
not.
1.
Cooking helps to make food digestive
2.
Cooking enhance flavor
3.
Cooking partly sterilizes food


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4.
Cooking makes food more palatable
5.
Cooking makes food item attractive in appearance
6.
Cooking introduces variety
7.
Cooking helps to provide a balance meal.
1.2 FOUNDATION INGREDIENTS- FATS, OILS AND THEIR USES
Fats and oils are nutritionally useful and an economical source of energy.
They also contribute to the flavor and texture of food. They are popularly used
as the medium of cooking. Fats are solids at ordinary temperature and melt
when heated and oils are liquids at ordinary temperature.
Various fats used in liquids are:
a.
Lard: pig fat
b.
Suet: fat around kidneys of lamb or beef
c.
Dripping: beef fat
d.
Butter
e.
Ghee
f.
Margarine
g.
Hydrogenated fat
Oils are extracted from:
a.
Coconut
b.
Palm
c.
Olive
d.
Peanuts
e.
Mustard
f.
Corn
g.
Sunflower
Uses of fats and oils
a.
Spreads
b.
Shortenings
c.
Salad dressing
d.
Frying
e.
Tempering
1.3 RAISING AGENTS- THEIR USES AND TYPES
Raising or leavening increases the surface of a batter by creating gas bubbles
which puff up, thus increasing the volume and making it light. The expansion of
these gases during baking increases the volume of the product and gives a
desirable porous structure. The aeration of flour products is effect by the
following.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Biochemical
Chemical
Mechanical
Lamination

:
:
:
:

Yeast
Baking powder
Beating or whisking
Folding or rolling

1.4 SWEETENING AGENTS
Sweetening
Sweetening is used to enhance or improve the combine sensation of order and
flavor of the dish produced. It also adds its own sweetness. Sweetening is
available in various forms.


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a.
Granulated
b.
Fine grained
c.
Powdered
d.
Solution forms
Sugars very in their sweetening quality and are available in following forms:
a.
Granulated sugar
b.
Castor sugar
c.
Icing sugar
d.
Lactose
e.
Cane syrup
f.
Honey
Uses of sweetening
a.
It gives a good flavor
b.
It gives good color
c.
It helps in fermentation
d.
It helps in food preservation
1.5 SALT AND USES.
Salt
It brings out the flavor of other ingredients. Salts are found in two types, i.e.,
rock salt and sea salt. Salts having a distinctive taste make a dish wonderful and
it should be used skillfully because too much of it would spoil the dish. Salt is
available in three forms, i.e., table salt, freezing salt.
Uses of salt
a.
It improve the flavor of the dish
b.
Cauliflower when put in salted water makes the insects come out.
c.
It controls fermentation
d.
It helps in color retention
e.
It helps in preserving items
f.
It is essential for good health.
1.6 THICKENING AGENTS
Thickening and binding agents
The thickening agents are starch, eggs, gelatin, coconut, tamarind, curd, onion
paste, etc. Thickening agents give consistency and palatable for the dish. They also
improve the nutritive value of the dish.
1.7 FLAVORING AND SEASONINGS
Flavoring and seasonings
Spices and herbs give flavorings and seasonings to the dishes. Seasoning should
bring out the natural flavors of main ingredients and should blend with them.
Seasonings have no nutritive value but they give variety to the dishes and have
medicinal value.


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Uses of seasonings and flavorings
a.
Helps in digestion
b.
Used for medicinal purposes
c.
Enhance flavor
d.
Improve appearance
e.
Improve palatability
f.
Acts as preservatives.
1.8 PREPARATIONS OF INGREDIENTS
Many methods are used for food preparations before cooking and they are done
according to the requirements of various dishes. This helps to improve appearance,
texture, flavor and palatability.
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.

14.

Washing
This is necessary to remove the superficial dirt‘. Meat, fish, vegetables and fruits
are washed in cold water before any preparation.
Peeling
Spoiled, solid and inedible portions are removed. Skins of vegetables or fruits
are either peeled or scabbed. The outer layer can be stripped.
Paring
Removing the surface layer, in circular motion by pressure, of a knife-edge all
round the object.
Cutting
Reducing, by means of knives into small pieces.
Chopping
Chopping food item with a chopping knife into small pieces is known as
chopping
Mincing
Cutting into very fine pieces.
Shredding
Cutting into long narrow pieces by means of knife or shredder. E.g.: Cabbage.
Slicing
Cutting into thin pieces but not so fine as shredding. E.g.: Onion
Slitting
Making a slit in the middle lengthwise. E.g.: Ladies finger, Green chilly.
Grating
Reducing to small particles by rubbing on a grater. E.g.; Cheese
Mashing
This is a method of breaking up of soft food with a masher by using pressure.
E.g. Potato
Grinding
Reducing to fragments by crushing or grinding.
Pressing
Separating liquid portions, from solids by using weights or mechanical pressure.
E.g.: Removing water from paneer.
Dripping


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Separating, fat from connective tissues by heat.
1.9 CUTTING OF VEGETABLES
Batons
―Sticks‖ of vegetables around 12mm/½ -inch thick and
up to 7.5cm/3-inches long. Usually cut before cooking.
Brunoise
A very fine dice up to 2mm/¹/12th inch square. Usually
cut before cooking. Often used as a garnish.
Chips/French Fries/Crisps
Chips and Fries are ―sticks‖ of vegetables between 5cm/2-inches and 10cm/4-inches
long and up to 2.5cm/1-inch thick. Crisps are very thin slices no thicker than 6mm/¼inch. Both are cut before cooking and are usually deep fried until crispy.
Chunks
A piece of cut vegetable larger than 3.75cm/1¾-inches. Usually cut before cooking.
Cubes
Pieces of vegetables from 12mm/½ -inch to 36mm/1½-inches square, Can be cut before
or after cooking.
Dice
Pieces of vegetables between 6mm/¼-inch and 12mm/½ -inch square, Can be cut before
or after cooking.
Grated
Thin pieces of vegetables created using a grater. They can be any length depending on
the vegetable used but are always wafer thin.
Julienne
Strips of vegetables usually 3mm/ ⅛- inch square up to 5cm/ 2 inches long standard.
Often a mandolin is used for accuracy. Often used as a garnish.
Mashed
Vegetables which have already been cooked until soft then further broken down with a
fork or masher.
Matchsticks
Thin ―sticks‖ of vegetables no thicker than 6mm/¼-inch square and 5cm/2-inches long.
Paysanne Very thin slices of vegetables no larger than 6mm/¼-inch square. Most often
used as a garnish.
Purée
Vegetables which have usually already been cooked until soft then mashed then made
smooth by rigorous beating or passing through a sieve. With some vegetables a food
processor can be used.
Shred
Vegetables cut into thin strips generally no wider than 6mm/¼-inch, usually done
before cooking.
Slices
Vegetables cut into similar size flat pieces. Can be lengthways or width ways, from
6mm/¼-inch to 2.5cm/1-inch thick.


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Sulfrino Balls
Sulfrino vegetable balls are made with a very small melon scoop, sometimes called a
Parisienne scoop, up to 12mm/½-inch in diameter. Most usually used for garnishes.
1.10 METHOD OF MIXING FOODS
Food preparation often involves the combining and mixing of different foods or food
materials.
1.

2.

3.

5.
6.

7.
8.

9.

Blending
Mixing two or more ingredients thoroughly. E.g. Milk and roux for béchamel
sauce.
Cuttings
Usually this is a process of incorporation of fat in flour and other dry ingredients
with a knife. E.g. Pastry.
Creaming
Softening fat by friction with a spoon usually followed by gradual incorporation
of sugar. Eg: Cake making
Folding
Mixing materials, with a palate knife or wooden spoon by careful lifting and
dropping motion.
Kneading
Manipulating by alternating pressure, with folding and stretching as in kneading
bread.
Marinating
Coating the surface of food materials, which is usually a mixture of oil and acid.
Stirring
Mixing materials with an appropriate tool such as spoon by a circular motion.
E.g. White sauce.
Whipping
Rapid beating with a wire eggbeater or mechanical beater usually to incorporate
air. E.g. Whipping egg whites.

1.11 METHODS OF COOKING FOODS
Various methods of cooking food are:
1.

Boiling
It means immersing the food in a pan of liquid.
Basic rules of boiling
a)
A food should be completely immersed.
b)
The flavor of meat and poultry is enhanced by the addition of herbs and
vegetables to the cooking liquor.
c)
Scum that arises during the boiling must be removed.
d)
Pot liquor, which contains flavor, should not be thrown but should be
used for gravies or sauces.
e)
Fast boiling should be done to green vegetables as it preserves the green
color and prevent excessive loss of vitamins and mineral salt.
f)
Root vegetables should be placed in cold water to boil.


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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

g)
Stocks, soups and sauces should be simmered gently.
h)
Always poach fish and never boil otherwise a fish will breakup.
Poaching
Poaching is cooking gently in water, which is just below boiling point, i.e., 93oC
to 95oC.
Basic rules for poaching
a.
Food items should be completely emerged in the liquid and left in it
through out the cooling process.
b.
As soon as the liquid with the food item being to boil, lowers the
temperature to allow poaching.
c.
Adding vinegar and salt helps in quicker coagulation.
d.
It is important that fresh eggs should be used for poaching.
Steaming
Steaming is cooking by moist heat. Steaming may be direct or indirect. Indirect
steaming is done when the food it placed in a closed pan. Direct steaming is
placing the article in a perforated container or on a covered plate over a saucepan
of water.
Basic rules of steaming
a.
Small items should always be steamed
b.
Vegetables are not suitable for steaming
c.
Steaming should be done by covering the food item by greaseproof
paper.
Stewing
Stewing is gently simmering in a small quantity of water, stock or sauce until the
cut food items are tender and both liquid and food are served together. It is done
in covered saucepan at a low temperature.
Basic rules of stewing
a.
While stewing the liquid should cover the food items.
b.
The liquid should not reach too high a temperature.
Braising
This is a combined method of roasting and stewing. This is usually done in a
pan with a tight fitting lid. It is a long method of cooking. The meat is first
browned in its own fat or small amount of hot fat. This seals the pours and thus
the juices are retained.
Basic rules of braising
a.
Braising pan size should be selected according to the size of food items to
be braised.
b.
It should be done slowly.
c.
Fresh vegetables and herbs should be used.
d.
Items such as meat, poultry and game suitable for braising are those of a
tuff nature.
Roasting
Roasting is cooking of large pieces of meat on a turning spit oven or open fire.
Basically there are four types of roasting.
1.
Pot roasting
2.
Oven roasting
3.
Spit roasting


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7.

8.

9.

10.

4.
Tandoori method
Pot roasting
Cooking is done in a covered pot or pan. Only good quality meats are used for
pot-roasting.
Oven roasting
It is cooking in a roasting tray in an oven by using fat. Good quality meat,
poultry and vegetables are used.
Spit roasting
It is the original form of roasting. It is cooking by direct head basted with fat.
Tandoori method
It is a special type of roasting. Here roasting is done in a tandoori oven which is
made of mud. Coal is used to heat the oven.
Basic rules of Roasting
a)
Meat, poultry, games should be tender and of top quality.
b)
The juices from the process of roasting meat, poultry and game must be
used to make the accompanying gravy.
Grilling
The food is placed on grill bars and subjected to the action of radiated heat,
which could be below or above. The source of heat may be from coal, charcoal,
coke, gas or electricity. The grilling equipment is called salamander.
Basic rules for grilling
a)
Items must be small in size and top quality.
b)
Items should be oiled and seasoned.
c)
Grill bars should be cleaned and oiled
Baking
It is cooking of food by dry heat in an oven.
Basic rules of baking
a)
Food items should be placed in the right position in the oven.
b)
Correct temperature should be maintained according to the baked items.
Frying
It is the process by placing the food item in fat or oil at a sufficiently high
temperature. There are two types of frying.
Deep fry
It is cooking food by immersing it in fat completely. E.g. Vada, Puri, Pakavada.
Shallow fry
Cooking in a little fat on a hot plate. E.g. Poratha, dosha.
Griddling or Broiling
It is cooking by direct heat and it is similar to grilling. The pan or grill is oiled
slightly to prevent sticking.


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1.12 LESSON SUMMARY
Culinary art is a form of art through which, the aims and objectives of cooking is
achieved by various cooking process. By cooking the food not just becomes appetizing
but is safe for human consumption by making it more digestible for human system.
For cooking, various medium is used which does not even makes cooking possible
but adds nutritive value. Some of the cooking or baking needs food to be raised to make
it porous and softer for eating, which is done through various raising agents and
leavening agent‘s i.e. yeast, baking powder, whisking, etc. In cooking some of the dish
needs thickening of the gravy which gives consistency, and makes it palatable.
To enhance the taste of the dish sweetening is added for giving it flavor, color and
above all for preservation. Salt is also a more important cooking material for improving
flavor, control fermentation, color retention, for preserving and above all for good
health.
Last but not the least, the flavoring & seasoning through various herbs & spices
brings out the natural flavors of main ingredient, helps in digestion, used for medicinal
purposes and of course for improving appearance.
Food preparation often involves the combining and mixing of different food or food
material. The combining and mixing methods such as beating, blending, creaming,
kneading, whipping, whisking, folding, marinating and stirring.
Cooking is the process of preparing food by use of heat. Cooking techniques and
ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic,
and cultural traditions. Cooks themselves also vary widely in skill and training. Cooking
can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat.
Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans, and some scientists
believe the advent of cooking played an important role in human evolution. Most
anthropologists believe that cooking fires first developed around 250,000 years ago. The
development of agriculture, commerce and transportation between civilizations in
different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and
technologies, such as pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking
techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food
preparation
1.13 KEY WORDS
Unpalatable - Inedible, Indigestible.
Facilitate
- make easy, smooth the progress of.
Hasten
- Speed up, accelerate.
Margarine - Butter with less fat, cooking oil
Porous
- spongy, absorbent
Enhance
- improve, add to, boost
Medicinal - medical, curative
Incorporation – Integration, merger, absorption
Friction - rubbing, abrasion
Manipulating- control, maneuver, operate
Coating - outside layer, shell, covering
Immersing – dip, submerge


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Scum – froth, foam, crust
Coagulation - to group together as a mass,
1.14 QUESTIONS TO SOLVE
1. What are the aims and objectives of cooking?
2. Discuss the advantages of cooking?
3. Explain the different Foundation ingredients?
4. What are the uses of Fats and Oils?
5. Mention the types of raising agents and their uses?
6. Write about Salt and Sweetening in food preparation?
7. Write in short about thickening agents, Flavors & seasoning?
8. What are the different methods of mixing foods?
9. Mention the various methods of cooking?
10. Difference between deep frying & shallow frying?
11. Difference between Baking & Roasting?
12. Discuss the dry heat methods of cooking?
1.15 REFERENCES
1. Thangam E. Philip- Modern cookery Vol.-I from Orient Longman.
2. Krishna Arora - Theory of Cookery from Frank Bros & Co.
3. Auguste Escoffer – The complete guide to the art of Modern cookery, from
Heineman.


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UNIT-2
STOCK AND SAUCES
CONTENTS
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning & uses
2.3 Types of Stock
2.3.1 White Stock
2.3.2 Brown Stock
2.3.3 Remouillage
2.3.4 Broth (Bouillon)
2.3.5 Fumet (Essence)
2.3.6 Estouffade
2.3.7 Court Bouillon
2.4 Uses of Stock
2.5 Basic Preparation Method
2.6 Sauces
2.7 Thickening agents used in Sauces
2.8 Role of Sauces
2.9 Mother Sauces
2.9.1 Bechamel Sauce
2.9.2 Espagnole Sauce
2.9.3 Veloute Sauce
2.9.4 Hollandise sauce
2.9.5 Tomato Sauce
2.9.6 Mayonnaise sauce
2.10 Derivatives of Mother Sauces
2.11 Lesson Summary
2.12 Key Words
2.14 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
◘Stock categories, types and uses
◘Stock - basic preparation method & preparation of stocks
◘ Sauces and their importance
◘Thickening agents used in sauces
◘ Mother Sauces & preparation methods
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Stocks form the basis of most sauces and soups. Stock is a broth liquid containing the
juices of meat, bones or vegetables that have been extracted by long, slow cooking.
Stocks are the foundation for many soup recipes, and are a wonderful way to use
leftover meats and vegetables.
Flavor, body and clarity are the characteristics of a good stock and of the three; flavor is
the most important. To get a good flavor a high proportion of ingredients to water is


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used. The most flavorful stock is achieved by just covering the bones, shell, or vegetables
with water. Chicken and Vegetable stocks are the easiest to prepare and are the mildest
in flavor and have become one of the most popular stocks.
The word "sauce" is a French word that means a relish to make our food more
appetizing. Sauces are liquid or semi-liquid foods devised to make other foods look,
smell, and taste better, and hence be more easily digested and more beneficial. Because
of the lack of refrigeration in the early days of cooking, meat, poultry, fish, and seafood
didn't last long. Sauces and gravies were used to mask the flavor of tainted foods. Sauces
are one of the fundamentals of cooking.
2.2 MEANING, USES
Stocks are nutritious strongly flavored liquid. They are important foundation liquid that
are used in the preparation of various dishes such as soups, sauces, gravies, stews,
curries, rice etc. The flavors and soluble nutrients of meats, herbs and vegetables are
extracted by prolonged and gentle simmering. This usually takes between six and eight
hours. The exception to this rule is fish stock, which only takes 20 minutes.
There are two basic methods of making meat stocks either white stocks or brown stock.
The meat used to flavor the stock will depend on what the final stock is to be used for.
Brown beef stock would be used for brown beef stews as white lamb stock would be
used for white lamb stews. Not all meats are used for stocks.
2.3 TYPES OF STOCK
Stocks are flavorful liquids produced by simmering bones, meat trimmings,
vegetables and other aromatic ingredients in water. Stocks are further categorized as
white stock or brown stock, both of which are discussed below. They are used as the
foundation for soups, stews and sauces. They are not served "as is", however.
Categories and Types of Stocks
2.3.1 White Stock - it is made from the meaty bones and trims from veal, beef, poultry,
some types of game, and fish. The bones are frequently blanched in order to remove any
impurities that might cloud or discolor the finished stock. Ordinary white stock is
classically prepared from veal meat and bones, with the addition of poultry carcasses.
A white beef stock (sometimes referred to as a "neutral stock") is often prepared by first
simmering the stock at higher temperature than would be used for most stocks for
several minutes. The aim is to produce a stock with a nearly neutral flavor. It is often
flavored for use in vegetable soups or bean dishes. White beef stock can contribute a
significant body to these dishes, while still allowing the flavor of the major ingredient to
predominate.
2.3.2 Brown Stock - one of the most commonly called-for stocks in the classic and
contemporary repertoire of any kitchen is likely to be brown veal stock (fond de veau
brun). Brown stocks are prepared by first cooking meaty bones and meat trim to a deep


20


brown color, as well as the mirepoix and a tomato product, before they are simmered.
This changes both the flavor and color of the finished stock. Brown stocks are especially
valuable in sauce cookery, as they are used as the foundation for brown sauce,
demiglace and pan gravies.
2.3.3 Remouillage - the word translates as a "rewetting", which is a good way to think of
the way that remouillage is made. Bones used to prepare a "primary stock" are reserved
after the first stock is strained away from the bones. The bones are then covered with
water, and a "secondary stock" is prepared. Some chefs argue that, if the first stock was
made properly and simmered for the correct amount of time, there will be little if
anything left in the bones to provide either flavor or body in the remouillage. Others feel
that this second generation of stock can be used as the basis for other broths or as the
cooking liquid for braises and stews. The food being prepared will provide the majority
of the flavor in the finished sauce, and a first-rate stock can be reserved for use in dishes
where its role is more significant.
2.3.4 Broth (or Bouillon) - it shares many similarities with stocks. They are prepared in
essentially the same fashion. Meaty bones (or in some cases, the entire cut of meat, bird
or fish) are simmered in water (or remouillage or a prepared stock) along with a variety
of vegetables and other aromatic ingredients. Many meatless dishes are prepared with a
vegetable broth. Some chefs may refer to this preparation as a vegetable stock. Those
stocks made from meat or fish bones will reach a state of clarity and body through the
extraction of proteins found in bones and meat. Vegetable broths vary greatly in the
degree of body and clarity that they may achieve.
2.3.5 Fumet (or Essence) - the most common fumet is one prepared by sweating fish
bones along with vegetables such as leeks, mushrooms and celery, then simmering these
ingredients in water, perhaps with the addition of a dry white wine. The end result is
generally not as clear as a stock, but it is highly flavored. Fumets and essences can be
prepared from such ingredients as wild mushrooms, tomato, celery or celery root,
ginger and so forth. These essences, nothing more than highly flavored infusions made
from especially aromatic ingredients, can be used to introduce flavor to other
preparations, such as consommés or broths and a variety of "small sauces".
2.3.6 Estouffade - the classic formula for estouffade set down by Escoffier is virtually
identical to what was then known as a brown stock. There are some differences to note,
however. Estouffade is prepared by simmering together browed meaty veal bones, a
piece of fresh or cured pork, and the requisite vegetables and other aromatics.
Contemporary kitchens tend to prepare a brown stock that does not include pork.
Today, estouffade is less widely used as a basic preparation, although it is still regarded
as a classic preparation.
2.3.7 Court Bouillon - a "short broth" is often prepared as the cooking liquid for fish or
vegetables. The basic components of a court bouillon include aromatic vegetables and
herbs, an acid such as vinegar, wine or lemon juice, and water. A court bouillon may be
prepared as part of the cooking process or it may be prepared in large batches and used
as required, in much the same manner as stocks and broths are prepared.


21


2.4 USES OF STOCK
The three major uses of Stock are:
● As base for Sauces & Soups.
● As base for Stews & Braises.
● As a cooking medium for Vegetables & Grains.
2.5 BASIC PREPARATION METHOD
General rules about the preparation and cooking of stocks:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Always use fresh bones and vegetables
Never use unsound meat or bones or rotten vegetables
Fats and scum should be skimmed as soon as they form the stock an unpleasant
flavor and greasy taste.
Stock should always simmer gently
Salt should never be added to stock as it will become too concentrated through
the prolonged cooking process and spoil the flavor.
Stock for storage should be strained, re boiled, rapidly cooled then placed in a
refrigerator until required.
Bouquet- garni should be removed

2.6 SAUCES
A sauce is a liquid accompaniment, which goes with a dish. A basic sauce is made from
a liquid (stock/milk) and a thickening agent sauces has a keen sense of small, delicate
sense of taste, colorful appearance, velvet texture and has a definite taste. It has a
natural flavor.
2.7 THICKENING AGENTS USED IN SAUCES
1.
Corn flour
It is diluted in water and added to a boiling stock for thickening purpose.
2.
Beurre Manie
This is prepared by equal quantities of butter and flour kneaded to a smooth
paste and mixed into a boiling liquid.
3.
Blood
Blood is used for game cooking, it also gives particular flavor, and e.g. it is used
in jugged hare
4.
Egg yolks
The eggs yolks are whisked to the ribbon stage.
5.
Glazes
Fish or meat glazer can be made into sauces by adding butter or cream.
6.
Roux
Made with butter and flour
7.
Vegetable or fruit purees
A vegetable or fruit purees are known as caulis.
8.
Meat/poultry
Usually used as small dices or juliennes.


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2.8 ROLE OF SAUCES
1.
It enhance flavor
2.
It gives color
3.
It helps in digestion
4.
It moisten dry food
5.
It enhance nutritional value
6.
It lend a name to dish
7.
It gives a balanced taste
8.
It is served as an accompaniment.
2.9 MOTHER SAUCE
Sauces are liquid or semi-liquid mixtures. A keen sense of smell, delicate sense of
taste, a light, strong hand for the blending – all contribute to a perfect sauce.
A perfect sauce has a colorful appearance, is glowing in its rich smoothness, and has a
velvety texture, a definite taste and a natural flavor. It complements the food it
accompanies, rather than mask its taste. It provides moisture, color, and shine to food
In the early 19th century, the chef Antonin Carême created an extensive list of sauces,
many of which were original recipes. It is unknown how many sauces Carême is
responsible for, but it was estimated to be in the hundreds.
In the late 19th century, and early 20th century, the chef Auguste Escoffier
consolidated Carême's list to five mother sauces. They are:
Sauce Béchamel, milk based sauce, thickened with a white roux.
Sauce Espagnole, a fortified brown veal stock sauce.
Sauce Velouté, white stock based sauce, thickened with a roux or a liaison.
Sauce Hollandaise, an emulsion of egg yolk, butter and lemon or vinegar.
Sauce Tomate, tomato based sauce.
2.9.1 Béchamel sauce, also known as white sauce, is one of the mother sauces of French
cuisine and is used in many recipes of Italian cuisine, for example lasagne. It is used as
the base for other sauces.
Béchamel sauce is the base for a number of other classic sauces with additional
ingredients added including:
Mornay sauce (cheese)
Nantua sauce (crayfish, butter and cream)
Crème sauce (heavy cream)
Mustard sauce (prepared mustard seed)
Soubise sauce (finely diced onions that have been sweated in butter)
Cheddar cheese sauce (Cheddar cheese, dry mustard, Worcestershire sauce)
2.9.2 Espagnole sauce is one of the mother sauces that are the basis of sauce-making in
classic French cooking. In the late 19th century, Auguste Escoffier codified the recipe,
which is still followed today.
Espagnole has a strong taste and is rarely used directly on food. As a mother sauce,
however, it serves as the starting point for many derivatives, such as Sauce Africaine,


23


Sauce Bigarade, Sauce Bourguignonne, Sauce aux Champignons, Sauce Charcutière,
Sauce Chasseur, Sauce Chevreuil and Demi-glace. There are hundreds of other
derivatives in the classical French repertoire.
The basic method of making Espagnole is to prepare a very dark brown roux, to which
veal stock or water is added, along with browned bones, pieces of beef, vegetables, and
various seasonings. This blend is allowed to slowly reduce while being frequently
skimmed. The classical recipe calls for additional veal stock to be added as the liquid
gradually reduces but today water is generally used instead. Tomato paste or pureed
tomatoes are added towards the end of the process, and the sauce is further reduced.
2.9.3 A velouté sauce, along with Tomato, Hollandaise, Béchamel, and Espagnole, is
one of the sauces of French cuisine that were designated the five "mother sauces" by
August Escoffier in the 19th century, which was a simplification of the "Sauce Carême"
list of Marie-Antoine Carême. The term velouté is from the French adjectival form of
velour, meaning velvety.
In preparing a velouté sauce, a light stock (one in which the bones used have not been
previously roasted), such as chicken, veal or fish stock, is thickened with a blond roux.
Thus the ingredients of a velouté are equal parts by mass butter and flour to form the
roux, a light chicken, veal, or fish stock, and salt and pepper for seasoning. Commonly
the sauce produced will be referred to by the type of stock used e.g. chicken velouté
Sauce velouté is often served on poultry or seafood dishes, and is used as the base for
other sauces. Sauces derived from a velouté sauce include:
Sauce Vin Blanc: By adding white wine and heavy cream to fish velouté.
Allemande sauce: By adding a few drops of lemon juice, egg yolks, and cream
Bercy: Shallots, white wine, lemon juice and parsley added to a fish velouté
Poulette: Mushrooms finished with chopped parsley and lemon juice
Aurore: Tomato purée
Hungarian: Onion, paprika, white wine
Sauce ravigote: The addition of a little lemon or white wine vinegar creates a lightly
acidic velouté that is traditionally flavored with onions and shallots, and more
recently with mustard.
Normandy: Mushroom cooking liquid and oyster liquid or fish fumet added to fish
velouté, finished with a liaison of egg yolks and cream
Suprême sauce: By adding a reduction of mushroom liquor (produced in cooking)
and cream to a chicken velouté
2.9.4 Hollandaise sauce: is an emulsion of lemon juice and butter, by way of egg yolk. In
appearance it is light yellow and opaque, smooth and creamy. The flavor is rich and
buttery, with a mild tang added by the lemon juice, yet not so strong as to overpower
mildly-flavored foods.
Hollandaise is one of the five sauces in the French haute cuisine mother sauce repertoire.
It is considered notoriously difficult to make, because yolks tend to scramble when


24


heated. It is so named because it was believed to have mimicked a Dutch sauce for the
state visit to France of the King of the Netherlands. Hollandaise sauce is well known as a
key ingredient of eggs Benedict, and is often paired with vegetables such as steamed
asparagus.
Being a mother sauce, Hollandaise sauce is the foundation for many derivatives created
by adding or changing ingredients. The following is a non-exhaustive listing of such
minor sauces.
The most common derivative is Sauce Béarnaise. It can be produced by replacing the
acidifying agent (vinegar reduction or lemon juice) in a preparation with a strained
reduction of vinegar, shallots, fresh chervil, fresh tarragon and (if to taste) crushed
peppercorns. Alternatively, the flavorings may be added to a standard Hollandaise.
Béarnaise and its children are often used on steak or other "assertive" grilled meats
and fish.
o Sauce Choron is a variation of béarnaise without tarragon or chervil, plus added
tomato purée.
o Sauce Foyot (a.k.a. Valois) is béarnaise with meat glaze (Glace de Viande) added.
o Sauce Colbert is Sauce Foyot with the addition of reduced white wine.
o Sauce Paloise is a version of béarnaise with mint substituted for tarragon.
Sauce au Vin Blanc (for fish) is produced by adding a reduction of white wine and
fish stock to hollandaise.
Sauce Bavaroise is hollandaise with added cream, horseradish, and thyme.
Sauce Crème Fleurette is hollandaise with crème fraîche added.
Sauce Dijon, also known as Sauce Moutarde or Sauce Girondine, is hollandaise with
Dijon mustard.
2.9.5 A tomato sauce is the same as marinara sauce. Tomato sauce is any of a very large
number of sauces made primarily from tomatoes, usually to be served as part of a dish
(rather than as a condiment). Tomato sauces are common for meat and vegetables, but
they are perhaps best known as sauces for pasta dishes.
Tomatoes have a rich flavor, high liquid content, very soft flesh which breaks down
easily, and the right composition to thicken into a sauce when they are cooked (without
the need of thickeners like roux). All of these qualities make them ideal for simple and
appealing sauces. The simplest tomato sauces consist just of chopped tomato flesh (with
the skins and seeds optionally removed), cooked in a little olive oil and simmered until
it loses its raw flavor, and seasoned with salt.
2.9.6 Mayonnaise Sauce, abbreviated as mayo, is a food spread. It is a stable emulsion of
oil, egg yolk and either vinegar or lemon juice, with many options for embellishment
with other herbs and spices. Lecithin in the egg yolk is the emulsifier. Mayonnaise
varies in color but is often white, cream, or pale yellow. It may range in texture from
that of light cream to thick. In countries influenced by French culture, mustard is also a
common ingredient. In Spain and Italy, olive oil is used as the oil and mustard is never
included. Numerous other sauces can be created from it with addition of various herbs,
spices, and finely chopped pickles. Where mustard is used, it is also an emulsifier.


25


2.10 DERIVATIVES OF MOTHER SAUCES
White sauce

Espagnole

Veloute

Mornay

Demi glace

Fish

Chicken

Meat

Cheese

Madere

Normande

Allemande

Supreme

Cream

Diable

Vin

Aurore

Chivry

Scotch egg

Robert

Diplomat

Poulette

Ivory

Mustard

Chaud froid

Shrimp

Fine herbs

Riche

Parsley

Lyonnaise

Joinville

Caper

Chaudfroid

Soubise

Piquante

Curry

Ravigote

Anchovy

Bercy

Onion sauce
Basic sauces and their derivatives
Hollandaise sauce

Tomato sauce

Mayonnaise sauce

Bearbause

Barbecue

Combridge

Noisette

Italienne

Gloucester

Mustard

Chaud Froid

Remoulade

Maltaise

Milanaise

Tartare

Foyot

Tomated

Vincent

Choron

Bretonne

Cocktail

Rachel

Portugaise

Thousand island

Grimod


26


2.11 LESSON SUMMARY
Stock is a flavored liquid made by gently simmering bones or vegetables in a liquid to
extract their flavor, aroma, color and nutritive value. Stocks are the foundation for many
soup recipes, and are efficient & economic way to use leftover meat and vegetables.
Stocks are used as base for sauces and soups, as base for stews & braises and as a
cooking medium for vegetables and grains. A good stock is evaluated by flavor, aroma
color, and clarity.
The preparation of stocks calls for understanding, care, and astute taste. Long, slow
simmering of food and cold water used for stock (except for fish stock) is required to
draw out the flavor and nutrients into liquid.
The six mother sauces are Béchamel sauce that is made of milk and pale roux. Common
sauces in this group include crème, Mornay and soubise. Espagnole sauces that are
brown stock based, such as brown sauces. Common sauces in this group include
bordelaise, chasseur, lyonnaise, etc. Mayonnaise sauce is made by combining lemon
juice or vinegar with egg yolks & then adding oil drop by drop as the mixture is rapidly
whisked, common sauces in this category are Remoulade, Gloucester, Tartare, Cocktail
Combridge. Tomato sauce is tomato based sauces; common sauces in this category
include spaghetti sauce, marinara & a wide variety of tomato sauces. Veloute sauces are
made with white stock and roux. Common sauces in this category include allemande,
ravigote, supreme, & white bordelaise. Hollandaise sauce is an emulsion of butter &
lemon juice using egg yolks as the emulsifying agents, usually seasoned with salt or
cayenne pepper. Common sauces in this category include Mustard, Rachel, Foyot,
Grimod, and Maltaise.
2.12 KEY WORDS
Nutritious - nourishing, wholesome, healthy
Contemporary - present-day, current, existing
Repertoire – range, collection, collection
Carcasses – remains, skeleton, shell
Aromatic - sweet-smelling, perfumed
Mirepoix- A mirepoix can be a combination of celery (either common pascal celery or
celeriac), onions, and carrots. There are a lot of regional mirepoix variations.
Demi-glace- It is a rich brown sauce in French cuisine used by itself or as a base for other
sauces.
Scum- a film or layer of foul or extraneous matter that forms on the surface of a liquid.
Blending – combination, joining together, unification
Velvety – smooth, soft, like velvet
Strainer – sieve, colander, filter.
Sauté – cook, stir fry, fry up
Consistency – constancy, evenness, uniformity


27


1. What is a stock, and discuss its uses?
2. What are the different types of stock?
3. What is the role of stock in food preparation?
4. What are the different ingredients for preparing various stocks?
5. List six major mother sauces?
6. Name the derivatives of Béchamel sauce?
7. Mention the derivatives of Espagnole sauce?
8. What are the derivatives of Mayonnaise sauce?
9. Name the derivatives of Tomato sauce?
10. Name the derivatives of Veloute sauce?
11. Name the derivatives Hollandaise sauce?
2.14 REFERENCES
Heineman
4. Petersons James, Sauces, John Wiley & sons
5. Mc Gee Harold, On Food and Cooking, Macmillan


28


UNIT-3
SALAMI, SAUSAGES
CONTENTS
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Salami, Ingredients of Salami
3.3 Manufacturing of Salami
3.4 Varieties of Salami
3.5 Sausages
3.6 Types of Sausages
3.6.1 Cooked Sausages
3.6.2 Cooked Smoked Sausages
3.6.3 Fresh Sausages
3.6.4 Fresh Smoked Sausages
3.6.5 Dry Sausages
3.7 Lesson Summary
3.8 Key Words
3.10 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
◘ Sausages
◘ Types of sausage
◘ Salami
◘ Salami ingredients and manufacturing process
◘ Varieties of salami
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The word sausage originally comes from the Latin word salsus, which means salted
or preserved. In the olden days people did not have refrigeration to preserve their meat
and so making sausage was a way of overcoming this problem. Sausage making evolved
as an effort to economize and preserve meat that could not be consumed fresh at
slaughter. In sausage making, quality standards are maintained while using most parts
of the animal carcass.
Salami is a cured sausage, fermented and air-dried. Salami may refer specifically to a
class of salumi (the Italian tradition of cured meats), where an individual sausage or
style of sausage (e.g. Genoa) would be referred to with the singular Italian form salame.
Alternatively, in general English usage, salami may be singular or plural and refer to a
generic style or to various specific regional styles from Italy or elsewhere, such as France
or Germany. The name comes from the Latin/Italian root sal-, meaning 'salt'.
3.2 MEANING OF SALAMI, INGREDIENTS OF SALAMI
Salami is cured sausage, fermented and air-dried
meat, originating from one of a variety of animals.
Historically, salami has been popular among Southern
European peasants because it can be stored at room

29


temperature for periods of up to 10 years, supplementing a possibly meager or
inconsistent supply of fresh meat. Varieties of salami are traditionally made in Italy,
France, Hungary, Germany, Spain, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece, Romania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Poland and
Turkey
The word originates from the word Sale (salt) with a termination -ame used in Italian
as an indicator of collective nouns; the original meaning was thus all kind of salted (meats).
The Italian tradition of cured meats including several styles, the word salame soon
specialized to indicate only the most popular kind, made with ground, salted and spiced
meat forced into animal gut with an elongated and thin shape, then left to undergo some
kind of fermentation process
A traditional salame, with its typical marbled appearance, is made from one or more of
the following meats:
Pork, or less commonly, especially in Kosher and Halal salami, beef (particularly
veal), venison, poultry (mostly turkey because of dietary limitations, but also
goose salami is traditional in some areas of Northern Italy), and horse, also
swordfish and sometimes shark in southern parts of Japan.
Additional ingredients may include:
salt
spices, usually white pepper
garlic
minced fat
wine
various herbs
vinegar
The raw meat mixture is usually allowed to ferment for a day, then the mixture is either
stuffed into an edible natural or inedible cellulose casing and hung to cure. Heat
treatment to about 104°F (40 °C) may be used to accelerate further fermentation and start
the drying process. Higher temperatures (about 140°F (60 °C)) are used to stop the
fermentation when the desired pH is reached, but the product is not fully cooked (167°F
(75 °C) or higher). The casings are often treated with an edible mold (Penicillium) culture
as well. The mold is desired as it imparts flavor and prevents spoilage during the curing
process.
3.3 MANUFACTURING OF SALAMI,
Though completely uncooked, salami is not "raw" per se; they have been prepared via
curing. The term salame cotto refers to salami cooked or smoked before or after curing
and it is typical of Piedmont region in Italy. This is done to impart a specific flavor but
not to cook the meat. Before curing, a cotto salame is still considered raw and is not ready
to be eaten.


30


Salami is cured in warm, humid conditions to encourage growth of the bacteria involved
in the fermentation process. Sugars (usually dextrose) are added as a food source for the
bacteria during the curing process, although it tends not to be added to horse meat
because of the latter's naturally high levels of glycogen. Lactic acid is produced by the
bacteria as a waste product, lowering the pH and coagulating and lowering the waterholding capacity of the meat. The acid produced by the bacteria makes the meat an
inhospitable environment for other, pathogenic bacteria and imparts a tangy flavor that
distinguishes salami from machine-dried pork. The flavor of salami relies just as much
on how these bacteria are cultivated as it does on quality and variety of other
ingredients. Originally, the bacteria were introduced into the meat mixture with wine,
which contains other types of beneficial bacteria; now, starter cultures are used. The
whole process takes about 36 weeks, although some age it more for additional taste and
some can cut it down to about 24 weeks for a sweeter taste.
The drying and curing process is determined by the climate of the curing environment
and the size and style of casing. After fermentation, the sausage has to be dried. This
changes the casings from being water-permeable to being reasonably airtight. A white
covering of either mold or flour helps prevent the photo-oxidation of the meat and
rancidity in the fat.
Nitrates or nitrites are added to provide the cured meat color and inhibit growth of
harmful bacteria from the genus Clostridium. Salt, acidity, nitrate/nitrite levels and
dryness of the fully cured salami combine to make the uncooked meat safe to consume.
It is important that high quality, fresh ingredients are used; otherwise, deadly
microorganisms and toxins can develop.
3.4 VARIETIES OF SALAMI

Varieties of salami include:

Cacciatore (Cacciatora, Cacciatorini) "Hunter" salami. Italy.
Spegepølse (Danish, means salted and dried sausage)
Milanese
Genovese
Fegatelli
Felino, Province of Parma
Finocchiona, typical of southern Tuscany
Pepperoni
Sopressata, typical of Calabria
Ciauscolo, typical of Marche
Nduja
Saucisson sec (French "dry sausage")
Winter salami (Hungarian Téli Szalámi)
German Salami
Kulen spicy salami characteristic of Balkans and parts of Hungary
Chorizo also spicy Iberian variant


31


3.5 SAUSAGES
The word sausage originally comes from the Latin word
salsus, which means salted or preserved. In the days of old
people did not have refrigeration to preserve their meat and
so making sausage was a way of overcoming this problem.
Dry sausage was born as a result of the discovery of new
spices, which helped to enhance, flavor and preserve the
meat. Different countries and different cities within those countries started producing
their own distinctive types of sausage, both fresh and dry. These different types of
sausage were mostly influenced by the availability of ingredients as well as the climate.
Some parts of the world with periods of cold climate, such as northern Europe were able
to keep their fresh sausage without refrigeration, during the cold months. They also
developed a process of smoking the sausage to help preserve the meat during the
warmer months. The hotter climates in the south of Europe developed dry sausage,
which did not need refrigeration at all.
Basically people living in particular areas developed their own types of sausage and that
sausage became associated with the area. For example Bologna originated in the town of
Bologna in Northern Italy, Lyons sausage from Lyons in France and Berliner sausage
from Berlin in Germany.
3.6 TYPES OF SAUSAGES
3.6.1 Cooked Sausage - Made with fresh meats and then fully cooked. The sausage is
either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated and is usually reheated
before eating. Examples include Braunschweiger, Veal sausage and Liver sausage.
3.6.2 Cooked Smoked Sausage- Much the same as cooked sausage, but it is cooked and
then smoked, or smoke-cooked. It can be eaten hot or cold, but is stored in the
refrigerator. Examples include Wieners, Kielbasa and Bologna.
3.6.3 Fresh Sausage- Made from meats that have not been previously cured. This
sausage must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include
Boerewors, Italian Pork sausage and Fresh Beef sausage.
3.6.4 Fresh Smoked Sausage- This is fresh sausage that is smoked. After smoking, the
sausage can then be refrigerated and cooked thoroughly before eating. Examples include
Mettwurst and Roumanian sausage.
3.6.5 Dry Sausage- Made from selected meats. These are the most complicated of all
sausages to make, as the drying process has to be carefully controlled. Once produced
this type of sausage can be readily eaten, and will keep for very long periods under
refrigeration. Examples include Salami‘s and summer sausage.


32


3.7 LESSON SUMMARY
The word salami is a cured (fermented and air dried) sausage of Italaian tradition. The
name comes from the Italian verb salame, meaning to salt.
Traditional salami is made from a mixture which may include the following: chopped
beef, pork, donkey, wine (not always) salt and various herbs and spices.
The word sausage originally comes from the Latin word salsus, which means salted or
preserved. In the olden days people did not have refrigeration to preserve their meat
and so making sausage was a way of overcoming this problem.
3.8 KEY WORDS
Meager - not enough, too little, insufficient
Elongated - stretched out, lengthened, extended
Tangy – pungent, spicy, flavorful
1. What is Salami?
2. What are the Ingredients to make salami?
3. Explain the Manufacturing process of Salami?
4. Name the different varieties of Salami?
5. What is a sausage?
6. What are the different types of Sausage?
7. What prompted Salami & sausage making?
3.10 REFERENCES
1. Jessica Souhami , Sausages, Frances Lincoln Ltd.
2. Campbell- Platt.G and Cook.P, Fermented Meats, Blackie Academic and Professional,
Glasgow.
3. Thangam E. Philip- Modern cookery Vol.-I from Orient Longman


33


UNIT- 4
COMMODITIES
CONTENTS
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cereals
4.3 Types of Cereals
4.4 Pulses
4.5 Types of Pulses
4.6 Yoghurt
4.7 Varieties of Yoghurt
4.8 Cream
4.9 Types of Cream
4.10 Lesson Summary
4.11 Key Words
4.13 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
◘ Cereals and their varieties
◘ Pulses and their varieties
◘ Yoghurts and its varieties
◘ Creams and type of cream
◘ Storage of creams
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Staple foods are those which are eaten regularly as part of the daily diet and nearly
always include cereals and / or pulses. Rice, for example, is widely consumed in Asia,
whereas beans, maize, cassava, potato, banana, etc. are more popular stable food in
many African, Latin American and Caribbean countries.
Pulses are considered as poor man‘s meat due to their high protein content ranging
from 20 to 40% and this makes them important in human food from nutrition point of
view.
Both cereals and pulses are nutritionally important since they usually provide the bulk
of the diet and energy needs. They are also relatively cheap sources of energy, protein,
vitamins and minerals.
Although there are no records available regarding the origin of yoghurt, the belief in
its beneficial influence on human health and nutrition existed in many civilizations over
a long period of time.
Cream is also a dairy product that is composed of the higher butterfat layer skimmed
from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, over time, the
lighter fat rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream this process is
accelerated by using centrifuges called "separators". In many countries, cream is sold in


34


several grades depending on total butterfat content. Cream can be dried to a powder for
shipment to distant markets.
4.2 CEREALS
Cereals are grasses (members of the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae)
cultivated for the edible components of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a
caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in
greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop;
they are therefore staple crops.
In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich source of vitamins, minerals,
carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. However, when refined by the removal of the bran
and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of
the other nutrients. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet,
or maize constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. In developed nations, cereal
consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial.
The word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and
agriculture.
4.3 TYPES OF CEREALS.
RICE

Unpolished
Brown
Polished Rice

rice

Botanical name: Oryza sativa (There are more than 8000
different types of rice).
Rice is a staple food for large part of the worlds' population especially Latin American,
East, South and South-Eastern Asia and is the second most consumed cereal grain
second to only maize.
Nutritional values:
The chief consumption of rice is as a food substance, but it should never be forgotten
that the large and continued consumption of the white, polished rice is likely to be
injurious to the health. The nations of which rice is the staple diet eat it unpolished as a
rule, when it is brownish and less attractive to the eye, but much more nutritious as well
as cheaper. Having no laxative qualities, rice forms a light and digestible food for those
in whom there is any tendency to diarrhea or dysentery, but it contains less potash and
vegetable acids than potatoes.
Brown rice is rich in vitamins B1, B2, B3 and B6, as well as manganese, iron, selenium,
magnesium, phosphorus and trace minerals. Also, brown rice is a source of good quality
proteins (in terms of amino acid quantity) and gamma-oryzanol (an extract of rice bran
oil that has been used to treat digestive, menopausal and cholesterol problems)


35


Health benefits:
Comparable to whole wheat, brown rice is quite nutritious as far as calories, vitamins
and minerals are concerned. Protein 8.6% and, Fibre content 3.5%
WHEAT -Botanical name: Triticum aesativum
Nutritional values:
Please note that wheat products such as pasta, noodles, breads, and biscuits use flour
that undergoes a process in which 60% of wheat grain is removed. Of this 60% lost are
the most nutritious aspects of the wheat : the bran and the germ and as a result more
than 50% of the B vitamins, folic acid, zinc, copper, phosphorous, calcium and iron are
removed!
Whole meal wheat supplies the following nutrition:
Good supply of dietary fibre and manganese, Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and E and folic
acid plus calcium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, protein, magnesium, manganese and iron.
Wheat germ is the vitamin and mineral rich embryo of the wheat kernel that is removed
during the refining process to make the "white" wheat flour.
4.4 PULSES
A pulse is an annual leguminous crop yielding from one to twelve seeds of variable size,
shape, and color within a pod. Pulses are used for food and animal feed. Archaeologists
have discovered traces of pulse production around Ravi River (Punjab), the seat of the
Indus Valley civilization, dating around 3300 BC. Meanwhile, evidence of lentil
cultivation has also been found in Egyptian pyramids and dry pea seeds have been
discovered in a Swiss village that are believed to date back to the Stone Age.
Archaeological evidence suggests that these peas must have been grown in the eastern
Mediterranean and Mesopotamia regions at least 5,000 years ago and in Britain as early
as the 11th century. The term "pulse", as used by the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO), is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry seed. This
excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also
excluded are crops that are mainly grown for oil extraction (oilseeds like soybeans and
peanuts), and crops which are used exclusively for sowing (clovers, alfalfa). However, in
common use these distinctions are not clearly made, and many of the varieties so
classified and given below are also used as vegetables, with their beans in pods while
young cooked in whole cuisines and sold for the purpose; for example black eyed beans,
lima beans and Toor or pigeon peas are thus eaten as fresh green beans cooked as part of
a meal. Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino
acid content. Like many leguminous crops, pulses play a key role in crop rotation due to
their ability to fix nitrogen


36


4.5 TYPES OF PULSES

Mysore dhal

Green gram

Toor dhal

Bengal gram

Pulses grams and beans are leguminous crops providing various kind of grains used for
food and animal feed. They play a role in crop rotation due to their ability to fix
nitrogen in the soil. They are important food crops due to their high protein and
essential amino acids content. They are the most important source of vegetable protein
in almost all countries. Their use ranges from baby food to delicacies of the rich and
poor. These include varieties of lentils, varieties of grams and varieties of beans.
In the lentils group we have yellow lentils (Mysore dhal), green gram (Pasi payaru) and
toor dhal. Lentils are low in fat and high in protein and fibre. They also contain folate,
vitamin B1 and minerals. Lentils are one of the best sources of iron. They also cook
easily. Almost every home will have some kind of lentils cooked for their main meal.
Usually it is either yellow lentils or green gram. Toor dhal is used as an ingredient in
sambar dishes and also as curry dish. In some homes invariably lentils may be the only
curry made to eat the rice with. Lentils also go with other food like bread etc. Also they
are used in the making of short eats or snacks (Payatham paniyaram). Lentils contain 20
to 25 percent by weight protein and due to this reason they are sometimes called poor
man's protein. Not only the lentils contain much protein, the digestibility of that protein
is also high. The lentils are the most important source of protein and iron to the
vegetarians. These are available in plenty throughout the world.
In the grams varieties, black gram is extensively used in dishes like Dosa, Idli and vadai.
Also it is an ingredient of papad. Bengal gram and channa dhal are used in the making
of snacks. Bengal gram as well as channa dhal are very nutritious and is recommended
for diabetics as other pulses. These grams have no effect on blood glucose levels and this
is important for diabetics and to other people as well. Chick peas are nutty flavored
pulse packed with vitamins, protein and minerals and soluble fibre which reduces the
cholesterol levels. They are used to make curries with and sometimes they are soaked in
water and deep fried and eaten as a snack. They are a source of zinc, folate and protein.
They are also very high dietary fibre and is a source of carbohydrates for diabetics. They
contain 64% carbohydrates, 23% protein, 5% fat and fibre.
In the beans group, the commonest available vegetable is long beans. Long beans is a
plant that grows very easily in the gardens and after the rains, plant seeds from older
crops and they grow very swiftly bearing numerous long beans which are then used for
curries. This is a crop that is locally cultivated too. Long beans are good source of


37


protein, Vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, iron, phosphorous, potassium, vitamin C, folate
and magnesium. There are other types of beans but long beans are a local produce.

Urid dhal

Chick Peas

Long Beans

4.6 YOGHURT
Yogurt or yoghurt is a dairy product produced by bacterial
fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known
as "yogurt cultures". Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria
produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its
texture and its characteristic tang.
Worldwide, cow's milk is most commonly used to make yogurt, but milk from water
buffalo, goats, sheep, camels and yaks is also used in various parts of the world.
The milk is first heated to about 80 °C (176 °F) to kill any undesirable bacteria and to
denature the milk proteins so that they set together rather than form curds. The milk is
then cooled to about 45 °C (112 °F). The bacteria culture is added, and the temperature is
maintained for 4 to 7 hours to allow fermentation.
4.7 VARIETIES OF YOGHURT
Plain Yogurt
Plain yogurt is regular yogurt that is made by fermenting pasteurized milk. It does not
contain added sugar or flavoring to enhance its flavors. It has a silky and smooth
consistency, and is not too thick or custard like. It has a natural tart flavor and it is used
in
the
preparation of
many dishes.
Fruit Yogurt
Fruit yogurt is simply plain yogurt in which one or many types of fruit have been
incorporated. Generally fresh and pureed fruits are added to make such yogurt and it is
one of the most popular types of yogurt among consumers. But the downside of such
fruit flavored yogurt is that it contains high amounts of sugar and calories as compared
to regular yogurt, and as such is not an ideal choice of yogurt for people who are
watching
their weight.
Swiss Style or
Custard
Yogurt
This type of yogurt has custard like almost pudding consistency. It is available in both
plain and flavored form. To stabilize the consistency of Swiss style yogurt, a stabilizer
like gelatin, pectin or agar is used in it. It is also creamier than regular yogurt.


38


Frozen Yogurt
frozen yogurt is a kind of soft ice cream that is consumed as an alternative to regular ice
cream. Because of the freezing process, most of the live and beneficial bacteria in the
yogurt are destroyed. Most manufacturers who make frozen yogurt, market it as low fat
and low sugar. But you need to check the labels before you buy frozen yogurt as an
alternative to ice cream. In most cases, frozen yogurt contains as much sugar and milk
fat as regular ice cream.
European
Style Yogurt
European style yogurt is characterized by its smooth and creamy texture. This type of
yogurt is made by pouring warm cultured milk in a big vat which is then stirred
periodically with a long ladle. This mixture is then poured into cups and consumed.
Sometimes fruits and other flavorings are added into the vat of cultured milk to make
flavored
European
style yogurt.
Greek Yogurt
Greek yogurt is a very thick yogurt that is made by removing the whey from the yogurt
by a straining process. It is a very smooth yogurt that has a thicker consistency than
plain yogurt and is used in cooking many Mediterranean dishes. Because excess water
or moisture is strained from this type of yogurt, Greek yogurt has higher amount of
butterfat than plain yogurt.
Low-fat
Yogurt
Low-fat yogurt, which is a favorite among the calorie and health conscious people, is
made from skimmed milk or reduced fat milk. Low fat yogurt can be both plain and
flavored. It contains around 0.5-2% milk fat compared to 3-5% milk fat contained in
regular yogurt.
These were the different types of yogurt that are available. Yogurt contains high levels of
vitamins, calcium, iodine, and potassium, which are required for the proper functioning
of the body. It is also an excellent source of protein. Whichever kind of yogurt you
choose, try to incorporate at least three to four servings of yogurt per week in your diet
4.8 CREAM
Cream is a dairy product that is composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from
the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, over time, the lighter
fat rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream this process is accelerated by
using centrifuges called "separators". In many countries, cream is sold in several grades
depending on the total butterfat content. Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment
to distant markets.
Cream skimmed from milk may be called "sweet cream" to distinguish it from whey
cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a lower fat
content and tastes more salty, tangy and "cheesy".


39


Cream produced by cattle (particularly Jersey cattle) grazing on natural pasture often
contains some natural carotenoid pigments derived from the plants they eat; this gives
the cream a slight yellow tone, hence the name of the yellowish-white color, cream.
Cream from goat's milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is
white.
4.9 TYPES OF CREAM
Types of Cream
Type

Butterfat Content

Uses

Half and Half
Cream

12% fat (range
10.5-18%)

In the United States, half and half is a mix of 1/2
whole milk and ½ cream, typically used as a cream in
coffee. Half-and-half does not whip, but it can be
used in place of whipping (heavy) cream in many
recipes for less fat cooking.

Single Cream

20%

Cream with a low fat-content, which does not thicken
when beaten. Used in both sweet and savory dishes.
Also know as light cream.

Light Cream

20% fat (range
18-30%)

Pretty much the same as half and half. Also know as
coffee cream or table cream. Will whip if it contains
30% butterfat but will not be very stable. Generally
contains only 20% butterfat. Also know as single
cream. Light cream is not available everywhere.

30%

Cream with enough butterfat in it to allow it to
thicken when whipped. Does not whip as well as
heavy cream but works well for toppings and fillings.
Almost all whipping cream is now ultra-pasteurized;
a process of heating that considerably extends its
shelf life by killing bacteria and enzymes.

Heavy Cream
or Heavy
Whipping
Cream

36 to 38%

This cream whips denser than whipping cream.
Whips up well and holds its shape. Doubles in
volume when whipped.

Double Cream

48%

Double cream is the British term for heavy or
whipping cream in the United States, but it is a little
thicker than our whipping cream. It contains about
48% butterfat. Double cream is so rich, in fact, that it
is easy to over whip it and get it too thick.

Whipping
Cream


40


Clotted Cream

Creme fraiche

55 to 60%

Also know as Devonshire or Devon Cream. It is a
thick, rich, yellowish cream with a scalded or cooked
flavor that is made by heating un-pasteurized milk
until a thick layer of cream sit on top. The milk is
cooled and the layer of cream is skimmed off.
Traditionally served with tea and scones in England.

It is a matured, thickened cream that has a slightly
tangy, nutty flavor and velvety rich texture. The
thickness can range from that of commercial sour
cream to almost as solid as room temperature
margarine. In France, the cream is un-pasteurized
and therefore contains the bacteria necessary to
thicken it naturally. In America, where all
commercial cream is pasteurized, the fermenting
agents necessary can be obtained by adding
buttermilk or sour cream. It is used as a dessert
topping and in cooked sauces and soups, where it has
the advantage of not curdling when boiled.

Pasteurized and Ultra-pasteurized: Creams will generally be labeled pasteurized or ultrapasteurized. Pasteurized cream will provide a better flavor, will whip up fluffier, and will hold
up longer.
As ultra-pasteurized whipping cream has been heated to above 280 degrees F. to extend its shelf
life, it is more temperamental when it comes to whipping. Ultra-Pasteurized Heavy Cream "will
not work" if peaks or frothing are required in your recipe.


41


4.10 LESSON SUMMARY
Cereal crops or grains come from grass family cultivated for their edible grains or fruit
seeds. The word ‗cereal‘ derives from ‗Ceres‘, the name of pre- Roman goddess of
Harvest and agriculture.
The term ―Pulses‖ is limited to crops harvested solely for dry grain, thereby excluding
crops harvested green for food (green peas, green beans etc.) which are classified as
vegetable crops. Also excluded are those crops used mainly for oil extraction (e.g.
soybean & groundnuts) and leguminous crops (e.g. Clover)
Pulses contain carbohydrates, mainly starches (55-65 percent of the total weight)
Proteins including essential amino acids (18-25 percent, and much higher than cereals)
and fat (1-4 percent), the reminder consists of water and edible substances.
Yoghurt or yogurt is a diary product produced by bacterial fermentation of milk.
Fermentation of the milk produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give
yoghurt, its texture and its characteristics. Yoghurt can be made from sheep‘s, cows,
goats or even Soya milk.
Natural whole meal yogurt has a similar nutritional value to boiled milk, being rich
in protein and minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus.
Cream is also a diary product that is composed of the higher butterfat layer
skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un- homogenized milk, over
time, the lighter fat rises to the top.
All cream, unless ultra pasteurized (briefly heated to 149 deg. C/300 deg. F and
then cooled), is highly perishable and should be kept in the coldest part of the
refrigerator.
4.11 KEY WORDS
Staple- main, principal core
Kernel - essential part, seed, core
Bacteria – microorganisms, microbes, germs
Enzyme - any complex chemical produced by living cells that is a biochemical catalyst
Vat – container, holder, tub
Pudding- a sweet cooked dessert with a smooth creamy texture, typically consisting of
flour, milk, eggs, and flavoring
Centrifuges- a device that rotates rapidly and uses centrifugal force to separate
substances of different densities
1. Write in detail about Cereal and types of Cereals?
2. Write in detail about Pulses and types of Pulses?
3. Write in short about nutritional value of Rice and wheat?
4. What is the difference between Yoghurt & cream?
5. What are the different types of Yoghurt?
6. What are the different types of Cream?


42


4.13 REFERENCES
Heineman.
4. David .A.V. Dendy, Cereals and Cereal Products, Springer
5. Henry Leffmann, Analysis of Milk & Milk Products, Read Books
6. Joseph A Kurmann, Encyclopedia of Fermented Fresh milk products. Springer


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UNIT-5
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
CONTENTS
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Kitchen Equipments
5.3 Large Equipment, Mechanical Equipment
5.4 Utensils & small equipment
5.5 Cooking Fuels
5.6 Lesson Summary
5.7 Key Words
5.9 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
◘ Kitchen equipments and cooking fuels.
5.1INTRODUCTION
Technological advances during industrialization brought major changes to the kitchen.
Iron stoves, which enclosed the fire completely and were more efficient, appeared. Gas
pipes were first laid in the late 19th century, and gas stoves started to replace the older
coal-fired stoves. The trend to increasing gasification and electrification continued at the
turn of the 20th century. A trend began in the 1940s to equip the kitchen with electrified
small and large kitchen appliances such as blenders, toasters, and later also microwave
ovens. Following the end of World War II, massive demand in Europe for low-price,
high-tech consumer goods led to Western European kitchens being designed to
accommodate new appliances such as refrigerators and electric/gas cookers.
5.2 KITCHEN EQUIPMENT‘S
Various types of equipment are used in a kitchen. The type, amount and size of
equipment will depend on the type of menu being provided and number of people to
dine. Kitchen equipment may be divided into three categories:
1) Large equipment – cooking ranges, electric ovens, microwave ovens, steamers,
boiling pan, deep fat-fryers, sinks, tables.
2) Mechanical equipment – peelers, mincers, mixers, refrigerators, dish-washers.
3) Utensils and small equipment – pots, pans, whisks, bowls, spoons and ladles.
5.3 LARGE EQUIPMENT, MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
The service equipments used in hotel industry are:
1.

Bain - Marie
It is used to keep soups, sauces and cooked foods hot
prior to or during service.
2.
Hot cupboards


47


3.

It is principally used to keep the service plates hot. These are having cabinets
which are directly heated either by a burner sited bellow, indirectly by hot gases
conducted round the cabinet through channels or by steam generated in a well in
the base. It is also used to keep cooked food hot during the delay between
cooking and service.
General purpose and roasting ovens
These are used for all oven works, i.e., roasting and baking. There
are two principal methods of heating.
a)
Internal heating
It means the flames are visible inside the oven, similar to
domestic cooker.
b)
Semi-internal heating
It has a burner placed under a metal plate called the sole. The hot gases
enter into the oven round the edges of the sole plate.
4.
Boiling tables
It can be used for all boiling of top operations. It is having a series
of ring burners.
5.
Stock pot stoves
By their low height it is suitable for larger utensils. It is having low
level boiling tables, generally 610mm (24 inch) height usually with an openring burner, although a solid top version is available.
6.

8.

Ranges
A range is a composite unit made up of a boiling table (hot plate)
and a general purpose oven occasionally with the addition of a grill fitted in
the pot rack at eye level. It is used for all cooking purpose.
7.
Brat pans
It is also known as tilting fryers. It is mainly used for multiple purpose, i.e., for
shallow fry, deep fry or boiling. They are capable of handling up to 200
average portions an hour. For E.g.:
a)
Shallow frying- Trout (A fish of mountain streams, lakes,
rivers) - 36 in 4 minutes.
b)
Dry frying- Egg - 30 at a time, About 600 an hour, Bacon 100 portions in 10 minutes.
c)
Poaching- Egg - 800 an hour, Fish - 200 portions an hour
d)
Stewing- 27-32 liters (6-7 gallons)
e)
Sautéing-27 kg of meat an hour.
Forced convection ovens
A forced convection oven is suitable for all normal roasting and
baking. With its even temperature distribution the full capacity oven may
be used and cooking times reduced.
9.

Pastry ovens
These ovens are used for large outputs baking of pastry,
cakes. They are purpose built, externally heated with an oven height
from 127mm to 135mm (5 inch to 5 ½ inch). An important feature is the
even temperature throughout the oven.


48


10.

Grillers
Grillers are of main two types, i.e.
a)
Under fried grillers
These are sometimes known as flare grills with the source of heat.
Burners are located underneath.
b)
Over fried grillers
It is also known as salamanders. Here the source of heat is above.

11.

Griddle plates
These are sometime known as dry plates. A gas bar burner heats this
from below. They are used for fast or continuous frying of eggs, bacon,
liver, steak, chops, etc. or hamburgers and pancakes. Griddle is chosen
according to menu requirements but is particularly useful for call order
cooking in snack bars and grillrooms.
Microwaves
Microwave cookery takes place in a specially designed electrical oven.
Microwaves are transferred to the food by electro-magnetic radiation. These
waves travel through the air and because food is poor conductor of energy, the
wave passes into the food causing the water molecules in the food to vibrate and
heat up very quickly.
Food counters
In recent years there has been an increasing tendency towards assisted or selfhelp counter service operations which has developed because of the need to
serve large numbers of peoples quickly and efficiently. Almost any type of food
can be displayed on an electrically (based) controlled service counted. For e.g.:
Soups, roasts, vegetable dishes, cooked desserts along with choice of cold meats,
salads, fruits and pastries, etc.
Refrigerators
A refrigerator is very need equipment for storing wine, chilled meat, vegetables,
fish, frozen foods.

12.

13.

14.

5.4 UTENSILS & SMALL EQUIPMENT - POTS AND PANS
The pots and pans used in cooking are as under:
1.
Sauté use- This is a shallow long handled vessel with slopping sides and a wide
surface area, made of tin lined copper. It is used in the preparation of sauces in
which evaporation is required. It is available in various sizes.
E.g.: 20 cm (8 inch) diameter and 7 cm (2 ¾ inch) deep
2.
Plat a'sauter- This is a shallow, long handled vessel, made of tin lined copper or
aluminum with straight copper or aluminum with straight sides and a wide
surface area. It is used for sautéing purpose like meat sautéing where the food
juices are incorporated as an integral part of finished product. It is available in
various sizes. E.g.: 15 cm (6 inch) diameter.
3.
Frying pan- Frying pans are solid based pans, made of iron, steel, aluminum or
stainless steel with shallow sloping sides and a wide surface area to heat for
frying foods. E.g.: 15 cm (6 inches) base diameter


49


4.

5.

6.

7.
8.

9.

Friture- Whether round or oval, single or double handled a friture has a wire
basket that fits into the pan. This type of pan can be used for all deep fat frying
and small quantities frying.
Stock pot- This deep, lidded, double handled pan has a tap near the bottom for
'letting off' stock and is made from heavy-duty aluminum. Stockpots are used on
top of the stove only for making large quantities of stock.
Stew pan (or) sauce pan - This type of aluminum pan is either single or double
handled with a lid. The single handled type is used on the top of the stove only,
where as the double handled type is also used in the oven. Both types are used
for all boiling and stewing.
Boiling pan- This aluminum pan has two handles and a lid and is available in a
wide range of sizes, i.e., 2-65 liters and is used on top of stove or in the oven for
all boiling and stewing.
Braising pan- This type of pan is same like boiling pan but shallower and
available in a similarly wide range of sizes, i.e., 11-30 liters. It is used for braising
vegetables or main meal items on top of the stove.
Omelets pan- It is made from aluminum copper or steel. This type of pan is
shallow, round and single handled. It is used only for omelets.

5.

6.

KITCHEN KNIVES
1.Boning knife- This is used for the boning of raw or cooked
meat. The carbon steel blade must be sharpened regularly.
2.Vegetable knife- This knife has a small shaped handle and
short carbon steel or stainless steel blade. It is used for fine
preparation, vegetable paring and finishing. The measurement is 103
or 155 mm (4 or 6 inches)
3. Cooks chopping knives- It is available with longer and
heavier blades. The measurement is 255 pr 305 mm (10 or 12 inch) and
is usually made from carbon steel. They are used for all preparation
and chopping.
4.
Filleting knife- This knife has a long flexible carbon steel
or stainless steel. The measurement is 155mm (6 inch) blade. It is used
for skinning and filleting fish.
Palette knife- It has either carbon steel or stainless steel blade. It has a
measurement of 155mm or 205mm or 255mm or 305mm (6, 8, 10 & 12
inch) long. They are used for moving prepared food, turning cooked
food and lifting cooked food from oven trays.
Steel- This is carbon steel bar with either a wooden handle. It is used for
sharpening all steel knives, but is needed to be sharpened regularly after
each use.

5.5 COOKING FUELS
The different methods of cooking are:
1.
Cooking by fire
2.
Cooking by oil
3.
Cooking by gas


50


4.
5.

Cooking by electricity
Sundry cooking method

1.

Cooking by fire
Wood is widely used in India but it is very wasteful and dirty. Coal gives out
intense heat but not steady.
Cooking by oil
The oil which is used for cooking is kerosene. It is a clean method in compare to
cooking by wood.
Advantage of oil
a)
Economy- Oil is comparatively cheap
b)
Cleanliness - Not very clean and hygienic
c)
Effect on equipments- Open flame is likely to destroy the lifespan of
utensils.
d)
Dependability- Supply is to be visible
e)
Flexibility- intensity can moderately be controlled.
f)
Safety - Fire hazard like to form in storage areas.
g)
Storage- Storage space has to be provided
h)
Installation - Installation is elaborate.
i)
Speed- Speed is quicker.
Cooking by gas
It is easy and the most flexible as well as useful method of coking. A reasonable
range of equipment is now been manufactured in India for use in this medium.
Advantage of gas
a)
Economy- It is relatively less expensive.
b)
Cleanliness- Moderate cleaning and hygienic.
c)
Effect on equipment- Open flame is likely to destroy the life of
equipments.
d)
Dependability- Fails at short notice.
e)
Flexibility - Intensity can be minutely controlled.
f)
Safety- Cylinders are available.
g)
Storage- Gas cylinders are available.
h)
Speed - Speed is quickest.
i)
Installation -It is not very flexible.
Cooking by electricity
A considerable range of equipments necessary for the modern kitchen can be
obtained. Hot plates, boilers, toasters, chapatti plates, etc. are some of the type of
equipments working by electricity.
Advantage of electricity
a)
Economy- Electricity charges are rather heavy when compared with other
fuels.
b)
Cleanliness -Clean and hygienic
c)
Effect on equipment and utensils- No open flame as a result there is
very little waste on utensils.
d)
Dependability - Fails without warning.
e)
Flexibility -Intensity can be controlled.
f)
Safety - Least dangerous

2.

3.

4.


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g)
h)
i)

Storage- No problem
Installation - Relatively simple.
Speed - Not so quick

Advantage of wood
a)
Economy -Cheapest form
b)
Cleanliness -Problem of collection and disposable of ashes.
c)
Effect on equipment and utensils - Equipment has to be replaced over a
short life.
d)
Dependability -Supply can also be ensured.
e)
Flexibility -No control over intensity.
f)
Safety -Fire hazards are most likely because of open flame.
g)
Storage -Storage space is a problem.
h)
Installation -It is no problem.
i)
Speed -Slow.
5.

Sundry cooking method
There are many new methods of cooking food.


52


5.6 LESSON SUMMARY
Various types of equipment are used in kitchen. The type, amount and size of
equipment will depend on the type of menu being provided. Kitchen equipment may be
divided into three categories: Large equipment are, ranges, steamers, boiling pan, deep
fat fryers, sinks, tables. Mechanical equipment is peelers, mincer, mixers, refrigerators,
dish washers. Utensils and small equipments are pots, pans, whisks, spoons & knives.
Fuels are those substances that when oxidized give rise to heat energy. This heat
Energy can be converted to other forms of energy like electricity, or mechanical
Energy like, Vehicle motion. Fuels can be divided into categories such as primary
And secondary Fuels. The various types of fuels for cooking are, cooking by fire,
Cooking by oil, cooking by gas, cooking by electricity, Sundry cooking method
5.7 KEY WORDS
Composite – complex, combined, multiple
Convection Oven - an oven that creates a uniform temperature with internal fans.
Radiation – emission, rays, heat
Molecules- Molecules are small particles that make up all living and non-living things.
They are made up of even tinier particles called atoms.
1. Explain briefly the various Large & Mechanical equipments used?
2. Explain in detail the various Utensils & small equipments used in kitchen?
3. What are the different methods of fuel used?
4. Explain the advantages & disadvantages of the various fuels?
5.9 REFERENCES
Frances E. Ruffin, Kitchen smarts, Food Safety & Kitchen Equipment, The Rosen
Publishing group.
Thangam E. Philip- Modern cookery Vol.-I from Orient Longman.
Krishna Arora - Theory of Cookery from Frank Bros & Co.


53


UNIT-6
KITCHEN ORGANIZATIONS
CONTENTS
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The type of establishments
6.3 Kitchen Brigade in Star Hotel
6.4 Duties & Responsibilities of Kitchen staff
6.4.1 Chef de Cuisine
6.4.2 Sous Chef
6.4.3 Senior Sous Chef
6.4.4 Sous Chef
6.4.5 Chef de Partie
6.4.6 Chef Garde Manger
6.4.7 Chef de Nuit
6.4.8 Commis
6.4.9 Apprentices
6.5 Modern Kitchen Organization
6.6 Lesson Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
◘Kitchen Brigade
◘Duties and Responsibilities of Kitchen Staffs
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The staff in kitchen needs to be able to prepare, at any given moment, a wide number of
items. The size of the kitchen staff can range from one person to a large group,
classically known as the brigade. The size of the kitchen staff is determined equally by
the number of meals the restaurant commonly serves and how extensive the menu is.
The number of people actually employed in a kitchen will vary greatly from one
operation to the next such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, banquet, etc.
Georges Auguste Escoffier, a French chef, restaurateur and culinary writer popularized
and updated traditional French cooking methods. He organized his kitchens by the
brigade system, with each section run by a chef de partie. In this system everybody had
a distinct task, which meant that no one duplicated anyone else‘s work. This system
provided efficiency, economy, safety and an esprit de corps.
6.2 THE TYPE OF ESTABLISHMENT
Many establishments today are far from modest in scope, and the lack of skilled workers
in all of these distinct areas, along with technological advances that call for a certain
consolidation, has modified the brigade system substantially. It is important, however,
to understand the hierarchy that Escoffier formulated, because that will give you a good


54


overview of just about every task that might be faced in the universe we call ―the
kitchen‖.
The size of the kitchen staff can range from one person to a large group, classically
known as the brigade. The size of the kitchen staff is determined equally by the number
of meals the restaurant commonly serves and how extensive the menu is. The number of
people actually employed in a kitchen will vary greatly from one operation to the next
such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, banquet, etc.
Kitchen Organization will vary, mainly due to the size and the type of the
establishment, Organization depends on 5 factors, they are as follows:
1. Menu is the deciding factor for a food facility organization.
2. Type of Establishment.
3. Size of Operation.
4. Physical facilities.
5. Human Resource available.
6.3 KITCHEN BRIGADE IN STAR GRADE HOTEL CHEF DE CUISINE
SOUS CHEF

CHEF GARDE MANGER

CHEF POTAGER
(Soup Cook)

BOUCHERIE
(Butcher Shop)

CHACUTIER (Pork
Butcher and
Sauage maker)

Chef de Nuit
(Night Duty Chef)

6.4

SLADIER
(Salad Maker)

CHEF SAUCIER
(Sauce Cook)

CHEF PATISSIER

Chef Entermtier
(Vegetable
Cook)
BREAKFAST COOK

CHEF
ROTISSEUR

VOLAILLEUR
(Poulterer)

POISSONER
(Fishmonger)

CHEF
COMMUNAR
(Staff/Cafeteri
a Cook)

(CHEF GRILLARDIN
Grill
Cook/CHEF
SAVOURIER (Savoury
Cook)

COMMI-I
COMMI - II
COMMI - III

HORD
D’OEUVRIER
(Horsd’ocuvre
cook) :

TRANCHEUR (Craver)

APPRENTICE

TRAINEES
DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF KITCHEN STAFF
6.4.1 The Chef de Cuisine in the large establishment is much more a departmental
manager than a working craft man. He is selected for his organizing and executive
abilities than for his culinary skill. Though it is obvious that he should have such skill
and a large appreciation of fine cookery, His principle function is to plan, organize and
supervise the work of the kitchen.
1. Administrator in charge of the kitchen


55


2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Plans the kitchen economically and elegantly
Recruits the kitchen staff in co-ordination of the management
Sees to the welfare of the kitchen staff
Supervises and trains his staff
Plans the menus and co-ordinates the fixing of its price
Controls the quality, quantity and cost of production in the kitchen
Checks spoilage and wastage
Lays down standards and specifications of ingredients
Takes responsibility for correction and criticism
Indemnifies his staff
Co-ordinates with the other departments of the hotel
Informs the staff of the hotel policies
Develops standard recipes
Takes part in various F&B meetings
6.4.2 Sous Chef or under chef is the principal assistant of the Chef de Cuisine. In
large establishments the Sous Chef will have no sectional or partial responsibility but
will aid the chef in his general administration and in particular in supervising the
work of preparing food and in overseeing its service at the (Pick up counter). Where
a considerable kitchen operation is involved there may be more that one Sous Chef.

6.4.3 SENIOR SOUS CHEF
1. Represents the Exec. Chef in his absence
2. Makes the duty roster of the kitchen staff
3. Responsible for proper staff rotation
4. Acts as a liaison between the Exec. Chef and the staff
5. Ensures smooth flow of dishes from the kitchen
6. Maintains the co-ordination between the different sections of the kitchen
7. Reports to the Exec. Chef
6.4.4 SOUS CHEF
1. Represents the Sr. Sous Chef in his absence
2. Supervises the work in the kitchen
3. Heads a satellite kitchen
4. Takes the position of the Chef de Partie in his absence
6.4.5 Chef de Partie
Chef de partie is a working cook in charge of a clearly defined section of activities within
the kitchen. The Chef de Partie particularly of the sauce and Grade Manager may have
the status and duties of a Sous Chef in addition to sectional responsibilities.
1. Reports to the Exec. Chef and the Sous Chefs
2. Responsible for food production and control of waste in the area
3. Trains and supervises the personnel in his section
4. Controls usage, eliminates wastage with a view to minimize food cost
5. Maintains high standards of cleanliness in his section
6. Co-ordinates with other sections of the kitchen


56

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