5. C1-C2 Facet Joints
› Horizontal plane
› Facilitates axial rotation
Tectorial Membrane
› Continuation of PLL
› Major occip- cervical
stabilizer
› Secondary restraint for
extension of occiput on
atlas
Alar Ligaments
Netter’s Anatomy
6. Lateral mass:
Consists of ipsilateral
sup/inf. facets
Upward inclination of ~ 400
Facet joint complex resists
anterior translation and
rotation
Vertebral artery
Traverses foramen in TP
Does not traverse C7
Netter’s Anatomy
7. Ribs and sternum limit
thoracic spine
movement; increase
stability
Spinal cord takes up
the majority of the
canal space
Facet joints in coronal
plane
9. FG Fasc. Gracilis (Sensory,
lower part of cord,
Proprioceptive, Deep pain,
Vibration, Ipsilateral)
FC Fasc. Cuneatus (Sensory,
Upper part of cord,
Proprioceptive, Deep pain,
Vibration Ipsilateral)
PH Posterior Horn (Sensory cell
bodies)
AH Anterior Horn (Motor Cell
Bodies)
10. LCS Lateral Corticospinal Tract
(Crossed Pyramidal Upper Motor
Neurons to ipsi AH)
ACST Anterior Corticospinal Tract
(Direct Pyramidal go to contra AH)
PSCT ASCT Spinocerebellar Tracts
LST Lateral Spinothalamic Tract
(Sensory, Pain and Temp: cell bodies
in contra PH)
AST Anterior Spinothalamic Tract.
(Sensory, Touch: cell bodies in
contra PH)
11. Exits through intervertebral foramen
C1 exits between skull and atlas
C2 to C7 exit above corresponding vertebrae
C8 exits below C7, above T1
Below T1; all nerves exit below corresponding
numbered vertebral pedicle
12. Spinal nerves that have exited from the cord
L1-L5: Nerve cell bodies lie in the cord behind T11-
T12
S1-S5: Nerve cell bodies line within the region of
the conus medullaris
Cauda equina nerves are more like peripheral
nerves withstand trauma better than CNS
Damage to this region causes LMN signs
13. Primary mechanical insult
Rapid compression due to bone displacement
from burst or dislocation
Distraction ***
Shear ***
Penetration
Primary injury leads to cascade of
secondary injury mechanisms
*** Portends poor prognosis !!!
15. Final pathway is neuron death by:
Cell necrosis with structural dissolution
Apoptosis: chemical trigger initiates process that
removes non-functioning neurons but also kills
normal neurons in zone of injury
23. Indicates some
continuity of long tract
fibers
Sacral structures are
most peripheral in both
posterior columns and
lateral corticospinal
tracts
Continued function of
sacral LMNs in conus
Skeletal Trauma
25. Affects the anterior 2/3 of cord
Preserves the posterior column:
proprioception, vibratory sensation
May be due to persistent retropulsed bone
or disc material/ mechanical insult
Vascular component
26. Loss of all motor
and sensory below
injured level
Deep pressure
sensation only
Poor prognosis for
motor recovery
27. Older patients with preexisting spondylosis
MOI: Hyperextension injury: fall, whiplash
Spinal cord pinched by osteophytes
anteriorly and the underlying hypertrophic
ligamentum flavum posteriorly; leads to
significant injury to the “central portion” of
the cord
28. Best prognosis among
common patterns
Upper extremity > lower
extremity involvement
Distal > proximal
Earliest and greatest
recovery in legs followed by
bladder
Hand dexterity often slow to
return, full recovery variable
29. Results from functional
hemisection of cord,
projectile or penetrating
wound
Loss of ipsilateral motor
Loss of contralateral pain,
temperature, and light
touch sensation
75% regain independent
ambulation
80% recover bowel and
bladder function
30. Rare
Loss of
proprioception
Maintain
ambulation but rely
on visual input
31. Direct injury to conus region (L1-L2)
Presents as mixed lesion of cord and nerve
root damage
Bowel, bladder, and sexual dysfunction
Injury to CM can disrupt the
bulbocavernosus reflex arc
Therefore, the absence of a bulbocavernosus
reflex unreliable indicator of spinal shock in this
clinical setting
32. Modified From: Lockhart RD; Hamilton GF; Fyfe FW.
Anatomy of the Human Body. JB Lippincott Company
33. Lower motor neuron
lesion (not cord)
Sacral segments
more affected than
lumbar
Saddle anesthesia
with incontinence
Lumbar sparing
34. Common mechanism for central cord injury in
elderly—hyperextension with a spondylolytic
neck
MRI findings impressive
SCI protocol followed by observation until
recovery plateaus
Treatment : same as central cord syndrome.
35. Be aware of the clinical triad of
neurological injury and
concomitant lamina fracture with
burst pattern (Cammisa, 1989)---trapped
roots
36. Decompression rarely of
benefit except for
INTRA-CANAL BULLET AT
THE T12 TO L5 LEVELS with
incomplete injury
(better motor recovery than non-
operative)
Fractures usually stable,
despite “3-column” injury
37. More favorable prognosis than cord injuries
In c-spine injuries: frequently see complete
cord injury with varying levels of root injury
Good chance of recovery of one level
Recovery dependent on level of injury
38. ATLS guidelines: A-B-C’s
Examine for head, neck, or back trauma –
need to logroll
Paradoxical diaphragmatic breathing
Priapism
Neurogenic shock: hypotension and
bradycardia
Loss of sympathetic tone
43. Perianal/perineal sensation
Rectal tone
Big toe flexion
Implies partial structural continuity of white
matter long tracts
May be only evidence of incomplete
injuryhigher chance of recovery
Essential to check and document
44. Bulbocavernosus
reflex:
Pull glans or press
clitoris anal
contraction (int.
sphincter) around
gloved finger
Absence is indicator
of spinal shock
Skeletal Trauma
45. Scapulohumeral reflex (C3)
Tap on spine of scapula =>abd and elev arm
Hoffman’s
Inverted Radial Reflex
Tap BR =>finger flexion (C6 root)
Superficial abdomenal
Cremaster
Crossed adductor response
Tap Medial Fem Condyle =>add contra leg
46. Temporary loss of all or most spinal reflex
activity below level of injury
Lasts around 24 hours (max 48 hrs)
Ends when bulbocavernosus reflex and/or
anal wink returns
An injury cannot be considered complete
until resolution of spinal shock
47. Neurologic level of
injury (NLI)
› Most caudal level with
bilateral normal motor
and sensory function
Complete/Inc
› Importance of sacral
levels
Zone of partial
preservation
48. A Complete:
B Incomplete:
C Incomplete:
D Incomplete:
E Normal:
No motor or sensory below lesion
Sensory only below lesion to S4-5
Preserved motor below lesion, key
muscle strength < 3
Preserved motor below lesion, key
muscle strength > 3
Normal motor and sensory below
lesion -ASIA 1992
50. Lateral C-spine in trauma room
› Must include down to C7-T1
› Swimmer’s view or pull-down if necessary
› Single most important radiographic examination
C-spine series
› AP, Open mouth (dens)
T-L-S spine films as indicated (one spine
fracture mandates full spine radiographic
evaluation)
› T-L junction: 50% of injuries occur at T11-L1
51. Lordosis
Unreliable sign of injury
Prevertebral soft
tissues
Unreliable
No agreed upon
measure
6 mm at C3
22 mm at C6
52. Anterior spinal line
› Anterior aspect of vertebral
body along ALL
Posterior spinal line
› Posterior aspect of vertebral
body along PLL
Spinolaminar line
› Joins the anterior margins of
the junction of the lamina and
spinous processes
Spinous process line
› Joins tips of spinous processes
53.
54. – Lateral masses of C1Lateral masses of C1
should align overshould align over
facet joints of C2facet joints of C2
– combined lateralcombined lateral
mass displacementmass displacement
over 7 mm suggestsover 7 mm suggests
transverse ligamenttransverse ligament
tear (Spence’s Rule)tear (Spence’s Rule)
55. Injury suspected on plain films
Better visualize fracture (specificity and
sensitivity)
Unable to adequately assess on plain films
Sagittal and/or coronal reconstructions can be
helpful (particularly at Oc.-cervical and C-T
jcts.)
Fracture or soft tissue injury in the plane of
the CT can be missed
56. Invaluable for assessing cord and soft tissues
R/O associated disc herniation ( facet
dislocations)
Hemorrhage vs edema in soft tissues ????
Ligamentous tears and facet capsule disruptions
visualized with fat suppression
May allow prognostic assessment of final motor
function
› Intrasubstance hematoma
59. Roaf, 1960 – pure axial load or pure flexion
leads to little posterior ligamentous injury
Nagel, 1981 – 20 degrees of kyphosis or 10
degrees lateral angulation implies
incompetence of PLL and posterior elements,
thus inferring instability
60. Panjabi, 1981 – it takes sectioning of PLL and
posterior annulus to destabilize a motion
segment with the addition of facet capsule
and interspinous ligament disruption
James et al, ’94 – middle column offers
little additional resistance to kyphosis with
increasing axial load
61. The Issues
Often difficult to diagnose
Missed or delayed diagnosis can lead to
catastrophic neurologic disability
No agreed upon protocol in the intoxicated,
multiply-injured, or head-injured patient
62. The Problems
Unnecessary imaging?
Should every patient with blunt trauma gets x-rays?
Overzealous consultation
When and who should ‘clear the c-spine’ ??
The Hard Collar Dilemma:
Prolonged hard collar use leads to decubiti as well as
neck pain
63. Hoffman, Mower, et al., NEJM 2000
Multicenter study
34,069 patients with blunt trauma
AP/Lat/Open Mouth on all patients
810 with positive x-rays
Only 8 with false-negative x-rays
Only 2 clinically significant
64. Harris, Kronlage, et al. Spine 2000
Polytrauma, intoxicated, CHI patients
IRB Protocol: Includes intra-op flex/ext with
fluoro after all films read as normal
Goal: Identify ligamentous injuries
3/ 153 (+) --- all required surgical stabilization
65. Criteria for clinical clearance
› No posterior midline tenderness
› Full pain-free active ROM
› No focal neurologic deficit
› Normal level of alertness
› No evidence of intoxication
› No ‘distracting injury’
66. If x-rays negative, but patient c/o neck pain,
active flexion/extension x-rays when able.
Rarely helpful in acute setting
If neurologic deficit attributable to neck
injury, immediate MRI
Controversy over the polytrauma or
intoxicated patient remains
EAST practice guidelines: trauma series and thin
cut axial CT through C1-2
CT of cervical –thoracic junction if poor
visualization on plain and swimmer’s
67. 15-30% incid. uni-/bilat
Neuro intact: MRI prior
to reduction attempt
Neuro injured:
Reduction prior to MRI
Neuro unknown: MRI
first
Attempt reduction without
MRI ONLY if able to
accurately monitor
neurologic exam
throughout process
70. Severity of SCI dependent on:
Force of compression
Duration of compression
Displacement, canal narrowing
Surgical decompression does attenuate the
deleterious effects of acute SCI
Persistent compression is a potentially reversible
form of secondary injury
71. Most studies uncontrolled and retrospective
analyses
Spontaneous recovery unpredictable, but
generally occurs
Timing to reduction is important
Most dramatic benefit in bilateral jumped
facets
72. Surgical benefit must be weighed against
limited non-operative benefit
Numerous studies, almost exclusively
retrospective
Timing: early, late, and later
73. The only prospective randomized trial
62 patients with cervical SCI
34 “Early” (< 72 hrs) surgery
28 Late (> 5 days) surgery
ASIA assessment
No difference in neurological outcome
74. Most studies retrospective with historical
controls
No clear consensus on timing
No statistical evidence that surgical
decompression influences neurologic outcome
75. Tator et al 1999
Retrospective, multicenter (36)
Examined use and timing of surgery in
acute SCI
9 month period 1994 to 1995
All within 24 hours of injury
16 to 75 years old
Non-penetrating trauma
77. C-spine vs. T-L spine
Partial vs. complete
› Spinal shock
Definition of early surgery
Role of steroids
Type of decompression
› traction vs. anterior vs. posterior
High energy vs. low energy
Associated injuries
78. There is strong
experimental evidence
in animals to indicate:
Decompressive surgery
of the spinal cord
improves recovery
after SCI
Earlier surgery yields
more improvement
80. Extrapolating animal
data to clinical
practice may be a
leap, but this data
comprises the
majority of current
scientific evidence.
81. The sole prospective
randomized study
concluded that there is
no difference between
early (<72 hrs) and late
(> 5 days) surgical
decompression with
respect to neurological
recovery.
Vaccaro, et al. Spine 1997
Hinweis der Redaktion
This provides the biological rationale for early treatment of patients with acute SCI