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DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
 MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH




 Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
              Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                          www.instituteforpr.com
This booklet was prepared and edited by

                     Dr. Don W. Stacks, University of Miami



       COMMISSION ON PUBLIC RELATIONS MEASUREMENT & EVALUATION
                      DICTIONARY EDITORIAL BOARD




Patricia Bayerlein                           Dr. Walter K. Lindenmann
Gagen MacDonald                              PR Research & Measurement Specialist

Dr. Kathryn Collins                          Dr. David Michaelson
General Motors                               Consultant

John Gilfeather                              Dr. Tom Watson
Roper ASW                                    Charles Sturt University

Fraser Likely                                Dr. Donald K. Wright
Likely Communication Strategies Ltd.         University of South Alabama
Marcia L. Watson, editorial assistant
University of Miami




          Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                       Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                   www.instituteforpr.com
FOREWARD TO 2007 EDITION

In the more than three years since the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and
Research was first released, it has become one of the most popular papers the Institute for
Public Relations has ever published. Week after week, visitors to our free website
(www.instituteforpr.org) download the dictionary. It has been reprinted with permission,
distributed and sometimes debated at major professional and academic conferences.

The truth is that public relations teachers and practitioners traditionally have not used the
same nomenclature – let alone definitions – for many central concepts of research and
measurement. Increasingly, however, it is clear that we should save our creativity for
program development and execution, not for the names and meanings applied to key
elements of the science beneath the art of public relations.

To that end, this second edition covers an expanded number of terms, with input from a
broader group of scholars and research experts. They now represent many more
countries where public relations science is regularly used. The Institute owes an
enormous debt of gratitude to all of them, but particularly to Dr. Don W. Stacks. His
tireless commitment to the Institute’s mission is surpassed only by his commitment to
family and students – and we are so very grateful to be number three on that list.

So, is the dictionary done yet? For now, maybe. But this new edition will undoubtedly
receive even wider distribution, leading to even more debate, and ultimately to further
evolution in our thinking about public relations research and measurement. You are
invited to take part.


                                                 Frank Ovaitt
                                                 President & CEO
                                                 Institute for Public Relations

Gainesville, Florida
January 2006




              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                       www.instituteforpr.com
FOREWORD TO 2002 EDITION


 “Words… are innocent, neutral, precise, standing for this, describing that, meaning the
           other…so if you look after them you can build bridges across
                            incomprehension and chaos.

“I don’t think writers are sacred, but words are. The deserve respect. If you get the right
               ones in the right order they can nudge the world a little….”

             From the play, THE REAL THING by Tom Stoppard



Why a dictionary for public relations measurement and research?

Because we don’t all measure the same things, measure the same ways, or use the same
tools or terminology. To get all of us on the same page we need to know precisely what
we mean when we use or say certain words in measuring our activities and our research.

Some may complain that the words we have chosen to define are too simplistic.
Remember Webster once defended his word choice by explaining that it’s the little words
we think we know the meaning of - but don’t - which cause most of the problems in
understanding and communications.

We thank Dr. Don Stacks and others who have given so generously of their time to
assemble this special choice of words and politely debate each definition. We have listed
their names for you and they will tell you they gratefully acknowledge that this is a work
in progress. Public relations continuously evolves so there are no “final words.”




                                                Jack Felton
                                                President & CEO
                                                Institute for Public Relations


Gainesville, Florida
September 2002




             Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                          Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                      www.instituteforpr.com
PREFACE TO 2007 EDITION


Public relations measurement and research has progressed far in the five years between
the first and second editions of the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and
Research. In its desire to answer concerns—among its own membership and from
“internal” and “external” clients—about demonstrating its effectiveness, the profession
began to focus on demonstrating its impact on the client’s outcomes of interest. This in
turn has lead to a more education in research design and evaluation methods.

The second edition of the Dictionary clearly reflects this trend. It does so in several
ways. First, the Dictionary has been expanded by almost 100 terms. Second, its cross-
referencing is more complete. Third, individual terms have been further designated as
statistical “s” or methodological “m” within the individual term definitions. Finally,
terms have been redefined and in many instances are more sophisticated—reflecting a
sophistication of the profession.

I am indebted to the Commission for Public Relations Measurement and Evaluation
members who toiled tirelessly to find suitable new terms and define them so that the user
might better understand not only the term but also its usage(s) in the research and
evaluation process. The second edition would not have been possible without their help.

I would like to acknowledge the help of Ms. Marcia L. Watson who carefully proofed
and corrected versions of the second edition. She did this in addition to her other duties
as a doctoral student at the University of Miami.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the University of Miami School of Communication
and Dean Sam Grogg for allowing me the time to work on this project.

Don W. Stacks
Coral Gables




              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                       www.instituteforpr.com
Algorithm                                                                                    Behavioral Objective




                     DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
                      MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH1

                                                             (“neutral” or “neither agree nor
                                                             disagree”) be provided to the
                                                             respondent; also known as Likert-
Algorithm – s. a step-by-step problem-
                                                            type or Semantic Differential
    solving procedure, especially an
                                                             measures; s. an output measured as
    established, recursive computational
                                                            an interval or ratio measure
    procedure for solving a problem in a
                                                          Audience – m. a specified group from
    finite number of steps
                                                             within a defined public targeted for
                α
Alpha Level (α) – s. the amount of error
                                                             influence
    or chance allowed in sampling or
    inferential testing
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – s. an                      Bar Graph – s. A representation of a
    inferential statistical test of                          frequency distribution by means of
    significance for continuous                              rectangles (or other indicators)
    measurement dependent variables                          whose widths represent class
    against a number of groups as                            intervals and whose heights
    independent variables                                    represent corresponding frequencies;
Articles – m. an output, typically printed                   see also: graph
    but also found on the Internet                        Baseline – s. an initial measurement
Attitude – m. a predisposition to act or                     against which all subsequent
    behave toward some object; a                             measures are compared; m. a data
    motivating factor in public relations;                   point established for comparison at
    composed of three dimensions:                            the developmental stage of a
    affective (emotional evaluation),                        research campaign.
    cognitive (knowledge evaluation),                     Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) – an
    and connotative (behavioral                              interview technique used to solicit
    evaluation)                                              evidence or examples of a specific
Attitude Research – m. the measuring                         competency or skill you possess;
    and interpreting a full range of                         BEI is based on the premise that a
    views, sentiments, feelings,                             person's past behavior is the best
    opinions, and beliefs that segments                      predictor of their future performance
    of the public may hold toward a                       Behavioral Objective – m. an objective
    client or product                                        that specifies the expected public
Attitude Scale – m. a measure that                           relations campaign or program
    targets respondent attitudes or beliefs                  outcome in terms of specific
    toward some object; typically                            behaviors; s. a measure that is
    interval-level data and requires that                    actionable in that it is the behavior
    an arbitrary or absolute midpoint

1
 Terms are identified as either statistical (s) or methodological (m). Common usage is used when
determining whether the term is listed as either statistical or methodological when terms have dual
meanings (e.g., regression).
                 Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                              Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                             www.instituteforpr.com
Belief                                              2                                 Clustered Sample



    requested (e.g., outcome) of a target              brings about a change in another
    audience; see also: outcome                        variable; s. the result of a significant
Belief – m. a long-held evaluation of                  interaction term in an analysis of
    some object, usually determined on a               variance or regression, often
    basis its occurrence; clusters of                  displayed in path analyses or
    beliefs yield attitudes                            sequential equation models
Benchmarking (Benchmark Study) –                    Census – m. collection of data from
    m. a measurement technique that                    every person or object in a
    involves having an organization                    population
    learn something about its own                   Central Tendency – s. a statistic that
    practices, the practices of selected               describes the typical or average case
    others, and then compares these                    in the distribution of a variable; see
    practices                                          also: mean, median, mode, range,
Bivariate Analysis – s. a statistical                  standard deviation, standardized
    examination of the relationship                    score, variance, z-score
    between two variables                           Characters – m. a manifest unit of
BRAD – s. British Rate and Data                        analysis used in content analysis
    measure – provides circulation and                 consisting of individuals or roles
    advertising costs data                             (e.g., occupations, roles, race)
                                                    Chi-Square (X2) – s. an inferential
                                                       statistical test of significance for
                                                       categorical data (nominal or ordinal)
Campaign (Program) – m. the
                                                    Circulation – s. number of copies of a
   planning, execution, and evaluation
                                                       publication as distributed (as
   of a public relations plan of action
                                                       opposed to read)
   aimed at solving a problem
                                                    Closed-Ended Question – m. a question
Case Study Methodology – m. an
                                                       that requires participants to answer
   informal research methodology that
                                                       selected and predetermined
   gathers data on a specific individual
                                                       responses (e.g., strongly agree,
   or company or product with the
                                                       agree, neither agree nor disagree,
   analysis focused on understanding
                                                       disagree, strongly disagree)
   its unique qualities; is not
                                                    Cluster analysis – s. An exploratory
   generalizable to other cases or
                                                       data analysis tool which aims at
   populations
                                                       sorting different objects into groups
Categorical Data – s. measurement data
                                                       in a way that the degree of
   that are defined by their association
                                                       association between two objects is
   with groups and are expressed in
                                                       maximal if they belong to the same
   terms of frequencies, percentages,
                                                       group and minimal if otherwise
   and proportions; see also: nominal
                                                    Clustered Sample – m. a type of
   data, ordinal data
                                                       probability sample that involves first
Category – m. in content analysis the
                                                       breaking the population into
   part of the system where the content
                                                       heterogeneous subsets (or clusters),
   (units of analysis) are placed; also
                                                       and then selecting the potential
   referred to as “subjects” or “buckets”
                                                       sample at random from the
Causal Relationship – m. a relationship
                                                       individual clusters
   between variables in which a change
   in one variable forces, produces, or
             Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                          Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                      www.instituteforpr.com
Coefficient Alpha                                     3                                   Confidence Interval



                      α
Coefficient Alpha (α) – s. a statistical                  these programs and their products,
   test for a measurement’s reliability                   and by identifying gaps in the overall
   for interval and ratio data; also                      existing communication program;
   known as Cronbach’s coefficient                        uses accepted research techniques
   alpha                                                  and methodologies; see also: formal
Cohen’s Kappa – s. an intercoder                          methodology, informal
   reliability measure used in content                    methodology, case study, content
   analysis when there are more than                      analysis, survey, in-depth interview,
   two coders; see also: reliability,                     focus group, experiment, secondary,
   content analysis                                       historical, participant-observation
Cohort Survey – m. a type of                           Communication(s) Research – m. any
   longitudinal survey in which some                      systematic study of the relationships
   specific group is studied over time                    and patterns that are developed when
   according to some criteria that stays                  people seek to share information
   the same (e.g., age = 21) while the                    with each other
   samples may differ                                  Community Case Study – m. an
Column Inches – s. total length of an                     informal methodology whereby the
   article if it were all one-column                      researcher takes an in-depth look at
   measured in inches (or centimeters);                   one or several communities –
   determines the total “share of ink”                    subsections of communities – in
   that a company or brand has                            which an organization has an interest
   achieved                                               by impartial, trained researchers
Communication – m. the process that                       using a mix of informal research
   deals with the transmission and                        methodologies (i.e., participant-
   reception of intentional messages                      observation, role-playing, secondary
   that are a part of a natural language                  analysis, content analysis,
   system (e.g., words, phrases,                          interviewing, focus groups)
   sentences, paragraphs)                              Concurrent Validity – m. a
Communication Product (Product) –                         measurement device’s ability to vary
   m. the end result of the                               directly with a measure of the same
   communication product process                          construct or indirectly with a
   resulting in the production and                        measure of an opposite construct. It
   dissemination of a brochure, media                     allows you to show that your test is
   release, video news release, Web                       valid by comparing it with an
   site, speech, and so forth; see also:                  already valid test
   output, outtake                                     Confidence Interval – s. in survey
Communication(s) Audit – m. a                             methodology based on a random
   systematic review and analysis of                      sampling technique; the range of
   how effectively an organization                        values or measurement within which
   communicates with all of its major                     a population parameter is estimated
   internal and external audiences by                     to fall (e.g., for a large population we
   identifying these audiences, by                        might expect answers to a question
   identifying the communication                          to be within ±3% of the true
   programs and their communication                       population answer; if 55% responded
   products utilized for each audience,                   positively, the confidence interval
   by determining the effectiveness of

                Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                             Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                         www.instituteforpr.com
Confidence Level                                     4                                 Convergent Validity



   would be from 52% to 58%);                           discriminant validity, divergent
   sometimes called measurement error                   validity
Confidence Level – m. in survey                      Contingency Question – m. a survey
   methodology based on a random                        question that is to be asked only to
   sampling technique, the amount of                    some respondents, determined by
   confidence we can place on our                       their responses to some other
   confidence interval (typically set at                questions; sometimes called a
   95%, or 95 out of 100 cases truly                    “funnel question”
   representing the population under                 Contingency Table – s. a statistical
   study, with no more than 5 cases out                 table for displaying the relationship
   of 100 misrepresenting that                          between variables in terms of
   population); sometimes called                        frequencies and percentages;
   sampling error; s. the amount of                     sometimes called a “cross tabulation
   confidence a researcher has that a                   table” or “cross tab”
   finding between groups or categories              Continuous Data – s. data that are
   is statistically significant; see also:              measured on a continuum, usually as
   statistically significant                            interval data
Construct Validity – m. a dimension of               Contour Plot – s. a contour plot is a
   measurement; s. a statistically tested               graphical technique for representing
   form of measurement validity that                    a 3-dimensional surface by plotting
   seeks to establish the dimensionality                constant z slices, called contours, on
   of a measure; see also: validity, face               a 2-dimensional format. That is,
   validity, criterion-related validity,                given a value for z, lines are drawn
   content validity, discriminant                       for connecting the (x,y) coordinates
   validity, divergent validity                         where that z value occurs. The
Content Analysis – m. an informal                       contour plot is used to answer the
   research methodology (and                            question “how does Z change as a
   measurement tool) that                               function of X and Y?”
   systematically tracks messages                    Convenience Sample – m. a non-
   (written, spoken, broadcast) and                     probability sample where the
   translates them into quantifiable                    respondents or objects are chosen
   form via a systematic approach to                    because of availability (e.g., “man on
   defining message categories through                  the street”); a type of non-probability
   specified units of analysis; the action              sample in which who ever happens
   of breaking down message content                     to be available at a given point in
   into predetermined components                        time is included in the sample;
   (categories) to form a judgment                      sometimes called a “haphazard” or
   capable of being measured                            “accidental” sample
Content Validity – m. a form of                      Convergent Validity – s. a type of
   measurement validity that is based                   construct validity that refers to the
   on other researchers or experts                      principle that the indicators for a
   evaluations of the measurement                       given construct should be at least
   items contained in a measure; see                    moderately correlated among
   also: validity, fact validity, construct             themselves; see also: Coefficient
   validity, criterion-related validity,                alpha, validity, face validity, content
                                                        validity, construct-related validity,

              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                       www.instituteforpr.com
Correlation                                         5                                            Data



   criterion-related validity,                       Crossbreak Analysis – s. a categorical
   discriminant validity, divergent                     analysis that compares the frequency
   validity                                             of responses in individual cells from
Correlation (r) – s. a statistical test that            one variable against another; see
   examines the relationships between                   also: crosstabulation, frequency,
   variables (may be either categorical                 frequency table
   or continuous); see also: correlation             Cross-Sectional Survey – m. a survey
   coefficient, Pearson Product Moment                  based on observations representing a
   coefficient, Spearman-Rho, r                         single point in time; see also:
Correlation Coefficient – s. a measure                  snapshot survey
   of association that describes the                 Crosstabs – s. statistical tables used to
   direction and strength of a linear                   array the data; allows the analyst to
   relationship between two variables;                  go beyond total data into frequencies
   usually measured at the interval or                  and averages as well as to make
   ratio data level (e.g., Pearson                      possible overall as well as sub-group
   Product Moment Coefficient, r), but                  analyses (e.g., comparisons of the
   can be measured at the nominal or                    opinions expressed by sell-side
   ordinal level (e.g., Spearman-Rho)                   analysts with those stated by buy-
Cost Per Thousand (CPM) – s. cost of                    side investment professionals)
   advertising for each 1,000 homes                  Crosstabulation – s. the result of two
   reached by the media                                 categorical variables in a table; see
Cost-Effectiveness – s. an outcome that                 also: crossbreak analysis, frequency,
   may be measured in public relations                  frequency table
   research which evaluates the relation             Cumulative Scale (Guttman Scale/
   between overall expenditure (costs)                  Scalogram) – m. a measurement
   and results produced, usually the                    scale that assumes that when you
   ratio of changes in costs to change in               agree with a scale item you will also
   effects                                              agree with items that are less
Covariation – s. a criterion for                        extreme; see also: outcome,
   causation whereby the dependent                      Guttman Scalogram, Likert scale,
   variable takes on different values                   semantic differential scale
   depending on the independent                      Cyber Image Analysis – m. the
   variable                                             measurement of Internet content via
Criterion Variable –m. the variable the                 chat rooms or discussion groups in
   research wants to predict to; see also:              cyberspace regarding a client or
   dependent variable                                   product or topic; the measurement of
Criterion-Related Validity – m. a form                  a client’s image everywhere on the
   of validity that compares one                        Internet
   measure against others known to
   have specified relationships with
   what is being measured; the highest
                                                     Data – m. the observations or
   form of measurement validity; see
                                                        measurements taken when
   also: validity, face validity, content
                                                        evaluating a public relations
   validity, content validity,
                                                        campaign or program; s. the
   discriminant validity, divergent
                                                        frequencies, means, percentages
   validity
                                                        used to assess a campaign or
              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                       www.instituteforpr.com
Database                                           6                                       Editorial



   program; see also: nominal data,                    such a way as to paint a picture of
   ordinal data, interval data, ratio data             what people think or do
Database – s. a collection of data                  Descriptive Statistics – s. the reduction
   arranged for ease and speed of                      and simplification of the numbers
   search and retrieval                                representing research, to ease
Database Mining – m. a research                        interpreting the results
   technique utilizing existing data; see           Descriptive Survey – m. a type of
   also, secondary methodology                         survey that collects in quantitative
Deduction – m. a philosophical logic in                form basic opinions or facts about a
   which specific expectations or                      specified population or sample; also
   hypotheses are developed or derived                 known as a “public opinion poll”
   on the basis of general principles               Design Bias – m. research design bias is
Delphi Technique – m. a research                       introduced when the study fails to
   methodology (usually survey or                      identify the validity problems or
   interview) where the researcher tries               when publicity about the research
   to forecast the future based on                     fails to incorporate the researcher’s
   successive waves of interviews or                   cautions
   surveys with a panel of experts in a             Discriminant Validity – s. a type of
   given field as a means of building a                validity that is determined by
   “consensus” of expert opinion and                   hypothesizing and examining
   thought relating to particular topics               differential relations between a test
   or issues                                           and measures of similar or different
Demographic Analysis – m. analysis of                  constructs. It is the opposite of
   a population in terms of special                    convergent validity and is also
   social, political, economic, and                    known as divergent validity; see
   geographic subgroups (e.g., age, sex,               also: convergent validity, divergent
   income-level, race, educational-                    validity; m. a way of establishing if a
   level, place of residence, occupation)              measure is measuring what it is
Demographic Data – m. data that                        supposed to measure; see also:
   differentiates between groups of                    validity, criterion-related validity
   people or things (e.g., sex, race,               Divergent Validity – s. see also:
   income)                                             discriminant validity
Dependent Variable – m. the variable                Double-Barreled Question – m. a
   that is measured or collected                       question that attempts to measure
Depth Interview – m. an extensive,                     two things at the same time; a source
   probing, open-ended, largely                        of measurement error
   unstructured interview, usually
   conducted in person or by telephone,
   in which respondents are encouraged
                                                    Editorial – m. the content of a
   to talk freely and in great detail
                                                       publication written by a journalist, as
   about given subjects; also known as
                                                       distinct from advertising content
   an “in-depth interview”; see also: in-
                                                       which is determined by an
   depth methodology
                                                       advertiser; an article expressing the
Descriptive Research – m. a form of
                                                       editorial policy of a publication of a
   research that gathers information in
                                                       matter of interest (also known as a
                                                       “leader” or “leading article”); space
             Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                          Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                      www.instituteforpr.com
Environmental Scanning                               7                                    Fever Graph



   in a publication bought by an                      Events – s. a community affairs or
   advertiser that includes journalistic                 sponsorship output
   copy intended to make the reader                   Experimental Methodology – m. a
   think it originates from an                           formal research methodology that
   independent source (also knows as                     imposes strict artificial limits or
   an “advertorial”); s. an outcome or                   boundaries on the research in order
   measured variable                                     to establish some causal relationship
Environmental Scanning – m. a                            between variables of interest; is not
   research technique for tracking new                   generalizable to a larger population
   developments in any area or field by               Explanatory Research – m. a form of
   carrying out a systematic review of                   research that seeks to explain why
   what appears in professional, trade,                  people say, think, feel, and act the
   or government publications                            way they do; concerned primarily
Equal Appearing Interval Scale – m. a                    with the development of public
   measurement scale with predefined                     relations theory about relationships
   values associated with each                           and processes; are typically
   statement; see also: Thurstone scale                  deductive
Equivalent Advertising Value (AVE) –                  Exploratory Research – m. a form of
   s. equivalent cost of buying space                    research that seeks to establish basic
   devoted to editorial content                          attitudes, opinions, and behavior
Error Bar – s. a graphical data analysis                 patterns or facts about a specific
   technique for showing the error in                    population or sample; are typically
   the dependent variable and                            inductive and involve extensive
   optionally; the independent variable                  probing of the population or sample
   in a standard x-y plot                                or data
Ethnographic Research – m. an
   informal research methodology that
   relies on the tools and techniques of
                                                      Face Validity – m. a form of
   cultural anthropologists and
                                                         measurement validity that is based
   sociologists to obtain a better
                                                         on the researcher’s knowledge of the
   understanding of how individuals
                                                         concept being measured; the lowest
   and groups function in their natural
                                                         form of measurement validity; see
   settings; see also: participant-
                                                         also: validity, content validity,
   observation
                                                         construct validity, criterion-related
Evaluation Research –m. a form of
                                                         validity, discriminant validity,
   research that determines the relative
                                                         divergent validity
   effectiveness of a public relations
                                                      Facilitator – m. an individual who leads
   campaign or program by measuring
                                                         a focus group; also known as a
   program outcomes (changes in the
                                                         moderator
   levels of awareness, understanding,
                                                      Factor Analysis – s. a statistical tool
   attitudes, opinions, and/or behaviors
                                                         that allows researchers to test the
   of a targeted audience or public)
                                                         dimensionality of their measures;
   against a predetermined set of
                                                         used to assess a measure’s construct
   objectives that initially established
                                                         validity
   the level or degree of change desired
                                                      Fever Graph – s. a form of line graph
                                                         that measures peaks and valleys of
               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Field Study Methodology                              8                           Gross Rating Points (GRP)



    data along a continuum that is either             Frequency Table – s. a listing of counts
    continuous or whose classes                          and percentages in tabular form; may
    represent categories; see also: graph                report a single variable or multiple
Field Study Methodology – m. a formal                    variables; see also: crossbreak
    research methodology that imposes                    analysis, crosstabulation
    fewer restrictions or limits or                   F-Test – s. an inferential test of
    boundaries on the research in order                  significance associated with
    to test some causal relationships                    Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); see
    found in experimental research and                   also: Analysis of Variance
    generalize them to a larger                       Funnel Question – m. a question used
    population                                           in a questionnaire or schedule that
Filter Question – m. a question which is                 moves an interviewer or respondent
    used to move a respondent from one                   from one part of a survey to another
    question to another; a question that                 (e.g., “Are you a registered voter?”
    is used to remove a respondent from                  If the respondent says yes, certain
    a survey or interview; see also:                     questions are asked and if not, then
    funnel question                                      other questions are asked); see also:
Focus Group Methodology – m. an                          filter question
    informal research methodology that
    uses a group approach to gain an in-
    depth understanding of a client,
                                                      Goal (Objective) – m. the explicit
    object, or product; is not
                                                         statement of intentions that supports
    generalizable to other focus groups
                                                         a communication strategy and
    or populations
                                                         includes an intended
Formal Methodology – m. a set of
                                                         audience/receiver, a proposed
    research methodologies that allows
                                                         measurable outcome (or desired
    the researcher to generalize to a
                                                         level of change in that audience),
    larger audience but often fails to gain
                                                         and a specific timeframe for that
    in-depth understanding of the client,
                                                         change to occur
    object, or product; a set of
                                                      Grand Mean – s. a descriptive statistics
    methodologies that follow scientific
                                                         which represents the mean of all
    or social scientific method; a set of
                                                         sample means in a study, weighted
    methodologies that are deductive in
                                                         by the number of items in each
    nature
                                                         sample. The grand mean treats the
Formative Evaluation – m. a method of
                                                         individuals in the different subsets
    evaluating the process by which
                                                         (groups) as if there were no
    programs occur while activities are
                                                         subgroups, but only individual
    in their early stages with the intent of
                                                         measures in the set. The grand mean
    improving or correcting activities
                                                         is thus simply the mean of all of the
Frequency – s. a descriptive statistic
                                                         scores; see also: mean
    that represents the number of objects
                                                      Graph – s. a graphical representation of
    being counted (e.g., number of
                                                         a variable; see also: bar, pie, line,
    advertisements, number of people
                                                         fever
    who attend an event, number of
                                                      Gross Rating Points (GRP) – measures
    media release pickups)
                                                         of weight or readership or audience
                                                         equivalent to audience exposure
               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Guttman Scale                                       9                                 Inferential Research



     among one percent of the
     population; see also: Targeted Gross
     Rating Points (TGRP)                               Image Research – m. a research
  Guttman Scale (Cumulative                                 program or campaign that
     Scale/Scalogram) – m. a                                systematically studies people’s
     measurement scale that assumes                         perceptions toward an organization,
     unidimensionality and that people,                     individual, product, or service;
     when faced with a choice will also                     sometimes referred to as a
     choose items less intense than the                     “reputation study”
     one chosen                                         Impressions – m. the number of people
                                                            who might have had the opportunity
                                                            to be exposed to a story that has
                                                            appeared in the media; also known
  Histogram – s. a representation of a
     frequency distribution by means of                     as “opportunity to see” (OTS); s.
     rectangles whose widths represent                      usually refers to the total audited
     class intervals and whose heights                      circulation of a publication or the
     represent corresponding frequencies;                   audience reach of a broadcast
     a bar chart representing a frequency                   vehicle
     distribution; heights of the bars                  Incidence – s. the frequency with which
     represent observed frequencies; see                    a condition or event occurs in a
     also: graph                                            given time and population or sample
  Historical Methodology – m. an                        Independent t-Test – s. an inferential
     informal research methodology that                     statistical test of significance that
     examines the causes and effects of                     compares two levels of an
     past events                                            independent variable against a
  Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient – s. a                   continuous measured dependent
     fairly simple reliability measure used                 variable
     in content analysis; see also:                     Independent Variable – m. the variable
     reliability, content analysis,                         against which the dependent variable
     intercoder reliability, intracoder                     is tested
     reliability, Scott’s pi, and                       In-Depth Interview Methodology – m.
     Krippendorf’s alpha                                    an informal research methodology in
  Hypothesis – m. an expectation about                      which an individual interviews
     the nature of things derived from                      another in a one-on-one situation;
     theory; a prediction of how an                         see also: in-depth interview
     independent variable changes a                     Induction – m. a philosophical logic in
     dependent variable; formally stated                    which general principles are
     as a predication (e.g., males will                     developed from specific
     purchase more of X than females),                      observations
     but tested via the null hypothesis                 Inferential Research – m. statistical
     (males and females will not differ in                  analyses that test if the results
     their purchases of X)                                  observed for a sample are indicative
  Hypothesis Testing – m. determining                       of the population; the presentation of
     whether the expectations that a                        information that allows us to make
                                                            judgments whether the research
     hypothesis represents are, indeed,
                                                            results observed in a sample
     found in the real world
                Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                             Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                         www.instituteforpr.com
Inferential Statistics                                  10                                  Issues Research



    generalize to the population from                        was poorly written; s. tested for via
    which the sample was drawn                               reliability analyses; see also:
Inferential Statistics – s. statistical tests                Coefficient Alpha, KR-20
    that allow a researcher to say within                Intercoder Reliability – m. the
    a certain degree of confidence                           reliability of content analysis coding
    whether variables or groups truly                        when the coding is done by two or
    differ in their response to a public                     more coders; see also: reliability,
    relations message; see: Analysis of                      intracoder reliability, Holsti’s
    Variance, Chi-Square, bivariate                          Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi,
    correlation, correlation, Pearson                        Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa
    Product Moment Correlation,                          Interval Data – m. measurement data
    Spearman-rho, regression, path                           that are defined on a continuum and
    analysis, sequential equation model,                     assumed to have equal spacing
    t-test                                                   between data points (see interval and
Informal Methodology – m. a research                         ratio data); s. includes temperature
    methodology that does not allow the                      scale, standardized intelligence test
    researcher to generalize to a larger                     scores, Likert-type scale, semantic
    audience but gains in-depth                              differential scale, Guttman
    understanding of the client, object,                     Scalogram; see also: attitude
    or product                                               research, attitude scale, data,
Informational Objective – m. an                              variable, Likert scale, Guttman
    objective that establishes what                          Scalogram
    information a target audience should                 Interview Schedule – m. a guideline for
    know or the degree of change in                          asking questions in person or over
    knowledge levels after the                               the telephone interviewers are tasked
    conclusion of a public relations                         with predicting your likelihood of
    campaign or program                                      success in a given position and use
Inputs – m. the research information and                     your past behavior as one indicator
    data from both internal and external                     of your future performance
    sources applied in the conception,                   Intracoder reliability – m. the
    approval, and design phases of the                       reliability of content analysis coding
    input stage of the communication                         when the coding is done by only one
    production process                                       coder, usually the researcher; s.
Inquiry Research – m. a formal or                            obtained from statistical tests which
    informal research methodology that                       analyze coder decisions versus
    employs systematically content                           chance; see also: reliability,
    analysis, survey methodology,                            intercoder reliability, Cohen’s kappa,
    and/or interviewing techniques to                        Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient,
    study the range and types of                             Krippendorf’s alpha, Scott’s pi
    unsolicited inquiries that an                        Issues Research – m. a formal or
    organization may receive from                            informal research methodology that
    customers, prospective customers, or                     systematically studies public policy
    other target audience groups                             questions of the day, with the chief
Instrumental Error – m. in                                   focus on those public policy matters
    measurement, error that occurs                           whose definition and contending
    because the measuring instrument                         positions are still evolving

                  Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                               Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                           www.instituteforpr.com
Items                                              11                             Mall Intercept Research



Items – s. a manifest unit of analysis
   used in content analysis consisting
   an entire message itself (e.g., an               Latent Content – m. from content
   advertisement, story, press release)                analysis, an analysis of the
                                                       underlying idea, thesis, or theme of
                                                       content; the deeper meanings that are
Judgmental Sample – m. a type of non-                  intended or perceived in a message
   probability sample in which                      Likert Scale – m. an interval-level
                                                       measurement scale that requires
   individuals are deliberately selected
   for inclusion in the sample by the                  people to respond to statements on a
                                                       set of predetermined reactions,
   researcher because they have special
   knowledge, position, characteristics                usually strongly agree, agree, neither
   or represent other relevant                         agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly
   dimensions of the population that are               disagree; must possess an odd
   deemed important to study; see also:                number of reaction words or phrases;
   purposive sample                                    also called “summated ratings
                                                       method” because the scale requires
                                                       at least two, if not three, statements
                                                       per measurement dimension
Key Performance (Performance                        Line Graph – s. a representation of
   Result) – m. the desired end effect or              frequency distribution by means of
   impact of a program of campaign                     lines representing data points at
   performance                                         various intervals along a continuum;
Known Group t-Test – s. an inferential                 see also: Graph
   statistical test of significance that            Longitudinal Survey – m. a type of
   compares the results for a sampled                  survey that consists of different
   group on some continuous                            individuals or objects that is
   measurement dependent variable                      observed or measured over time
   against a known value; see also:                    (e.g., multiple snapshot samples)
   inferential statistics, independent t-
   test
KR-20 – s. a reliability statistic for
                                                    Mail Survey – m. a survey technique
   nominal- or ordinal-level
                                                      whereby a questionnaire is sent to a
   measurement; also known as Kuder-
                                                      respondent via the mail (or Internet)
   Richardson Formula 20; see also:
                                                      and the respondent self-administers
   reliability, Coefficient Alpha
                                                      the questionnaire and then sends it
Krippendorf’s Alpha – s. a fairly
                                                      back
   simple content analysis coding
                                                    Mall Intercept Research – m. a special
   reliability measure; see also:
                                                      type of person-to-person surveying
   reliability, intercoder reliability,
                                                      in which in-person interviewing is
   Intracoder reliability, Holsti’s
                                                      conducted by approaching
   Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi,
                                                      prospective participants as they stroll
   Cohen’s kappa
                                                      through shopping centers or malls; a
                                                      non-probability form of sampling



             Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                          Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                      www.instituteforpr.com
Manifest Content                                     12                           Message Content Analysis



Manifest Content – m. from content                      content validity, construct validity,
  analysis, an analysis of the actual                   criterion-related validity
  content of a message exactly as it                  Media – m. includes newspapers,
  appears as opposed to latent content                  business and consumer magazines
  that must be inferred from messages                   and other publications, radio and
Market Research – m. any systematic                     television, the Internet; company
  study of buying or selling behavior                   reports, news wires, government
Mean – s. a descriptive statistic of                    reports and brochures; Internet Web
  central tendency that describes the                   sites and discussion groups
  “average” of a set of numbers on a                  Media Evaluations – m. the systematic
  continuum; also called “average;”                     appraisal of a company’s reputation,
  the process of applying a precise                     products or services, or those of its
  number or metric, which is both                       competitors, as measured by their
  valid and reliable, to the evaluation                 presence in the media
  of some performance                                 Median – s. a descriptive statistic of
Measurement – m. a way of giving an                     central tendency indicating the
  activity a precise dimension,                         midpoint in a series of data; the point
  generally by comparison to some                       above and below which 50 percent
  standard; usually done in a                           of the data values fall
  quantifiable or numerical manner;                   Mention Prominence – s. an outcome
  see also: data, scale                                 based on an indication of how
Measurement Bias – m. failure to                        prominent a company, product, or
  control for the effects of data                       issue was mentioned in the media;
  collection and measurement, e.g.                      typically measured in percent of
  tendency of people to give socially                   article and position within the output
  desirable answers                                     (e.g., headline, above the fold, first
Measurement Error – m. the amount of                    three minutes)
  error found in a research campaign;                 Mentions – s. an output or outcome
  in surveys it is the amount of error in               consisting of counts of incidents of a
  individual responses; s. a term that                  company or product or person
  expresses the amount of doubt that a                  appears in the media, one mention
  researcher may accept in terms of                     constitutes a media placement
  findings; see also: confidence                      Message Content – m. the verbal,
  interval                                              visual, and audio elements of a
Measurement Reliability – m. the                        message; the material from which
  extent to which a measurement scale                   content analyses are conducted; s. a
  measures the same thing over time;                    trend analysis factor that measures
  s. a statistical reporting of how                     what, if any, of planned messages
  reliable a measure is; see also:                      are actually contained in the media;
  Coefficient Alpha, test-retest                        see also: message content analysis
  reliability, split-half reliability)                Message Content Analysis – m.
Measurement Validity – m. the extent                    analysis of media coverage of
  to which a measurement scale                          messages regarding a client, product,
  actually measures what it believed to                 or topic on key issues
  measure; see also: face validity,


               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Message Strength                                      13                                     Null Hypothesis



  Message Strength – s. trend analysis                     Nominal Data – s. measurement data
    factor that measures how strongly                         that are simple categories in which
    message about a client or product or                      items are different in name only and
    topic was communicated                                    do not possess any ordering; data
  Mode – s. a descriptive statistic of                        that are mutually exhaustive and
    central tendency indicating the most                      exclusive; the simplest or lowest of
    frequently occurring (the most                            all data; categorical data; example:
    typical) value in a data series                           male or female, where neither is seen
  Moderator – m. an individual who leads                      as better as or larger than the other
    a focus group; also known as a                         Nonparametric Statistics – s.
    facilitator                                               inferential and descriptive statistics
  Monitoring – m. a process by which                          based on categorical data; see also:
    data are systematically and regularly                     Chi-Square, Spearman-rho
    collected about a research program                     Non-Probability Sample – m. a sample
    over time; see also: environmental                        drawn from a population whereby
    scanning                                                  respondents or objects do not have
  Motivational Objective – m. an                              an equal change of being selected for
    objective that establishes the desired                    observation or measurement
    level of change in a target audience’s                 Nonverbal Communication – m. that
    specific attitudes or beliefs after a                     aspect of the communication that
    public relations campaign                                 deals with the transmission and
  Multiple Regression – s. a statistical                      reception of messages that are not a
    technique that employs multiple                           part of a natural language system
    dependent variables to predict an                         (e.g., visual, spoken [as opposed to
    outcome variable (dependent                               verbal], environmental)
    variable); see also: Regression,                       Norm – s. short for “normative data”;
    independent variable, dependent                           see also: normative data
    variable                                               Normal Curve – s. measurement data
  Multivariate Analysis – s. an inferential                   reflecting the hypothetical
    or descriptive statistic that examines                    distribution of data points or cases
    the relationship among three or more                      based on interval- or ratio-level data
    variables                                                 that are “normally distributed” and
                                                              error free; all continuous or
                                                              parametric data sets have their own
                                                              normally distributed data that fall
  Network Analysis – m. a formal or
                                                              under its specific normal curve
     informal research method that
                                                           Normative Data – s. the proprietary set
     examines how individuals or units or
                                                              of scores that allow comparison of
     actors relate to each other in some
                                                              results to other studies and see
     systematic way
                                                              “where you stand” and provide a
  Neutral Point – s. a point midway
                                                              context
     between extremes in attitude
     measurement scales; in Likert-type                    Null Hypothesis – s. the hypothesis of
     scales usually defined as “neutral” or                   no difference that is formally tested
     “neither agree nor disagree”; see                        in a research campaign or program;
     also: attitude, attitude scale, Likert                   its rejection is the test of the theory;
     scale, semantic differential scale                       it is the formal hypothesis that all
                   Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                                Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                            www.instituteforpr.com
Objective                                            14                                        Output



    inferential statistics test; see also:               and ordered; categorical data;
    inferential statistics                               example: income as categories of
                                                         under $25K, $26K–$50K, $51K–
                                                         $75K, $76K–$100K, over $100K
                                                      Outcomes – m. quantifiable changes in
Objective – m. a measurable outcome in                   awareness, knowledge, attitude,
   three forms: informational                            opinion, and behavior levels that
   (cognitive), motivational                             occur as a result of a public relations
   (attitudinal/belief), behavioral                      program or campaign; an effect,
   (actionable); an explicit statement of                consequence, or impact of a set or
   intentions that supports a                            program of communication activities
   communication strategy, and to be                     or products, and may be either short-
   measurable, includes an intended                      term (immediate) or long term; s. the
   audience/public, a proposed change                    dependent variable in research; see
   in a communication effect, a precise                  also: dependent variable
   indication of the amount or level of               Outgrowth – m. the culminate effect of
   change and a specific timeframe for                   all communication programs and
   the change to occur                                   products on the positioning of an
Omnibus Survey – m. an “all purpose”                     organization in the minds of its
   national consumer poll usually                        stakeholders or publics; s. an
   conducted on a regular schedule                       outcome statistics used as a
   (once a week or every other week)                     dependent variable in some research;
   by major market research firms; also                  see also: dependent variable,
   called “piggyback” or “shared-cost”                   outcome
   survey                                             Output – m. what is generated as a
Open-Ended Question – m. open-ended                      result of a PR program or campaign
   questions probe the dimensions of                     that impacts on a target audience or
   attitudes and behavior held by a                      public to act or behave in some way
   particular respondent through an                      — this is deemed important to the
   interactive conversation between                      researcher (also known as a
   respondent and interviewer                            “judgmental sample”); the final stage
Opinion – m. a verbalized or written                     of a communication product,
   evaluation of some object                             production, or process resulting in
Opportunities to See (OTS) – m. the                      the production and dissemination of
   number of times a particular                          a communication product (brochure,
   audience has the potential to view a                  media release, Web site, speech,
   message, subject or issue; s. an                      etc.); s. the number of
   outcome statistic based on outputs                    communication products or services
   serving as a dependent variable in                    resulting from a communication
   some research; see also: dependent                    production process; the number
   variable, impressions, outcome,                       distributed and/or the number
   output                                                reaching a targeted audience;
Ordinal Data – s. measurement data                       sometimes used as an outcome
   that are categories in which items are                serving as a dependent variable in
   different in name and possess an                      research; see also: dependent
   ordering of some sort; data that are                  variable, outcome
   mutually exhaustive and exclusive
               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Outtake                                            15                                  Performance Indicator



Outtake – m. measurement of what                    Participant-Observation – m. an
   audiences have understood and/or                    informal research methodology
   heeded and/or responded to a                        where the researcher takes an active
   communication product’s call to                     role in the life of an organization or
   seek further information from PR                    community, observes and records
   messages prior to measuring an                      interactions, and then analyzes those
   outcome; audience reaction to the                   interactions
   receipt of a communication product,              Path Analysis – s. a statistical technique
   including favorability of the product,              that establishes relationships
   recall and retention of the message                 between variables with arrows
   embedded in the product, and                        between variables indicating the
   whether the audience heeded or                      pattern of causal relationships
   responded to a call for information                 usually in the form of a “path
   or action within the message; s.                    diagram”; see also: path diagram
   sometimes used as an outcome                     Path Diagram – s. a graphical
   serving as a dependent variable in                  representation of the causal
   research; see also: dependent                       relationships between variables
   variable, outcome                                   showing both direction and strength
                                                       of relationship
                                                    Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
                                                       (r) – s. a correlation statistic used
Paired t-Test – s. an inferential
                                                       with interval and ratio data; see also:
   statistical test of significance that
                                                       correlation, data, Spearman-rho
   compares data that are collected
                                                    Percent of Change – s. a measure of
   twice on the same sample; see also:
                                                       increase or decrease of media
   inferential statistics, independent t-
                                                       coverage
   test, known-group t-test
                                                    Percentage – s. a descriptive statistic
Panel Survey – m. a type of survey that
                                                       based on categorical data; defined as
   consists of the same individuals or
                                                       the frequency count for a particular
   objects that is observed or measured
                                                       category divided by the total
   over time; a type of survey in which
                                                       frequency count; example: 10 males
   a group of individuals are
                                                       out of 100 people = 10%; see also:
   deliberately recruited by a research
                                                       descriptive statistics
   firm because of their special
                                                    Percentage Point – s. the number that a
   demographic characteristics for the
                                                       percentage is increased or decreased
   express purpose of being interviewed
                                                    Performance – m. the act of carrying-
   more than once over a period of time
                                                       out, doing, executing, or putting into
   for various clients on a broad array
                                                       effect; a deed, task, action, or
   of different topics or subjects
                                                       activity as a unit of a program of
Parameter – s. in sampling, a
                                                       performance
   characteristic of a population that is
                                                    Performance Indicator – m. a sign or
   of interest
                                                       parameter that, if tracked over time,
Parametric Statistics – s. inferential
                                                       provides information about the on-
   and descriptive statistics based on
                                                       going results of a particular program
   continuous data; see also: data,
                                                       of performance or campaign; s. an
   descriptive statistics, inferential
                                                       outcome measured during a public
   statistics
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                                      www.instituteforpr.com
Performance Measure                                 16                                     Proportion



    relations campaign that serves as a                 program on business investment; s.
    dependent variable; see also: data,                 the outcome (dependent) variable
    dependent variable                                  which demonstrates the impact of a
Performance Measure – m. is a number                    public relations campaign or
    that shows the exact extent to which                program investment on the overall
    a result was achieved; s. in a                      business outcomes; a causal
    research campaign, an outcome of                    indicator of public relations impact;
    some sort serving as a dependent                    see also: causal relationships,
    variable; see also: data, dependent                 Return on Investment (ROI)
    variable, outcome                                Probability Sample – m. a sample
Performance Result (Key                                 drawn at random from a population
    Performance) – m. the desired end                   such that all possible respondents or
    effect or impact of a program of                    objects have an equal chance of
    campaign performance                                being selected for observation or
Performance Target – m. a time-                         measurement
    bounded and measurable                           Probe Question – m. a question used in
    commitment toward achieving a                       a questionnaire or schedule that
    desired result                                      requires the participant to explain an
Periodicity – s. a bias found in sampling               earlier response, often in the form of
    due to the way in which the items or                “why do you think this?”
    respondents are chosen; example:                 Product (Communication Product) –
    newspapers may differ by being                      m. the end result of the
    daily, weekly, weekday only, and so                 communication product or process
    forth                                               resulting in the production and
Pie Graph – s. A representation of a                    dissemination of a brochure, media
    frequency distribution by means of                  release, video news release, Web
    triangular portions of a pie whose                  site, speech, and so forth; an output
    sections represents the percentages                 or outtake; see also: output, outtake
    of the variable of interest; see also:           Program (Campaign) – m. the
    graph                                               planning, execution, and evaluation
Piggyback Survey – m. see: omnibus                      of a public relations plan of action
    survey                                              aimed at solving a problem
Poll – m. a form of survey research that             Prominence of Mention – m. trend
    focuses more on immediate behavior                  analysis factor that measures how
    than attitudes; a very short survey-                prominently a client or product or
    like method whose questionnaire                     topic was mentioned and where that
    asks only very short and closed-                    mention occurred (e.g., headline, top
    ended questions; see also: in-depth                 of the fold, what part of a broadcast);
    survey, survey methodology                          s. an output unit of analysis used as a
Position Papers – m. print output                       dependent variable; see also:
Positioning – m. trend analysis factor                  dependent variable, output
    that measures how a client or                    Proportion – s. a descriptive statistic
    product or topic was positioned in                  based on categorical data; defined as
    the media (e.g., leader, follower)                  the percentage as made part of one
PR Return on Investment (PRROI) –                       (1.0); example: 10 males out of 100
    m. the impact of a public relations

              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                       www.instituteforpr.com
Psychographic Research                               17                                   Questionnaire



   people are 10 hundredths of the                         or relevant dimensions of the
   sample                                                  population
Psychographic Research – m. research                 Push Poll – m. a survey technique in
   focusing on a population or sample’s                 which an interviewer begins by
   non-demographic traits and                           acting as if the telephone call is a
   characteristics, such as personality                 general survey but then asks the
   type, life-style, social roles, values,              respondent a question implying
   attitudes, and beliefs                               questionable behaviors or outcomes
Psychometrics – s. a branch of                          of a person or product
   psychology that deals with the
   design, administration, and
   interpretation of quantitative tests for
   the measurement of psychological                  Q-Sort – m. a measurement instrument
   variables such as intelligence,                      that focuses on respondent beliefs by
   aptitude, and personality traits; also               asking them to sort through piles of
   called psychometry                                   opinion statement and sort them into
Public – m. a group of people who have                  piles on an 11-point continuum
   consequences on an organization or                   usually bounded by “most-like-me”
   affected by the consequences of                      to “most-unlike-me”; see also:
   organizational decisions; a group of                 attitude scale
   people from which the public                      Qualitative Research – m. usually
   relations campaign or program                        refers to studies that are somewhat to
   selects specific targeted audiences in               totally subjective, but nevertheless
   an attempt to influence it regarding a               in-depth, using a probing, open-
   company, product, issue, or                          ended, response format or reflects an
   individual; see also: audience,                      ethnomethodological orientation
   sample                                            Quantitative Research – m. usually
Public Opinion Poll – m. a type of                      refers to studies that are highly
   survey that collects basic opinions or               objective and projectable, using
   facts about a specified population or                closed-ended, forced-choice
   sample; also known as a descriptive                  questionnaires; research that relies
   survey; see also: poll, survey                       heavily on statistics and numerical
   methodology                                          measures
Public Relations Effectiveness – s. the              Question – m. a statement or phrase
   degree to which the outcome of a                     used in a questionnaire or schedule
   public relations program is                          that elicits either an open- or closed-
   consonant with the overall objectives                ended response from a research
   of the program as judged by some                     participant; see also: funnel and
   measure of causation; see also:                      probe questions
   causal relationship.                              Questionnaire – m. a measurement
Purposive Sample – m. a non-                            instrument that contains exact
   probability sample in which                          questions and measures an
   individuals are deliberately selected                interviewer or survey researcher uses
   for inclusion based on their special                 to survey through the mail, Internet,
   knowledge, position, characteristics,                in person, or via the telephone; may
                                                        be closed-ended and open-ended, but
              Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                           Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
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Quota Sample                                         18                                  Research Bias



  typically employs more closed-                         one predictor (independent) variable;
  ended questions                                        see also: Multiple regression; m. a
Quota Sample – m. a type of non-                         source of error or invalidity in
  probability sample that draws its                      experimental methodology that may
  sample based on a percentage or                        impact on the validity of the
  quota from the population and stops                    experiment; see also: experimental
  sampling when that quota is met; a                     methodology, validity, inferential
  non-probability sample that attempts                   statistics
  to have the same general distribution               Reliability – m. the extent to which
  of population characteristics as in the                results would be consistent, or
  sample; see also: poll, survey                         replicable, if the research were
  methodology                                            conducted a number of times; s. a
                                                         statistical measure accessing
                                                         consistency of a measure, usually
                                                         through the Coefficient Alpha or
Range – s. a descriptive central
                                                         KR-20 statistic in measurement or
   tendency statistics that expresses the
                                                         Cohen’s Kappa, Hosti’s reliability
   difference between the highest and
                                                         coefficient, Krippendorf’s alpha, or
   lowest scores in the data set;
                                                         Scott’s pi; see also: measurement
   example: responses to a question on
                                                         reliability, Cohen’s Kappa, Holsti’s
   a 1 to 5 Likert-type scale where all
                                                         reliability coefficient, Scott’s pi
   reaction categories were used would
                                                      Reputation – s. An outcome variable
   yield a range of 4 (5 minus 1)
                                                         often used dependent variable in
Ratio Data – s. measurement data that
                                                         public relations research dealing
   are defined on a continuum and
                                                         with the public’s perception of some
   possess an absolute zero point;
                                                         source’s credibility, trustworthiness,
   examples: number of children, a
                                                         or image based on the source’s
   bank account, absolute lack of heat
                                                         behavior; see also: dependent
   (0o Kelvin = –459.67o or –273.15C)
                                                         variable
Reach – m. refers to the scope or range
                                                      Research – m. the systematic effort
   of distribution and thus coverage that
                                                         before (formative research) or during
   a given communication product has
                                                         and/or after (summative or
   in a targeted audience group;
                                                         evaluative research) a
   broadcasting, the net unduplicated
                                                         communication activity aimed at
   (also called “duplicated”) radio or
                                                         discovering and collecting the facts
   TV audience for programs or
                                                         or opinions pertaining to an
   commercials as measured for a
                                                         identified issue, need, or question;
   specific time period
                                                         may be formal or informal
Readership – m. number of people who
                                                      Research Bias – m. unknown or
   actually read each issue of a
                                                         unacknowledged error created
   publication, on average; s. an
                                                         during the design, measurement,
   outcome variable that often serves as
                                                         sampling, procedure, or choice of
   a dependent variable; see also:
                                                         problem studied; see also:
   dependent variable, outcome
                                                         experimental methodology, validity,
Regression – s. a statistical tool that
                                                         regression
   predicts outcomes based on one
   outcome (dependent) variable and
               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Research Instrument                                  19                            Secondary Methodology



Research Instrument – m. tool used to                    that reflect an underlying structure
   collect data; see also, questionnaire,                toward some attitude or belief
   interview schedule, semi-structured                   object; see also: attitude scale
   interview, structured interview                    Scalogram (Guttman
Respondent – m. the individual from                      Scale/Cumulative Scale) – m. a
   whom data is collected through                        measurement scale that assumes (a)
   participation in a research campaign;                 unidimensionality and (b) that
   sometimes called participant or, in                   people, when faced with a choice
   psychological study, subject                          will also choose items less intense
Response Rate – m. from survey                           than the one chosen; see also:
   methodology, the number of                            attitude scale, Likert-type scale,
   respondents who actually completed                    semantic differential scale
   an interview; s. the percentage of                 Scattergram – s. a descriptive statistics
   completed surveys (often adjusted                     based on continuous data that
   for mailing errors)                                   graphically demonstrated how data
Results – s. the outcome demonstrated                    are distributed between two
   to have been impacted upon by a                       variables; also known as a scatter
   public relations campaign; m. that                    diagram or scatterplot
   which is measured in a campaign as                 Schedule – m. the timeline on which a
   dependent variables; see also:                        public relations program or
   dependent variable, outcome, output,                  campaign is conducted; a list of
   outtake, outgrowth                                    questions, usually open-ended, used
Return on Investment (ROI) – s. an                       in focus group and in-depth
   outcome variable that equates profit                  interviews to gather data; see also:
   from investment; see also: Public                     survey methodology, in-depth
   relations return on investment,                       interview
   dependent variable                                 Scott’s pi – s. a coding reliability
                                                         measure employed in content
                                                         analysis that reduces the impact of
                                                         chance agreement among intercoder
Sample – m. a group of people or
                                                         or intracoder coding; see also:
   objects chosen from a larger
                                                         reliability, content analysis, Holsti’s
   population; see also: probability
                                                         Reliability Coefficient,
   sample, non-probability sample;
                                                         Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa
   convenience sample; panel survey;
                                                      Screener Question – m. one of several
   longitudinal survey; snapshot survey
                                                         questions usually asked at the
Sampling Error – m. the amount of
                                                         beginning of an interview or survey
   error expected or observed in
                                                         to determine if the potential
   surveys that may be attributed to
                                                         respondent is eligible to participate
   problems in selecting respondents; s.
                                                         in the study; see also: funnel
   the amount of error that is acceptable
                                                         question
   or expected based on the sample size
                                                      Secondary Methodology – m. an
   and expressed as confidence in
                                                         informal research methodology that
   sampling form a population; see
                                                         examines extant data in order to
   also: confidence level
                                                         draw conclusions; a systematic re-
Scale –m. a measurement instrument
                                                         analysis of a vast array of existing
   consisting of attitude or belief items
               Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.)
                            Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations
                                        www.instituteforpr.com
Dictionary of pr measurement and research
Dictionary of pr measurement and research
Dictionary of pr measurement and research
Dictionary of pr measurement and research
Dictionary of pr measurement and research

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Dictionary of pr measurement and research

  • 1. DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 2. This booklet was prepared and edited by Dr. Don W. Stacks, University of Miami COMMISSION ON PUBLIC RELATIONS MEASUREMENT & EVALUATION DICTIONARY EDITORIAL BOARD Patricia Bayerlein Dr. Walter K. Lindenmann Gagen MacDonald PR Research & Measurement Specialist Dr. Kathryn Collins Dr. David Michaelson General Motors Consultant John Gilfeather Dr. Tom Watson Roper ASW Charles Sturt University Fraser Likely Dr. Donald K. Wright Likely Communication Strategies Ltd. University of South Alabama Marcia L. Watson, editorial assistant University of Miami Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 3. FOREWARD TO 2007 EDITION In the more than three years since the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research was first released, it has become one of the most popular papers the Institute for Public Relations has ever published. Week after week, visitors to our free website (www.instituteforpr.org) download the dictionary. It has been reprinted with permission, distributed and sometimes debated at major professional and academic conferences. The truth is that public relations teachers and practitioners traditionally have not used the same nomenclature – let alone definitions – for many central concepts of research and measurement. Increasingly, however, it is clear that we should save our creativity for program development and execution, not for the names and meanings applied to key elements of the science beneath the art of public relations. To that end, this second edition covers an expanded number of terms, with input from a broader group of scholars and research experts. They now represent many more countries where public relations science is regularly used. The Institute owes an enormous debt of gratitude to all of them, but particularly to Dr. Don W. Stacks. His tireless commitment to the Institute’s mission is surpassed only by his commitment to family and students – and we are so very grateful to be number three on that list. So, is the dictionary done yet? For now, maybe. But this new edition will undoubtedly receive even wider distribution, leading to even more debate, and ultimately to further evolution in our thinking about public relations research and measurement. You are invited to take part. Frank Ovaitt President & CEO Institute for Public Relations Gainesville, Florida January 2006 Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 4. FOREWORD TO 2002 EDITION “Words… are innocent, neutral, precise, standing for this, describing that, meaning the other…so if you look after them you can build bridges across incomprehension and chaos. “I don’t think writers are sacred, but words are. The deserve respect. If you get the right ones in the right order they can nudge the world a little….” From the play, THE REAL THING by Tom Stoppard Why a dictionary for public relations measurement and research? Because we don’t all measure the same things, measure the same ways, or use the same tools or terminology. To get all of us on the same page we need to know precisely what we mean when we use or say certain words in measuring our activities and our research. Some may complain that the words we have chosen to define are too simplistic. Remember Webster once defended his word choice by explaining that it’s the little words we think we know the meaning of - but don’t - which cause most of the problems in understanding and communications. We thank Dr. Don Stacks and others who have given so generously of their time to assemble this special choice of words and politely debate each definition. We have listed their names for you and they will tell you they gratefully acknowledge that this is a work in progress. Public relations continuously evolves so there are no “final words.” Jack Felton President & CEO Institute for Public Relations Gainesville, Florida September 2002 Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 5. PREFACE TO 2007 EDITION Public relations measurement and research has progressed far in the five years between the first and second editions of the Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research. In its desire to answer concerns—among its own membership and from “internal” and “external” clients—about demonstrating its effectiveness, the profession began to focus on demonstrating its impact on the client’s outcomes of interest. This in turn has lead to a more education in research design and evaluation methods. The second edition of the Dictionary clearly reflects this trend. It does so in several ways. First, the Dictionary has been expanded by almost 100 terms. Second, its cross- referencing is more complete. Third, individual terms have been further designated as statistical “s” or methodological “m” within the individual term definitions. Finally, terms have been redefined and in many instances are more sophisticated—reflecting a sophistication of the profession. I am indebted to the Commission for Public Relations Measurement and Evaluation members who toiled tirelessly to find suitable new terms and define them so that the user might better understand not only the term but also its usage(s) in the research and evaluation process. The second edition would not have been possible without their help. I would like to acknowledge the help of Ms. Marcia L. Watson who carefully proofed and corrected versions of the second edition. She did this in addition to her other duties as a doctoral student at the University of Miami. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the University of Miami School of Communication and Dean Sam Grogg for allowing me the time to work on this project. Don W. Stacks Coral Gables Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 6. Algorithm Behavioral Objective DICTIONARY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH1 (“neutral” or “neither agree nor disagree”) be provided to the respondent; also known as Likert- Algorithm – s. a step-by-step problem- type or Semantic Differential solving procedure, especially an measures; s. an output measured as established, recursive computational an interval or ratio measure procedure for solving a problem in a Audience – m. a specified group from finite number of steps within a defined public targeted for α Alpha Level (α) – s. the amount of error influence or chance allowed in sampling or inferential testing Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – s. an Bar Graph – s. A representation of a inferential statistical test of frequency distribution by means of significance for continuous rectangles (or other indicators) measurement dependent variables whose widths represent class against a number of groups as intervals and whose heights independent variables represent corresponding frequencies; Articles – m. an output, typically printed see also: graph but also found on the Internet Baseline – s. an initial measurement Attitude – m. a predisposition to act or against which all subsequent behave toward some object; a measures are compared; m. a data motivating factor in public relations; point established for comparison at composed of three dimensions: the developmental stage of a affective (emotional evaluation), research campaign. cognitive (knowledge evaluation), Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) – an and connotative (behavioral interview technique used to solicit evaluation) evidence or examples of a specific Attitude Research – m. the measuring competency or skill you possess; and interpreting a full range of BEI is based on the premise that a views, sentiments, feelings, person's past behavior is the best opinions, and beliefs that segments predictor of their future performance of the public may hold toward a Behavioral Objective – m. an objective client or product that specifies the expected public Attitude Scale – m. a measure that relations campaign or program targets respondent attitudes or beliefs outcome in terms of specific toward some object; typically behaviors; s. a measure that is interval-level data and requires that actionable in that it is the behavior an arbitrary or absolute midpoint 1 Terms are identified as either statistical (s) or methodological (m). Common usage is used when determining whether the term is listed as either statistical or methodological when terms have dual meanings (e.g., regression). Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 7. Belief 2 Clustered Sample requested (e.g., outcome) of a target brings about a change in another audience; see also: outcome variable; s. the result of a significant Belief – m. a long-held evaluation of interaction term in an analysis of some object, usually determined on a variance or regression, often basis its occurrence; clusters of displayed in path analyses or beliefs yield attitudes sequential equation models Benchmarking (Benchmark Study) – Census – m. collection of data from m. a measurement technique that every person or object in a involves having an organization population learn something about its own Central Tendency – s. a statistic that practices, the practices of selected describes the typical or average case others, and then compares these in the distribution of a variable; see practices also: mean, median, mode, range, Bivariate Analysis – s. a statistical standard deviation, standardized examination of the relationship score, variance, z-score between two variables Characters – m. a manifest unit of BRAD – s. British Rate and Data analysis used in content analysis measure – provides circulation and consisting of individuals or roles advertising costs data (e.g., occupations, roles, race) Chi-Square (X2) – s. an inferential statistical test of significance for categorical data (nominal or ordinal) Campaign (Program) – m. the Circulation – s. number of copies of a planning, execution, and evaluation publication as distributed (as of a public relations plan of action opposed to read) aimed at solving a problem Closed-Ended Question – m. a question Case Study Methodology – m. an that requires participants to answer informal research methodology that selected and predetermined gathers data on a specific individual responses (e.g., strongly agree, or company or product with the agree, neither agree nor disagree, analysis focused on understanding disagree, strongly disagree) its unique qualities; is not Cluster analysis – s. An exploratory generalizable to other cases or data analysis tool which aims at populations sorting different objects into groups Categorical Data – s. measurement data in a way that the degree of that are defined by their association association between two objects is with groups and are expressed in maximal if they belong to the same terms of frequencies, percentages, group and minimal if otherwise and proportions; see also: nominal Clustered Sample – m. a type of data, ordinal data probability sample that involves first Category – m. in content analysis the breaking the population into part of the system where the content heterogeneous subsets (or clusters), (units of analysis) are placed; also and then selecting the potential referred to as “subjects” or “buckets” sample at random from the Causal Relationship – m. a relationship individual clusters between variables in which a change in one variable forces, produces, or Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 8. Coefficient Alpha 3 Confidence Interval α Coefficient Alpha (α) – s. a statistical these programs and their products, test for a measurement’s reliability and by identifying gaps in the overall for interval and ratio data; also existing communication program; known as Cronbach’s coefficient uses accepted research techniques alpha and methodologies; see also: formal Cohen’s Kappa – s. an intercoder methodology, informal reliability measure used in content methodology, case study, content analysis when there are more than analysis, survey, in-depth interview, two coders; see also: reliability, focus group, experiment, secondary, content analysis historical, participant-observation Cohort Survey – m. a type of Communication(s) Research – m. any longitudinal survey in which some systematic study of the relationships specific group is studied over time and patterns that are developed when according to some criteria that stays people seek to share information the same (e.g., age = 21) while the with each other samples may differ Community Case Study – m. an Column Inches – s. total length of an informal methodology whereby the article if it were all one-column researcher takes an in-depth look at measured in inches (or centimeters); one or several communities – determines the total “share of ink” subsections of communities – in that a company or brand has which an organization has an interest achieved by impartial, trained researchers Communication – m. the process that using a mix of informal research deals with the transmission and methodologies (i.e., participant- reception of intentional messages observation, role-playing, secondary that are a part of a natural language analysis, content analysis, system (e.g., words, phrases, interviewing, focus groups) sentences, paragraphs) Concurrent Validity – m. a Communication Product (Product) – measurement device’s ability to vary m. the end result of the directly with a measure of the same communication product process construct or indirectly with a resulting in the production and measure of an opposite construct. It dissemination of a brochure, media allows you to show that your test is release, video news release, Web valid by comparing it with an site, speech, and so forth; see also: already valid test output, outtake Confidence Interval – s. in survey Communication(s) Audit – m. a methodology based on a random systematic review and analysis of sampling technique; the range of how effectively an organization values or measurement within which communicates with all of its major a population parameter is estimated internal and external audiences by to fall (e.g., for a large population we identifying these audiences, by might expect answers to a question identifying the communication to be within ±3% of the true programs and their communication population answer; if 55% responded products utilized for each audience, positively, the confidence interval by determining the effectiveness of Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 9. Confidence Level 4 Convergent Validity would be from 52% to 58%); discriminant validity, divergent sometimes called measurement error validity Confidence Level – m. in survey Contingency Question – m. a survey methodology based on a random question that is to be asked only to sampling technique, the amount of some respondents, determined by confidence we can place on our their responses to some other confidence interval (typically set at questions; sometimes called a 95%, or 95 out of 100 cases truly “funnel question” representing the population under Contingency Table – s. a statistical study, with no more than 5 cases out table for displaying the relationship of 100 misrepresenting that between variables in terms of population); sometimes called frequencies and percentages; sampling error; s. the amount of sometimes called a “cross tabulation confidence a researcher has that a table” or “cross tab” finding between groups or categories Continuous Data – s. data that are is statistically significant; see also: measured on a continuum, usually as statistically significant interval data Construct Validity – m. a dimension of Contour Plot – s. a contour plot is a measurement; s. a statistically tested graphical technique for representing form of measurement validity that a 3-dimensional surface by plotting seeks to establish the dimensionality constant z slices, called contours, on of a measure; see also: validity, face a 2-dimensional format. That is, validity, criterion-related validity, given a value for z, lines are drawn content validity, discriminant for connecting the (x,y) coordinates validity, divergent validity where that z value occurs. The Content Analysis – m. an informal contour plot is used to answer the research methodology (and question “how does Z change as a measurement tool) that function of X and Y?” systematically tracks messages Convenience Sample – m. a non- (written, spoken, broadcast) and probability sample where the translates them into quantifiable respondents or objects are chosen form via a systematic approach to because of availability (e.g., “man on defining message categories through the street”); a type of non-probability specified units of analysis; the action sample in which who ever happens of breaking down message content to be available at a given point in into predetermined components time is included in the sample; (categories) to form a judgment sometimes called a “haphazard” or capable of being measured “accidental” sample Content Validity – m. a form of Convergent Validity – s. a type of measurement validity that is based construct validity that refers to the on other researchers or experts principle that the indicators for a evaluations of the measurement given construct should be at least items contained in a measure; see moderately correlated among also: validity, fact validity, construct themselves; see also: Coefficient validity, criterion-related validity, alpha, validity, face validity, content validity, construct-related validity, Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 10. Correlation 5 Data criterion-related validity, Crossbreak Analysis – s. a categorical discriminant validity, divergent analysis that compares the frequency validity of responses in individual cells from Correlation (r) – s. a statistical test that one variable against another; see examines the relationships between also: crosstabulation, frequency, variables (may be either categorical frequency table or continuous); see also: correlation Cross-Sectional Survey – m. a survey coefficient, Pearson Product Moment based on observations representing a coefficient, Spearman-Rho, r single point in time; see also: Correlation Coefficient – s. a measure snapshot survey of association that describes the Crosstabs – s. statistical tables used to direction and strength of a linear array the data; allows the analyst to relationship between two variables; go beyond total data into frequencies usually measured at the interval or and averages as well as to make ratio data level (e.g., Pearson possible overall as well as sub-group Product Moment Coefficient, r), but analyses (e.g., comparisons of the can be measured at the nominal or opinions expressed by sell-side ordinal level (e.g., Spearman-Rho) analysts with those stated by buy- Cost Per Thousand (CPM) – s. cost of side investment professionals) advertising for each 1,000 homes Crosstabulation – s. the result of two reached by the media categorical variables in a table; see Cost-Effectiveness – s. an outcome that also: crossbreak analysis, frequency, may be measured in public relations frequency table research which evaluates the relation Cumulative Scale (Guttman Scale/ between overall expenditure (costs) Scalogram) – m. a measurement and results produced, usually the scale that assumes that when you ratio of changes in costs to change in agree with a scale item you will also effects agree with items that are less Covariation – s. a criterion for extreme; see also: outcome, causation whereby the dependent Guttman Scalogram, Likert scale, variable takes on different values semantic differential scale depending on the independent Cyber Image Analysis – m. the variable measurement of Internet content via Criterion Variable –m. the variable the chat rooms or discussion groups in research wants to predict to; see also: cyberspace regarding a client or dependent variable product or topic; the measurement of Criterion-Related Validity – m. a form a client’s image everywhere on the of validity that compares one Internet measure against others known to have specified relationships with what is being measured; the highest Data – m. the observations or form of measurement validity; see measurements taken when also: validity, face validity, content evaluating a public relations validity, content validity, campaign or program; s. the discriminant validity, divergent frequencies, means, percentages validity used to assess a campaign or Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 11. Database 6 Editorial program; see also: nominal data, such a way as to paint a picture of ordinal data, interval data, ratio data what people think or do Database – s. a collection of data Descriptive Statistics – s. the reduction arranged for ease and speed of and simplification of the numbers search and retrieval representing research, to ease Database Mining – m. a research interpreting the results technique utilizing existing data; see Descriptive Survey – m. a type of also, secondary methodology survey that collects in quantitative Deduction – m. a philosophical logic in form basic opinions or facts about a which specific expectations or specified population or sample; also hypotheses are developed or derived known as a “public opinion poll” on the basis of general principles Design Bias – m. research design bias is Delphi Technique – m. a research introduced when the study fails to methodology (usually survey or identify the validity problems or interview) where the researcher tries when publicity about the research to forecast the future based on fails to incorporate the researcher’s successive waves of interviews or cautions surveys with a panel of experts in a Discriminant Validity – s. a type of given field as a means of building a validity that is determined by “consensus” of expert opinion and hypothesizing and examining thought relating to particular topics differential relations between a test or issues and measures of similar or different Demographic Analysis – m. analysis of constructs. It is the opposite of a population in terms of special convergent validity and is also social, political, economic, and known as divergent validity; see geographic subgroups (e.g., age, sex, also: convergent validity, divergent income-level, race, educational- validity; m. a way of establishing if a level, place of residence, occupation) measure is measuring what it is Demographic Data – m. data that supposed to measure; see also: differentiates between groups of validity, criterion-related validity people or things (e.g., sex, race, Divergent Validity – s. see also: income) discriminant validity Dependent Variable – m. the variable Double-Barreled Question – m. a that is measured or collected question that attempts to measure Depth Interview – m. an extensive, two things at the same time; a source probing, open-ended, largely of measurement error unstructured interview, usually conducted in person or by telephone, in which respondents are encouraged Editorial – m. the content of a to talk freely and in great detail publication written by a journalist, as about given subjects; also known as distinct from advertising content an “in-depth interview”; see also: in- which is determined by an depth methodology advertiser; an article expressing the Descriptive Research – m. a form of editorial policy of a publication of a research that gathers information in matter of interest (also known as a “leader” or “leading article”); space Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 12. Environmental Scanning 7 Fever Graph in a publication bought by an Events – s. a community affairs or advertiser that includes journalistic sponsorship output copy intended to make the reader Experimental Methodology – m. a think it originates from an formal research methodology that independent source (also knows as imposes strict artificial limits or an “advertorial”); s. an outcome or boundaries on the research in order measured variable to establish some causal relationship Environmental Scanning – m. a between variables of interest; is not research technique for tracking new generalizable to a larger population developments in any area or field by Explanatory Research – m. a form of carrying out a systematic review of research that seeks to explain why what appears in professional, trade, people say, think, feel, and act the or government publications way they do; concerned primarily Equal Appearing Interval Scale – m. a with the development of public measurement scale with predefined relations theory about relationships values associated with each and processes; are typically statement; see also: Thurstone scale deductive Equivalent Advertising Value (AVE) – Exploratory Research – m. a form of s. equivalent cost of buying space research that seeks to establish basic devoted to editorial content attitudes, opinions, and behavior Error Bar – s. a graphical data analysis patterns or facts about a specific technique for showing the error in population or sample; are typically the dependent variable and inductive and involve extensive optionally; the independent variable probing of the population or sample in a standard x-y plot or data Ethnographic Research – m. an informal research methodology that relies on the tools and techniques of Face Validity – m. a form of cultural anthropologists and measurement validity that is based sociologists to obtain a better on the researcher’s knowledge of the understanding of how individuals concept being measured; the lowest and groups function in their natural form of measurement validity; see settings; see also: participant- also: validity, content validity, observation construct validity, criterion-related Evaluation Research –m. a form of validity, discriminant validity, research that determines the relative divergent validity effectiveness of a public relations Facilitator – m. an individual who leads campaign or program by measuring a focus group; also known as a program outcomes (changes in the moderator levels of awareness, understanding, Factor Analysis – s. a statistical tool attitudes, opinions, and/or behaviors that allows researchers to test the of a targeted audience or public) dimensionality of their measures; against a predetermined set of used to assess a measure’s construct objectives that initially established validity the level or degree of change desired Fever Graph – s. a form of line graph that measures peaks and valleys of Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 13. Field Study Methodology 8 Gross Rating Points (GRP) data along a continuum that is either Frequency Table – s. a listing of counts continuous or whose classes and percentages in tabular form; may represent categories; see also: graph report a single variable or multiple Field Study Methodology – m. a formal variables; see also: crossbreak research methodology that imposes analysis, crosstabulation fewer restrictions or limits or F-Test – s. an inferential test of boundaries on the research in order significance associated with to test some causal relationships Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); see found in experimental research and also: Analysis of Variance generalize them to a larger Funnel Question – m. a question used population in a questionnaire or schedule that Filter Question – m. a question which is moves an interviewer or respondent used to move a respondent from one from one part of a survey to another question to another; a question that (e.g., “Are you a registered voter?” is used to remove a respondent from If the respondent says yes, certain a survey or interview; see also: questions are asked and if not, then funnel question other questions are asked); see also: Focus Group Methodology – m. an filter question informal research methodology that uses a group approach to gain an in- depth understanding of a client, Goal (Objective) – m. the explicit object, or product; is not statement of intentions that supports generalizable to other focus groups a communication strategy and or populations includes an intended Formal Methodology – m. a set of audience/receiver, a proposed research methodologies that allows measurable outcome (or desired the researcher to generalize to a level of change in that audience), larger audience but often fails to gain and a specific timeframe for that in-depth understanding of the client, change to occur object, or product; a set of Grand Mean – s. a descriptive statistics methodologies that follow scientific which represents the mean of all or social scientific method; a set of sample means in a study, weighted methodologies that are deductive in by the number of items in each nature sample. The grand mean treats the Formative Evaluation – m. a method of individuals in the different subsets evaluating the process by which (groups) as if there were no programs occur while activities are subgroups, but only individual in their early stages with the intent of measures in the set. The grand mean improving or correcting activities is thus simply the mean of all of the Frequency – s. a descriptive statistic scores; see also: mean that represents the number of objects Graph – s. a graphical representation of being counted (e.g., number of a variable; see also: bar, pie, line, advertisements, number of people fever who attend an event, number of Gross Rating Points (GRP) – measures media release pickups) of weight or readership or audience equivalent to audience exposure Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 14. Guttman Scale 9 Inferential Research among one percent of the population; see also: Targeted Gross Rating Points (TGRP) Image Research – m. a research Guttman Scale (Cumulative program or campaign that Scale/Scalogram) – m. a systematically studies people’s measurement scale that assumes perceptions toward an organization, unidimensionality and that people, individual, product, or service; when faced with a choice will also sometimes referred to as a choose items less intense than the “reputation study” one chosen Impressions – m. the number of people who might have had the opportunity to be exposed to a story that has appeared in the media; also known Histogram – s. a representation of a frequency distribution by means of as “opportunity to see” (OTS); s. rectangles whose widths represent usually refers to the total audited class intervals and whose heights circulation of a publication or the represent corresponding frequencies; audience reach of a broadcast a bar chart representing a frequency vehicle distribution; heights of the bars Incidence – s. the frequency with which represent observed frequencies; see a condition or event occurs in a also: graph given time and population or sample Historical Methodology – m. an Independent t-Test – s. an inferential informal research methodology that statistical test of significance that examines the causes and effects of compares two levels of an past events independent variable against a Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient – s. a continuous measured dependent fairly simple reliability measure used variable in content analysis; see also: Independent Variable – m. the variable reliability, content analysis, against which the dependent variable intercoder reliability, intracoder is tested reliability, Scott’s pi, and In-Depth Interview Methodology – m. Krippendorf’s alpha an informal research methodology in Hypothesis – m. an expectation about which an individual interviews the nature of things derived from another in a one-on-one situation; theory; a prediction of how an see also: in-depth interview independent variable changes a Induction – m. a philosophical logic in dependent variable; formally stated which general principles are as a predication (e.g., males will developed from specific purchase more of X than females), observations but tested via the null hypothesis Inferential Research – m. statistical (males and females will not differ in analyses that test if the results their purchases of X) observed for a sample are indicative Hypothesis Testing – m. determining of the population; the presentation of whether the expectations that a information that allows us to make judgments whether the research hypothesis represents are, indeed, results observed in a sample found in the real world Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 15. Inferential Statistics 10 Issues Research generalize to the population from was poorly written; s. tested for via which the sample was drawn reliability analyses; see also: Inferential Statistics – s. statistical tests Coefficient Alpha, KR-20 that allow a researcher to say within Intercoder Reliability – m. the a certain degree of confidence reliability of content analysis coding whether variables or groups truly when the coding is done by two or differ in their response to a public more coders; see also: reliability, relations message; see: Analysis of intracoder reliability, Holsti’s Variance, Chi-Square, bivariate Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi, correlation, correlation, Pearson Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa Product Moment Correlation, Interval Data – m. measurement data Spearman-rho, regression, path that are defined on a continuum and analysis, sequential equation model, assumed to have equal spacing t-test between data points (see interval and Informal Methodology – m. a research ratio data); s. includes temperature methodology that does not allow the scale, standardized intelligence test researcher to generalize to a larger scores, Likert-type scale, semantic audience but gains in-depth differential scale, Guttman understanding of the client, object, Scalogram; see also: attitude or product research, attitude scale, data, Informational Objective – m. an variable, Likert scale, Guttman objective that establishes what Scalogram information a target audience should Interview Schedule – m. a guideline for know or the degree of change in asking questions in person or over knowledge levels after the the telephone interviewers are tasked conclusion of a public relations with predicting your likelihood of campaign or program success in a given position and use Inputs – m. the research information and your past behavior as one indicator data from both internal and external of your future performance sources applied in the conception, Intracoder reliability – m. the approval, and design phases of the reliability of content analysis coding input stage of the communication when the coding is done by only one production process coder, usually the researcher; s. Inquiry Research – m. a formal or obtained from statistical tests which informal research methodology that analyze coder decisions versus employs systematically content chance; see also: reliability, analysis, survey methodology, intercoder reliability, Cohen’s kappa, and/or interviewing techniques to Holsti’s Reliability Coefficient, study the range and types of Krippendorf’s alpha, Scott’s pi unsolicited inquiries that an Issues Research – m. a formal or organization may receive from informal research methodology that customers, prospective customers, or systematically studies public policy other target audience groups questions of the day, with the chief Instrumental Error – m. in focus on those public policy matters measurement, error that occurs whose definition and contending because the measuring instrument positions are still evolving Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 16. Items 11 Mall Intercept Research Items – s. a manifest unit of analysis used in content analysis consisting an entire message itself (e.g., an Latent Content – m. from content advertisement, story, press release) analysis, an analysis of the underlying idea, thesis, or theme of content; the deeper meanings that are Judgmental Sample – m. a type of non- intended or perceived in a message probability sample in which Likert Scale – m. an interval-level measurement scale that requires individuals are deliberately selected for inclusion in the sample by the people to respond to statements on a set of predetermined reactions, researcher because they have special knowledge, position, characteristics usually strongly agree, agree, neither or represent other relevant agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly dimensions of the population that are disagree; must possess an odd deemed important to study; see also: number of reaction words or phrases; purposive sample also called “summated ratings method” because the scale requires at least two, if not three, statements per measurement dimension Key Performance (Performance Line Graph – s. a representation of Result) – m. the desired end effect or frequency distribution by means of impact of a program of campaign lines representing data points at performance various intervals along a continuum; Known Group t-Test – s. an inferential see also: Graph statistical test of significance that Longitudinal Survey – m. a type of compares the results for a sampled survey that consists of different group on some continuous individuals or objects that is measurement dependent variable observed or measured over time against a known value; see also: (e.g., multiple snapshot samples) inferential statistics, independent t- test KR-20 – s. a reliability statistic for Mail Survey – m. a survey technique nominal- or ordinal-level whereby a questionnaire is sent to a measurement; also known as Kuder- respondent via the mail (or Internet) Richardson Formula 20; see also: and the respondent self-administers reliability, Coefficient Alpha the questionnaire and then sends it Krippendorf’s Alpha – s. a fairly back simple content analysis coding Mall Intercept Research – m. a special reliability measure; see also: type of person-to-person surveying reliability, intercoder reliability, in which in-person interviewing is Intracoder reliability, Holsti’s conducted by approaching Reliability Coefficient, Scott’s pi, prospective participants as they stroll Cohen’s kappa through shopping centers or malls; a non-probability form of sampling Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 17. Manifest Content 12 Message Content Analysis Manifest Content – m. from content content validity, construct validity, analysis, an analysis of the actual criterion-related validity content of a message exactly as it Media – m. includes newspapers, appears as opposed to latent content business and consumer magazines that must be inferred from messages and other publications, radio and Market Research – m. any systematic television, the Internet; company study of buying or selling behavior reports, news wires, government Mean – s. a descriptive statistic of reports and brochures; Internet Web central tendency that describes the sites and discussion groups “average” of a set of numbers on a Media Evaluations – m. the systematic continuum; also called “average;” appraisal of a company’s reputation, the process of applying a precise products or services, or those of its number or metric, which is both competitors, as measured by their valid and reliable, to the evaluation presence in the media of some performance Median – s. a descriptive statistic of Measurement – m. a way of giving an central tendency indicating the activity a precise dimension, midpoint in a series of data; the point generally by comparison to some above and below which 50 percent standard; usually done in a of the data values fall quantifiable or numerical manner; Mention Prominence – s. an outcome see also: data, scale based on an indication of how Measurement Bias – m. failure to prominent a company, product, or control for the effects of data issue was mentioned in the media; collection and measurement, e.g. typically measured in percent of tendency of people to give socially article and position within the output desirable answers (e.g., headline, above the fold, first Measurement Error – m. the amount of three minutes) error found in a research campaign; Mentions – s. an output or outcome in surveys it is the amount of error in consisting of counts of incidents of a individual responses; s. a term that company or product or person expresses the amount of doubt that a appears in the media, one mention researcher may accept in terms of constitutes a media placement findings; see also: confidence Message Content – m. the verbal, interval visual, and audio elements of a Measurement Reliability – m. the message; the material from which extent to which a measurement scale content analyses are conducted; s. a measures the same thing over time; trend analysis factor that measures s. a statistical reporting of how what, if any, of planned messages reliable a measure is; see also: are actually contained in the media; Coefficient Alpha, test-retest see also: message content analysis reliability, split-half reliability) Message Content Analysis – m. Measurement Validity – m. the extent analysis of media coverage of to which a measurement scale messages regarding a client, product, actually measures what it believed to or topic on key issues measure; see also: face validity, Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 18. Message Strength 13 Null Hypothesis Message Strength – s. trend analysis Nominal Data – s. measurement data factor that measures how strongly that are simple categories in which message about a client or product or items are different in name only and topic was communicated do not possess any ordering; data Mode – s. a descriptive statistic of that are mutually exhaustive and central tendency indicating the most exclusive; the simplest or lowest of frequently occurring (the most all data; categorical data; example: typical) value in a data series male or female, where neither is seen Moderator – m. an individual who leads as better as or larger than the other a focus group; also known as a Nonparametric Statistics – s. facilitator inferential and descriptive statistics Monitoring – m. a process by which based on categorical data; see also: data are systematically and regularly Chi-Square, Spearman-rho collected about a research program Non-Probability Sample – m. a sample over time; see also: environmental drawn from a population whereby scanning respondents or objects do not have Motivational Objective – m. an an equal change of being selected for objective that establishes the desired observation or measurement level of change in a target audience’s Nonverbal Communication – m. that specific attitudes or beliefs after a aspect of the communication that public relations campaign deals with the transmission and Multiple Regression – s. a statistical reception of messages that are not a technique that employs multiple part of a natural language system dependent variables to predict an (e.g., visual, spoken [as opposed to outcome variable (dependent verbal], environmental) variable); see also: Regression, Norm – s. short for “normative data”; independent variable, dependent see also: normative data variable Normal Curve – s. measurement data Multivariate Analysis – s. an inferential reflecting the hypothetical or descriptive statistic that examines distribution of data points or cases the relationship among three or more based on interval- or ratio-level data variables that are “normally distributed” and error free; all continuous or parametric data sets have their own normally distributed data that fall Network Analysis – m. a formal or under its specific normal curve informal research method that Normative Data – s. the proprietary set examines how individuals or units or of scores that allow comparison of actors relate to each other in some results to other studies and see systematic way “where you stand” and provide a Neutral Point – s. a point midway context between extremes in attitude measurement scales; in Likert-type Null Hypothesis – s. the hypothesis of scales usually defined as “neutral” or no difference that is formally tested “neither agree nor disagree”; see in a research campaign or program; also: attitude, attitude scale, Likert its rejection is the test of the theory; scale, semantic differential scale it is the formal hypothesis that all Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 19. Objective 14 Output inferential statistics test; see also: and ordered; categorical data; inferential statistics example: income as categories of under $25K, $26K–$50K, $51K– $75K, $76K–$100K, over $100K Outcomes – m. quantifiable changes in Objective – m. a measurable outcome in awareness, knowledge, attitude, three forms: informational opinion, and behavior levels that (cognitive), motivational occur as a result of a public relations (attitudinal/belief), behavioral program or campaign; an effect, (actionable); an explicit statement of consequence, or impact of a set or intentions that supports a program of communication activities communication strategy, and to be or products, and may be either short- measurable, includes an intended term (immediate) or long term; s. the audience/public, a proposed change dependent variable in research; see in a communication effect, a precise also: dependent variable indication of the amount or level of Outgrowth – m. the culminate effect of change and a specific timeframe for all communication programs and the change to occur products on the positioning of an Omnibus Survey – m. an “all purpose” organization in the minds of its national consumer poll usually stakeholders or publics; s. an conducted on a regular schedule outcome statistics used as a (once a week or every other week) dependent variable in some research; by major market research firms; also see also: dependent variable, called “piggyback” or “shared-cost” outcome survey Output – m. what is generated as a Open-Ended Question – m. open-ended result of a PR program or campaign questions probe the dimensions of that impacts on a target audience or attitudes and behavior held by a public to act or behave in some way particular respondent through an — this is deemed important to the interactive conversation between researcher (also known as a respondent and interviewer “judgmental sample”); the final stage Opinion – m. a verbalized or written of a communication product, evaluation of some object production, or process resulting in Opportunities to See (OTS) – m. the the production and dissemination of number of times a particular a communication product (brochure, audience has the potential to view a media release, Web site, speech, message, subject or issue; s. an etc.); s. the number of outcome statistic based on outputs communication products or services serving as a dependent variable in resulting from a communication some research; see also: dependent production process; the number variable, impressions, outcome, distributed and/or the number output reaching a targeted audience; Ordinal Data – s. measurement data sometimes used as an outcome that are categories in which items are serving as a dependent variable in different in name and possess an research; see also: dependent ordering of some sort; data that are variable, outcome mutually exhaustive and exclusive Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 20. Outtake 15 Performance Indicator Outtake – m. measurement of what Participant-Observation – m. an audiences have understood and/or informal research methodology heeded and/or responded to a where the researcher takes an active communication product’s call to role in the life of an organization or seek further information from PR community, observes and records messages prior to measuring an interactions, and then analyzes those outcome; audience reaction to the interactions receipt of a communication product, Path Analysis – s. a statistical technique including favorability of the product, that establishes relationships recall and retention of the message between variables with arrows embedded in the product, and between variables indicating the whether the audience heeded or pattern of causal relationships responded to a call for information usually in the form of a “path or action within the message; s. diagram”; see also: path diagram sometimes used as an outcome Path Diagram – s. a graphical serving as a dependent variable in representation of the causal research; see also: dependent relationships between variables variable, outcome showing both direction and strength of relationship Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (r) – s. a correlation statistic used Paired t-Test – s. an inferential with interval and ratio data; see also: statistical test of significance that correlation, data, Spearman-rho compares data that are collected Percent of Change – s. a measure of twice on the same sample; see also: increase or decrease of media inferential statistics, independent t- coverage test, known-group t-test Percentage – s. a descriptive statistic Panel Survey – m. a type of survey that based on categorical data; defined as consists of the same individuals or the frequency count for a particular objects that is observed or measured category divided by the total over time; a type of survey in which frequency count; example: 10 males a group of individuals are out of 100 people = 10%; see also: deliberately recruited by a research descriptive statistics firm because of their special Percentage Point – s. the number that a demographic characteristics for the percentage is increased or decreased express purpose of being interviewed Performance – m. the act of carrying- more than once over a period of time out, doing, executing, or putting into for various clients on a broad array effect; a deed, task, action, or of different topics or subjects activity as a unit of a program of Parameter – s. in sampling, a performance characteristic of a population that is Performance Indicator – m. a sign or of interest parameter that, if tracked over time, Parametric Statistics – s. inferential provides information about the on- and descriptive statistics based on going results of a particular program continuous data; see also: data, of performance or campaign; s. an descriptive statistics, inferential outcome measured during a public statistics Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 21. Performance Measure 16 Proportion relations campaign that serves as a program on business investment; s. dependent variable; see also: data, the outcome (dependent) variable dependent variable which demonstrates the impact of a Performance Measure – m. is a number public relations campaign or that shows the exact extent to which program investment on the overall a result was achieved; s. in a business outcomes; a causal research campaign, an outcome of indicator of public relations impact; some sort serving as a dependent see also: causal relationships, variable; see also: data, dependent Return on Investment (ROI) variable, outcome Probability Sample – m. a sample Performance Result (Key drawn at random from a population Performance) – m. the desired end such that all possible respondents or effect or impact of a program of objects have an equal chance of campaign performance being selected for observation or Performance Target – m. a time- measurement bounded and measurable Probe Question – m. a question used in commitment toward achieving a a questionnaire or schedule that desired result requires the participant to explain an Periodicity – s. a bias found in sampling earlier response, often in the form of due to the way in which the items or “why do you think this?” respondents are chosen; example: Product (Communication Product) – newspapers may differ by being m. the end result of the daily, weekly, weekday only, and so communication product or process forth resulting in the production and Pie Graph – s. A representation of a dissemination of a brochure, media frequency distribution by means of release, video news release, Web triangular portions of a pie whose site, speech, and so forth; an output sections represents the percentages or outtake; see also: output, outtake of the variable of interest; see also: Program (Campaign) – m. the graph planning, execution, and evaluation Piggyback Survey – m. see: omnibus of a public relations plan of action survey aimed at solving a problem Poll – m. a form of survey research that Prominence of Mention – m. trend focuses more on immediate behavior analysis factor that measures how than attitudes; a very short survey- prominently a client or product or like method whose questionnaire topic was mentioned and where that asks only very short and closed- mention occurred (e.g., headline, top ended questions; see also: in-depth of the fold, what part of a broadcast); survey, survey methodology s. an output unit of analysis used as a Position Papers – m. print output dependent variable; see also: Positioning – m. trend analysis factor dependent variable, output that measures how a client or Proportion – s. a descriptive statistic product or topic was positioned in based on categorical data; defined as the media (e.g., leader, follower) the percentage as made part of one PR Return on Investment (PRROI) – (1.0); example: 10 males out of 100 m. the impact of a public relations Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 22. Psychographic Research 17 Questionnaire people are 10 hundredths of the or relevant dimensions of the sample population Psychographic Research – m. research Push Poll – m. a survey technique in focusing on a population or sample’s which an interviewer begins by non-demographic traits and acting as if the telephone call is a characteristics, such as personality general survey but then asks the type, life-style, social roles, values, respondent a question implying attitudes, and beliefs questionable behaviors or outcomes Psychometrics – s. a branch of of a person or product psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological Q-Sort – m. a measurement instrument variables such as intelligence, that focuses on respondent beliefs by aptitude, and personality traits; also asking them to sort through piles of called psychometry opinion statement and sort them into Public – m. a group of people who have piles on an 11-point continuum consequences on an organization or usually bounded by “most-like-me” affected by the consequences of to “most-unlike-me”; see also: organizational decisions; a group of attitude scale people from which the public Qualitative Research – m. usually relations campaign or program refers to studies that are somewhat to selects specific targeted audiences in totally subjective, but nevertheless an attempt to influence it regarding a in-depth, using a probing, open- company, product, issue, or ended, response format or reflects an individual; see also: audience, ethnomethodological orientation sample Quantitative Research – m. usually Public Opinion Poll – m. a type of refers to studies that are highly survey that collects basic opinions or objective and projectable, using facts about a specified population or closed-ended, forced-choice sample; also known as a descriptive questionnaires; research that relies survey; see also: poll, survey heavily on statistics and numerical methodology measures Public Relations Effectiveness – s. the Question – m. a statement or phrase degree to which the outcome of a used in a questionnaire or schedule public relations program is that elicits either an open- or closed- consonant with the overall objectives ended response from a research of the program as judged by some participant; see also: funnel and measure of causation; see also: probe questions causal relationship. Questionnaire – m. a measurement Purposive Sample – m. a non- instrument that contains exact probability sample in which questions and measures an individuals are deliberately selected interviewer or survey researcher uses for inclusion based on their special to survey through the mail, Internet, knowledge, position, characteristics, in person, or via the telephone; may be closed-ended and open-ended, but Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 23. Quota Sample 18 Research Bias typically employs more closed- one predictor (independent) variable; ended questions see also: Multiple regression; m. a Quota Sample – m. a type of non- source of error or invalidity in probability sample that draws its experimental methodology that may sample based on a percentage or impact on the validity of the quota from the population and stops experiment; see also: experimental sampling when that quota is met; a methodology, validity, inferential non-probability sample that attempts statistics to have the same general distribution Reliability – m. the extent to which of population characteristics as in the results would be consistent, or sample; see also: poll, survey replicable, if the research were methodology conducted a number of times; s. a statistical measure accessing consistency of a measure, usually through the Coefficient Alpha or Range – s. a descriptive central KR-20 statistic in measurement or tendency statistics that expresses the Cohen’s Kappa, Hosti’s reliability difference between the highest and coefficient, Krippendorf’s alpha, or lowest scores in the data set; Scott’s pi; see also: measurement example: responses to a question on reliability, Cohen’s Kappa, Holsti’s a 1 to 5 Likert-type scale where all reliability coefficient, Scott’s pi reaction categories were used would Reputation – s. An outcome variable yield a range of 4 (5 minus 1) often used dependent variable in Ratio Data – s. measurement data that public relations research dealing are defined on a continuum and with the public’s perception of some possess an absolute zero point; source’s credibility, trustworthiness, examples: number of children, a or image based on the source’s bank account, absolute lack of heat behavior; see also: dependent (0o Kelvin = –459.67o or –273.15C) variable Reach – m. refers to the scope or range Research – m. the systematic effort of distribution and thus coverage that before (formative research) or during a given communication product has and/or after (summative or in a targeted audience group; evaluative research) a broadcasting, the net unduplicated communication activity aimed at (also called “duplicated”) radio or discovering and collecting the facts TV audience for programs or or opinions pertaining to an commercials as measured for a identified issue, need, or question; specific time period may be formal or informal Readership – m. number of people who Research Bias – m. unknown or actually read each issue of a unacknowledged error created publication, on average; s. an during the design, measurement, outcome variable that often serves as sampling, procedure, or choice of a dependent variable; see also: problem studied; see also: dependent variable, outcome experimental methodology, validity, Regression – s. a statistical tool that regression predicts outcomes based on one outcome (dependent) variable and Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com
  • 24. Research Instrument 19 Secondary Methodology Research Instrument – m. tool used to that reflect an underlying structure collect data; see also, questionnaire, toward some attitude or belief interview schedule, semi-structured object; see also: attitude scale interview, structured interview Scalogram (Guttman Respondent – m. the individual from Scale/Cumulative Scale) – m. a whom data is collected through measurement scale that assumes (a) participation in a research campaign; unidimensionality and (b) that sometimes called participant or, in people, when faced with a choice psychological study, subject will also choose items less intense Response Rate – m. from survey than the one chosen; see also: methodology, the number of attitude scale, Likert-type scale, respondents who actually completed semantic differential scale an interview; s. the percentage of Scattergram – s. a descriptive statistics completed surveys (often adjusted based on continuous data that for mailing errors) graphically demonstrated how data Results – s. the outcome demonstrated are distributed between two to have been impacted upon by a variables; also known as a scatter public relations campaign; m. that diagram or scatterplot which is measured in a campaign as Schedule – m. the timeline on which a dependent variables; see also: public relations program or dependent variable, outcome, output, campaign is conducted; a list of outtake, outgrowth questions, usually open-ended, used Return on Investment (ROI) – s. an in focus group and in-depth outcome variable that equates profit interviews to gather data; see also: from investment; see also: Public survey methodology, in-depth relations return on investment, interview dependent variable Scott’s pi – s. a coding reliability measure employed in content analysis that reduces the impact of chance agreement among intercoder Sample – m. a group of people or or intracoder coding; see also: objects chosen from a larger reliability, content analysis, Holsti’s population; see also: probability Reliability Coefficient, sample, non-probability sample; Krippendorf’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa convenience sample; panel survey; Screener Question – m. one of several longitudinal survey; snapshot survey questions usually asked at the Sampling Error – m. the amount of beginning of an interview or survey error expected or observed in to determine if the potential surveys that may be attributed to respondent is eligible to participate problems in selecting respondents; s. in the study; see also: funnel the amount of error that is acceptable question or expected based on the sample size Secondary Methodology – m. an and expressed as confidence in informal research methodology that sampling form a population; see examines extant data in order to also: confidence level draw conclusions; a systematic re- Scale –m. a measurement instrument analysis of a vast array of existing consisting of attitude or belief items Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research by Stacks (Ed.) Copyright © 2006, Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.com