1. Biculturalism and
Multiculturalism: the Politics of
Identity and Inclusion
Professor James H. Liu
Centre for Applied Cross Cultural
Research
School of Psychology
Victoria University of Wellington

2. Interrogating Multiculturalism and
Biculturalism
• According to Canadian researcher John
Berry (1984) multiculturalism (MC) is
achieved when all cultures can be
maintained and are respected, and when
members of each culture can participate
fully in the wider, plural society.
• Psychologically, at least, it appears that MC
is compatible with biculturalism (BC). But
there are elements of BC that do not sit
comfortably within MC.

3. Historical Basis for Biculturalism in NZ
• The basis for BC arises out of the status of
Māori as tangata whenua in what is widely
regarded as the foundational document of
NZ sovereignty, the Treaty of Waitangi.
• This contractual relationship between Māori
and the Crown has evolved over time, but
includes provisions for kawanatanga,
rangatiratanga, equality for all citizens,
reasonable cooperation between Crown and
iwi, and redress of past injustices.
• These principles are specific to NZ.

4. Historical Basis for Biculturalism in NZ
• The basis for BC arises out of the status of Māori as
tangata whenua in what is widely regarded as the
foundational document of NZ sovereignty, the
Treaty of Waitangi.
• Contractual elements of the relationship between
Māori and the Crown have evolved over time, but
may include provisions for kawanatanga,
rangatiratanga, equality for all citizens, cooperation
between Crown and iwi, and redress of past
injustices.
• These principles are specific to NZ, and can be
conceptualized as involving a partnership between
Māori and the Crown.

5. Symbolic elements of this relationship are
widely accepted according to research using
the Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

6. At the symbolic level (IAT), Maori and Pakeha are
BOTH implicitly associated with the national identity

7. Maori language is recognized as an official language
of NZ, and some Maori words have entered into the
national lexicon

8. Support for Biculturalism in Principle, or
Symbolic Inclusion of Maori (4.89/1-7)
• Maori language should be taught in all New Zealand
schools
• The New Zealand national anthem should be sung in
both Maori and English.
• New Zealand should be known and seen as a bicultural
society, reflecting an equal partnership between Maori
and Pakeha.
• If New Zealand were to change to a republic, then the
Treaty of Waitangi should be used as a foundation for
our constitution.
• New Zealand should embrace it’s cultural diversity.

9. More Support for Liberal Democratic
principle of Equality & Opposition to
Resource Specific Biculturalism (5.73)
• We are all New Zealanders, and no one ethnic group should get
special privileges.
• It is racist to give one ethnic group special privileges, even if they
are a minority
• I feel that although Maori have had it rough in past years, they
should still be treated the same as everyone else.
• No one group should be given privileges on the basis of ethnic or
racial background
• I find the idea of giving priority or special privileges to one group
appalling, minority or otherwise

10. Historical Negation as a Legitimizing
Myth for NZ Europeans
The Historical Negation Scale Loading
Grievances for past injustices should be recognized and due compensation
.86
offered to the descendants of those who suffered from such injustices. (r)
New Zealand law needs to recognize that certain ethnic minorities have been
treated unfairly in the past. People belonging to those groups should be entitled .84
to certain benefits and compensation. (r)
I believe that I should take part in the efforts to help repair the damage to others
.83
caused by earlier generations of people from my ethnic group. (r)
We as a nation have a responsibility that see that due settlement is offered to
.82
Maori in compensation for past injustices. (r)
We should not have to pay for the mistakes of our ancestors. .81
We should all move on as one nation and forget about past differences and
.79
conflicts between ethnic groups.
It is true that many things happened to Maori people in the past that should not
have happened, but it is unfair to hold current generations of Pakeha/NZ .78
Europeans accountable for things that happened so long ago.
People who weren't around in previous centuries should not feel accountable for
.69
the actions of their ancestors.
(r) = Item is reverse scored.

11. Maybe not racist, but it does maintain NZ
European Privilege through policy preferences

12. The Complementary
Roles of Biculturalism and Multiculturalism?
• Biculturalism relates to Symbolic elements of the National Identity of
Nzers. It is rooted in the Treaty of Waitangi, which makes specific
provisions for Maori as tangata whenua. These symbolic
associations are part of the national landscape of NZ history and
cannot be avoided, but can be actively negated where historical
grievances are concerned. The practice of te reo is a potential area
of growth where symbolic identification can create social structures.
• Multiculturalism is a more general social contract relating to rights of
all NZ citizens to maintain their cultural heritage and to participate in
a pluralistic society. It can be considered as a subset of liberal values
relating to freedom, equality and fraternity. It is less a source of
symbolism for national identity, and still less a claim for resources or
historical injustice.

13. Core Issues In Liberalism (the
philosophical basis for
Multiculturalism)
• Equality, but only in terms of removal of
discrimination. Positive actions like affirmative action
are construed as disadvantaging the majority or other
ethnic groups.
• Privileging of two levels of identity, the individual and
the state. The interests of all other groups are
subordinate to the state, and fairness/property rights at
the individual level.
• Many liberal states, however, have historical
exceptions to these general rules, usually where there is
a historically embedded minority (In Switzerland and
Canada this works particularly well).

14. Core Issues in Biculturalism and
Multiculturalism
• Egalitarianism (both deal with equality but in different
time frames and using different perspectives on the
importance of the ind v group)
• Partnership (non-assimilable difference, acknowledges
cultural groups)
• Equity (implementation issues; improve procedural
justice, argue about distributive justice) Biculturalism has
more of a social justice orientation.
• Inclusiveness (are Asians and Pacific islanders more
included under Biculturalism or under Liberalism?)
Multiculturalism is more about issues of social
participation .