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Assessment of the effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Mogpog River Ecosystem,
   Marinduque, Philippines, and Possible Impacts on Human Communities

                                      INTRODUCTION


Mogpog River is located in the island of Marinduque, Philippines. It used to be a relatively
healthy river where local communities dotting its banks from Barangay Taluntunan down to
Barangay Janagdong obtained fishes, crustaceans and other aquatic organisms. Harvesting
these resources were either for local consumption or for cash. The river also served as a place
for bathing, swimming, washing clothes and for farm use.

In the year 1967, Marcopper Mining Corporation, a subsidiary of Placer Dome which owns
39.9% of the corporation in the Philippines (Philippine Indigenous Peoples Links, 2003),
started the construction of the copper mine. The company commissioned Tapian Pit in 1979.
Lt ,h Sn n n Pt a a o pnd n h 8’t cn i m n w s sT ip sre
  a rt a A t i iw s l oee i t 0so otn i at . h i e d
    e e             oo             s            e             a   e     e    s t v
as the waste rock dump while the former pit as the tailings dump (Oxfam Australia, 2003).
However, villagers complained of fish-kills and foul smells being emitted from the river
especially after a heavy rainfall (Coumans and Nettleton, 2000).

In 1991, an earthen dam was built at the Maguila-guila Creek, the headwater of Mogpog
River to hold back the tailings which is accumulating fast in Tapian Pit. In December 6,
1993, Maguila-guila dam collapsed, causing floodwater and contaminated silt to race down
the Mogpog River. Then, in the year 2001 Placer Dome left the Philippines (Oxfam
Australia, 2003).

During the 1993 dam collapsed, about twenty-one (21) barangays in the Municipality of
Mogpog were buried in mud and toxic floodwaters. Agricultural crops and various household
items and merchandise were swept away by the swiftly moving mud (Asuncion, 2001). The
raging water also swept away aquatic organisms and destroyed human habitations along its
path. Farms were also covered by mud (Coumans and Nettleton, 2000).

On August, 2000, researchers of INECAR visited Mogpog and confirmed the phenomenon of
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) occurring in the river. It was also observed that contaminated
water drips from the dam into a tunnel just below the dam and allowed to flow into a canal
connected to Mogpog River. Because of the acidic condition of the river, the local
government provided a footbridge where the people can safely cross.

The damage to Mogpog River and the local communities within the vicinity of the river was
huge and its impacts are still being felt even ten years after the dam collapsed. For instance, a
former productive ricefield in Mogpog was abandoned after the dam collapsed in 1993
because it could not anymore grow crops after it was covered with silt coming from the dam.
Only few patches of grasses dot some parts of the land. Figures 1a and 1b show the
condition of the abandoned ricefield in Mogpog.
1a                                                                                 1b




   Figure 1a. Abandoned ricefield (left) in Mogpog after the dam collapsed and mud
   (silt) covered it in 1993. Figure 1b. A close-up picture of the reddish orange silt
   ishown at right. (Photo by E.G.Regis, 2004)


On June, 2004, a study on the sediments and biological indicators of pollution was conducted
in Mogpog River by a team from the Institute for Environmental Conservation and Research
(INECAR) of Ateneo de Naga University. Another team for the water quality analyses,
organized by Dr. Alan Tinggay from Australia, joined INECAR. Funds were provided by
Oxfam Australia. This report however will only deal with the INECAR study. A separate
report for the water quality was also prepared by Dr. Tinggay (2004).


Objectives

The purpose of the present study is to find out the extent of the damage resulting from the past
mining operations of Marcopper Mining Corporation. The researcher intends to relate acid
mine drainage (AMD) already occurring in the area with the biophysical condition of Mogpog
River. Specifically, the study focuses on a) heavy metal contamination of soil along the
riverbanks; and the b) effects of AMD on living organisms through indicator species.




                                                                                              2
METHODS


Data gathering was done in June 18 to 21, 2004. A second trip was also conducted in
September 12 - 14 of the same year to validate some of the results obtained from pollen grain
analysis of an indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis. In addition, phytoplankton
diversity was included in the study due to the presence of some species in the acidic portion of
Mogpog River.

In this research, two study sites were covered: a) Mogpog River and b) Dawis River. The
latter served as a reference river and considered as the control site to ascertain that heavy
metal pollution did not happen naturally but as a result of mining activities. It also provided
the bases for determining impacts on soil and on two biological indicators. Figure 2 shows
the location of the two Study Sites in the Island of Marinduque.




                                              Site 1




                                                       Site 2




   Figure 2. Sampling Stations (Stn) in Study Sites 1 (Mogpog River) and 2 (Dawis River).
   Note the steep terrain of the island clearly shown in the PCGS map from NAMRIA.A legend
   is provided at the lower left of the map. A location map of Marinduque is shown at the left.




                                                                                              3
A. Determining the Control/Reference Site

     This portion was made through vegetational analysis involving weeds. Weeds are good
     determiners of similarities between two or more areas because these plants are cosmopolitan
     in nature and they have the ability to thrive in a variety of environment including highly
     disturbed ones.

     In this method, the weed composition of two sites was compared in terms of species
     r hesui S r snsC e iet f i iry(C ) spb se i Bo e e a
      i ns s g oe e’ ofc n o Sm l i C s a ulhd n rw r t l
       c         n       n           fi                 at                  i                      .
     (1990). A value of above 50% species similarity based on Regis and Lagunzad (2002)
     considered the sites as comparable. The 50% limit was applied in consideration for the
     likely magnitude of the disturbance such as what happens in many mining sites where
     disappearance of species is a normal occurrence. In order to discount the possibility of
     deviating too much from the local conditions, the sites have to be located in the same island,
     facing the same cardinal point (north, south, east or west) and that normal human activities
     conducted are also similar except for the activity in question which is mining in this study.

     Species determination is normally by the presence of flowers. In the absence of such
     feature, the gross structure becomes the basis and this includes leaf forms and type, stem
     (herbaceous or woody), clustering appearance, growth form, and other features that can
     show that the plant is a different species from the others already identified.

     The results of the vegetational analysis on weeds showed that Mogpog River and Dawis
     River are comparable by 59.7%, thus, Dawis River could be used as a reference river for the
     study. It was also observed that more weed species are found in Station 1 (mouth) than in
     Station 3 (Barangay Bocboc) along the banks of Mogpog River. A table comparing the
     weeds thriving in the riparian habitats of Study Sites 1 and 2 are presented in Annex 1.


B.         The sampling stations

     There were 5 sampling stations (labeled Stations 1 –5) in Mogpog River and 3 sampling
     stations in the reference river which is Dawis River (Figure 2). Station 1 is located at the
     mouth of the river. Subsequent stations are located progressively at higher elevation than
     the preceding. In these stations, three types of samples were collected:

     a) Soil samples from two locations in each of the sampling stations: water edge and at 15 –
        20 meters from the water edge;

     b) Flower buds gathered only in Stations 1 –3 of both sites since there were no
        Stachytarphetal jamaicensis encountered in Station 4 and 5 of the Mogpog River;

     c)    Phytoplankton samples from 1 sampling station (Station 3) within Mogpog river and 1
          sampling station at the mouth of a tributary for comparison.




                                                                                                4
C.      Heavy metals in soil

 One composite sample from 30 randomly collected 1-kg soil samples were obtained from
 each sampling station in each study site. The samples were collected from two locations: a)
 at the water edge of the riverbank, and b) from about 15 –20 meters away from the water
 edge. These samples were obtained from 20 cm below the soil surface. The composites
 were air-dried and then brought to the University of the Philippines Natural Science
 Research Institute (UPNSRI), Diliman, Quezon City. Chemical analyses of the soils were
 on arsenic, lead and cadmium content. The method of analysis was by Atomic Absorption
 Spectrophotometry (AAS).

 The choice of heavy metals for chemical analyses of soil was guided by the following:

     1) People complained of darkening of skin on toes when they regularly cross the river
        and suspected that this may be due to the presence of arsenic (As).

     2) Published literatures show lead (Pb) in blood samples taken from affected children
        residing near Calancan Bay.

     3) Cadmium (Cd) was chosen because it is a natural constituent of copper and gold ores
        in sulfide rocks and because of its property of being easily absorbed by plants.

 Other metals were not included due to limited funds. The presence of Copper (Cu) at above
 the natural level was assessed based on other studies such as those of Dr. Alan Tinggay
 (2004), the USGS-Armed Forces Institute of Pathology report (May, 2000), an initial
 investigation conducted by INECAR of Ateneo de Naga University (Regis, 2002) and the
 results of chemical analyses on arsenic, cadmium and copper for the indicator species
 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis in this present study.

 In the initial investigation conducted by INECAR earlier, an acidic blue water was observed
 in one of the braids of channels of Mogpog River. This indicates the presence of copper
 sulfate     (Vugteveeen,       http://www.elmshurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/334raymine.html).
 Tailings spills that happened in the area would possibly contaminate the soil and sediments
 with significant amount of this metal. The water quality assessment by Dr. Alan Tingay
 contained in the Marinduque Scientific Report show elevated levels of copper in the dam
 and some stations downstream. The USGS-Armed Forces report by Plumlee, et al. (2000)
 also mentioned high levels of copper in Mogpog River.


D. Other parameters measured were soil pH and characteristics such as soil color, soil
   texture and drainage potential. Soil pH was determined using the method of Heckman
   (1994). An average of three readings were recorded for each sampling station per study
   site. Soil type was determined by the Hand method (DeLuc &O H r n20)
                                                           a ’ e o,02.
                                                                     r




                                                                                          5
E. Impacts on living organisms through Biological Indicators of environmental pollution

E.1. Pollen Grain Analysis

 Thirty flower buds were collected from an indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
 (Figure 3a) in each sampling stations of both study sites. Pollen grain analyses were done
 to determine pollen abortiveness that quantifies heavy metal contamination in the methods
 of Regis and Lagunzad (2002) and Micieta and Murin (1996). An example of the pollen
 grain of S. jamaicensis taken through a microscope camera is presented in Figure 3b. Crop
 plants were not anymore observed included in the study since these were not anymore
 observed in the sampling areas.


                                                        F lo w e r b u d

                                                                              Figure 3b.
                                       F lo w e r e t
                                                                              Flower spike of S.
                                                                              jamaicensis [Photo
                                                                              by E.G.Regis, 2004]




                                                                           Figure 3c. Normal
                                                                           pollen grain of S.
                                                                           jamaicensis [Photo by
                                                                           E.G.Regis, 2004]
  Figure 3a. The indicator species
 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis used
 in pollen grain analyses. [Photo by
 E.G.Regis, 2004]


 Pollen grain analysis comprised of processing and counting of normal and aborted pollen
 grains. The former included acidifying, squashing and staining. Then, the pollen grains
 from the two anthers of each flower bud were counted under a compound microscope using
 a prepared horizontal grid placed at the back of each prepared slide. Thirty flower buds per
 sampling station per site were processed and their pollen grains counted.


E.2. Heavy metal pollution in plants

 Whole plants were gathered, washed in distilled water and air-dried or oven dried at 50 -
 60°C in a drying oven. Homogenization through pounding and grinding followed, then the
 samples were brought to the University of the Philippines Natural Science Research
 Institute (UPNSRI). The samples were analyzed for arsenic, cadmium and copper using
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS).




                                                                                                    6
E.3. Phytoplankton study

 Phytoplankton study was included because there are known resistant species in acidic
 waters. The purpose of using the phytoplankton as indicator species was to determine
 species richness and the presence/absence of phytoplankton species thriving in Mogpog
 River compared with one of its tributaries.

 The phytoplankton samples were collected at Station 3 in Mogpog River and in one of the
 tributaries of the said river. Other stations were not included since station 1 is located at the
 river mouth and marine phytoplankton mixes with freshwater types. Station 2 is located at
 lower elevation downstream and receives several tributaries that possibly increase
 biodiversity. The method used for sample collection was adapted from Waterwatch (2003).


RESULTS

The results of the study are presented in three sections: A. Soil/sediment characteristics, B.
Soil pollution, and C. Effects on living organisms through indicator species. Soil/sediment
characteristics have a bearing on the physico-chemical characteristic conditions of the soil
and/or sediments that include acidity/alkalinity and drainage potential indicated by their color
and texture. Movement of toxic heavy metals is influenced by these characteristics.

A. Soil/sediment characteristics

A.1. Soil pH

            Figure 4. Comparison of soil pH in 2
              locations along Mogpog riverbank
       8   7.5
             7.1
       7           6.3
       6
                    4.8
       5
  pH




       4                   3.2 3     2.9     2.7
       3
       2
                                                     Near water
       1
                                                     edge
       0
            St 1   St 2      St 3     St 4    St 5   15-20 m from
                          Stations                   water edge



Soil pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity that measures reactivity of soil. Figure 4 above
shows that soils in Mogpog riverbank become more acidic from Stations 1 to 5. Also, the pH
of soil is also more acidic at locations 15 –20 meters from the water edge of the river than
along the water edge. The increasing pH (becoming more alkaline) from Station 5 going
downstream towards Station 1 is most likely due to dilution by fresh water from the different
tributaries received by Mogpog River. In addition, marine contribution during high tides also
increased the water pH, thus also the sediment and soil along the riverbanks. Nevertheless,
this trend of decreasing pH (more acidic) from Station 1 to 5, can be attributed to acid mine
drainage originating from the dam upstream.



                                                                                                7
Figure 5. Comparison of soil pH in 2 locations
                           along Dawis riverbank



               8      8      8      8          8
                                                    7.9
      pH




                                                            Water edge
       7
                   St 1          St 2             St 3      15-20m from
                            Station                         water edge



In the reference river (Figure 5), the pH of soil is alkaline which is the same in all stations for
sediments near the water edge. The condition is also true for sediments obtained 15-20
meters from the water edge except in Station 3, which has a slight decreased in pH value by
0.1. Nevertheless, the value still shows alkaline condition, which is due to the presence of
calcium carbonate in rocks as evidenced by the presence of remnants of fossilized corals and
shells in the area. This is also confirmed by the study of Tinggay (2004) on the level of
calcium in water. The slight decrease in the pH may have resulted from the presence of
vegetation and decomposing plant and animal remains in the area. Decomposition of organic
matter forms humic acid, a soil forming process.

                   Figure 6. Comparison of average soil pH of
                         Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks

      10
           8
           6
 pH




           4
           2
           0
                                                                  Mogpog
                St 1      St 2          St 3        St 4   St 5
                                                                  Dawis
                                        Station



Comparing the average pH of soil in the two study sites (Figure 6), Dawis riverbank is
alkaline in all station whereas Mogpog riverbank shows decreasing trend (becoming more
acidic) from Station 1 to 5 towards the dam. Thus, acidity can be attributed to acid mine
drainage generated in the siltation dam upstream.


A.2. Soil color

Soil color is the product of various chemical, biological and physical transformations that
takes place within a soil. Biological processes bring about the soil organic matter or (SOM)
that imparts darkening of soil color to brown and black, thus, higher the organic matter, the
darker the soil. On the other hand, bright/light color indicates leaching of oxides of iron and
aluminum, calcium, carbonates and/or clay minerals (Fanning and Fanning, 1989). Table 1
below compares the color of soils obtained from the study sites.

                                                                                                 8
Table 1. Soil characteristics based on color
  Study Site                                 Sampling Locations
 and Stations                 Site I Mogpog                                    Site 2 Dawis
                          Water Edge            15 – m from
                                                    20             Water Edge          15 – m from
                                                                                           20
                                                  water edge                             water edge
    Station 1        Brownish gray              Dark Gray       Gray to dark gray      Dark gray
    Station 2        Yellowish brown            Light brown     Gray to dark gray      Dark gray
    Station 3        Yellow to light orange     Light orange    Gray to dark gray      Dark gray
                     brown                      brown
    Station 4        Near Tunnel –  Light               *                  *                  *
                     orange brown
    Station 5        Dam –  Light orange                *                  *                  *
                     brown
    Former           Open area –  orange                *                  *                  *
    Ricefield        brown
*     no sampling station applicable

In the above Table, only the riverbanks of Dawis River and in Station 1 of Mogpog River at
location farther from the water edge show dark soil color. The lighter color of soil means
well-drained condition. Thus, in Mogpog River, carbonates and/or clay minerals have been
leached out due to the acidic condition of the soil whereas in Dawis River, the darker soil
condition indicates the presence of organic matter. This condition is confirmed by the study
of Tingay (2004) regarding the leaching of metals and minerals due to acid mine drainage. In
his study, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfates, Copper, Potassium, Iron and Zinc in water are high
in the dam (Station 5 in this study) decreasing towards the lower elevation.

A.3. Soil Texture

The amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil provide the bases for textural classification of a
soil/sediment sample (Fanning and Fanning, 1989). It can also be determined by a simple
m t dko na S iT x r gb H n ( e uaadO H r n 20) T b 2bl
  e o nw s o et i y ad D L c n ’ e o, 02. al
    h                   l      un                                  r                e ew   o
presents the results of soil characteristics analysis of Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks.based on
texture.

Table 2. Soil characteristics based on texture.
                                                      Sampling Location
    Study Station                  Site I Mogpog                               Site 2 Dawis
                           Water edge           15 – m from
                                                     20           Water edge           15 – m from
                                                                                            20
                                                  water edge                             water edge
 Station 1         Sand                       Sand             Sand                   Loamy sand
 Station 2         Sand                       Fine sand        Sand                   Loamy sand
 Station 3         Silty                      Fine sand        Sand                   Sandy loam
 Station 4         Silty clayey                        *               *                      *
 Station 5         Silt                                *               *                      *
 Former Ricefield  Mud/silty                           *               *                      *
* no sampling station applicable

Stations 1 and 2 of Mogpog and Station 1 to 3 of Dawis along the water edge are sandy, thus,
there is high drainage potential of soils in these locations. In contrast, Stations 4 and 5 of
Mogpog showed silty and clayey soils which have low drainage potential but high adsorption

                                                                                                      9
capacity for minerals such as heavy metals. These areas are near the tunnel below the dam
and the dam itself respectively. Acidic condition tends to remobilize the heavy metals and
deposit them to lower levels. This is one of the problems of acid mine drainage.
Nevertheless, the best texture for a balanced water retention and drainage potential is sandy
loam and loamy sand found in Dawis River at 15 – meters from the water edge.
                                                  20

Fine and medium-textured soils have high retention of water and exchangeable nutrients.
Coarse-textured soils (large soil fragments) however have large pores, thus, percolation is
high because they have very weak water-holding capacity. Thus, this type of soil have low
water retention due to their rapid infiltration rates. On the other hand, when pores are fine,
water is strongly adsorbed by forces that exceed gravity (Fanning and Fanning, 1989).
Because it is retained in the soil, water becomes unavailable to plants. Medium-sized pores
however have high water availability. In addition, the adsorption of cations (nutrients) and
microbial activities are also dependent on surface area of soils.

B. Heavy metals in Soil

Annex 2 shows the level of heavy metals in soil/sediment samples obtained from various
stations at the banks of Mogpog River, the tunnel and the dam. These results are presented in
bar graphs in Figures 7 through 12. Reference standards are also presented in Annex 3.

B.1. Arsenic in Soils
              Figure 7. Comparison of Level of Arsenic in
                 Sediment in 2 locations along Mogpog
                               Riverbank
      10

          9

          8

          7
  mg/kg




          6

          5

          4

          3

          2

          1                                         Water edge
          0
              1       2       3      4       5
                                                    15-20m from
                          Station                   water edge



In the above Figure, Stations 1 and 2 of Mogpog River show higher values of arsenic in
sampling stations located away from the water edge. Lower value is however shown in
station 3 at this location. At the water edge, only station 2 recorded higher value than the
other stations. It is possible that arsenic is deposited in this station due to its lower elevation
than stations 3 to 5. The higher value in Station 2 at the water edge may be due to
contribution from other sources. In station 1, the lower value at the water edge may have
been due to sediment deposited from the marine environment.

From stations 4 going downstream, acidic water and soil might have remobilized the arsenic
and deposited it at lower elevation. Arsenic in sediments at location farther from the water
edge, also increases going downstream. This may be due to higher pH which is alkaline that
decreases remobilization of heavy metals.


                                                                                                10
In Station 5, which is the dam, the slight increase in level of arsenic may be due to the fact
that arsenic in the tailings are still present in higher quantity. The acidic condition of the
water may have caused the movement of some arsenic to station 4 at the tunnel. Thus,
sediments from the tunnel are only recipients of the metal carried by the acidic water.

There is also the possibility that the transfer of dissolved arsenic from station 5 to 4 through a
water medium caused some of the metal to be released into the air. However, from stations 4
to 2 towards the coast, there seems to be a gradual deposition of arsenic.

Another source of arsenic may be human activities such as the use of pesticides in farms and
other sources due to the presence of human communities in stations 1 to 3. Nevertheless, the
trend between Stations 4 and 5 shows that the source of arsenic is the dam upstream.

                   Figure 8. Comparison of level of Arsenic in
                   sediments in 2 locations in Dawis riverbank
         7

         6

         5
 mg/kg




         4

         3

         2

         1
                                                               Near water
         0                                                     edge
                      St 1             St 2           St 3
                                                               15-20 m from
                                     Station                   water edge



In Dawis river, the trend among the stations, show higher arsenic level at locations away from
the water edge. This shows that arsenic tend to remain in the same location. Since the pH of
soil is alkaline, there is less remobilization of arsenic in this location, hence, arsenic content in
sediments are higher at locations away from the water edge. The higher level of soil arsenic in
station 1 can also be due to other factors such as human activities that use products containing
arsenic. At the water edge, the increasing trend towards the coast shows that arsenic is being
carried by the acidic river downstream and deposited there. Nevertheless, the values are
much lower than the critical values for arsenic which is 20 mg/kg.

                 Figure 9. Comparison of average level of Arsenic
                         in Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks
         10

             8
 mg/kg




             6

             4

             2

             0
                     St 1     St 2            St 3   St 4    St 5   Mogpog
                                         Station
                                                                    DAwis




                                                                                                  11
In comparing the two rivers, Mogpog riverbank has higher average content of arsenic than
Dawis riverbank. The trend shows increasing level of arsenic towards the coast due to
deposition of the metal downstream. The exception is Station 5 of Mogpog which is the dam
and the most likely source of arsenic.


B.2. Lead in Soils

                 Figure 10. Com parison of level of Lead in 2
                       locations in Mogpog riverbank
         50
         40

         30
 mg/kg




         20
         10
            0                                                  Near water
                                                               edge
                      St 1     St 2    St 3      St 4   St 5   15-20 m fro m
                                      Station                  water edge



Very high level of lead was recorded for soils in Station1 of Mogpog River. There is also an
increasing trend of the level of lead in soils from Stations 2 to 5 near the water edge and
Stations 1 to 3 at 15 – m from the water edge. This shows that the source of lead comes
                        20
from the dam upstream. Higher content of lead in Station 3 at location farther from the water
edge than at the water edge indicates that lead is slowly being deposited in this area.

Lead (Pb) has been reported to be the least mobile among the heavy metals. It is also
associated mainly with clay minerals. This is probably the reason why Pb is high in the Dam
due to the silty and clayey condition of the soil there. On the other hand, high soil pH can
precipitate Pb as hydroxide, phosphate or carbonate (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1984
p.155). Again, this explains why Pb content of soil is highest in Station 1 of Mogpog River
because aside from the contribution from the siltation dam, the high level of lead in Station 1
near the water edge may be due to human activities that use lead such as fuel used in vehicles
including motorized boats since this station is along the mouth of the river. True trend of
values is shown in sediments at location away from the riverbank wherein deposition is less
influenced by water contaminated with lead coming from anthropogenic activities.

                      Figure 11. Comparison of level of Lead in 2
                             locations in Dawis riverbank
            10.0
                8.0

                6.0
    mg/kg




                4.0
                2.0
                                                                Near water
                0.0
                                                                edge
                             St 1         St 2          St 3
                                                                15-20 m from
                                        Station                 water edge



                                                                                            12
Dawis riverbank also shows the same trend as Mogpog River. There is higher level in Station
1 than the other stations and increasing level of lead from Station 2 to 3, which is going
upstream in both locations - near the water edge and at 15-20 m away from the water edge.
The high level of lead in Station 1 may be due to anthropogenic sources. Nevertheless, the
level of lead in the reference river is much lower than Mogpog river.

           Figure 12. Comparison of average level of Lead in
                    Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks

           25.0

           20.0
   mg/kg




           15.0

           10.0

            5.0

            0.0
                   St 1    St 2    St 3     St 4    St 5   Mogpog
                                  Station                  Dawis



Figure 12 compares the average level of lead in soil along Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks.
The results show trend of increasing levels of lead from downstream to upstream in the dam
except for Station 1. Nevertheless, the trend shows that although lead is naturally occurring in
the area, its higher values in Mogpog means that lead content of sediments have been
remobilized by acidic water due to mining activities.

B.3. Cadmium in soils

Although cadmium was also measured in soil samples, its level is below the detection limit of
the analytical laboratory (Annex 2). Water quality assessment by Tingay (2004) shows very
low level of cadmium in water in the dam, at the tunnel below the dam and some stations
downstream. Thus, adsorption in soil particles is also low. Nevertheless, there is a decreasing
level of cadmium in water from the tunnel below the dam towards station 3 downstream and
this indicates mobilization of cadmium due to the acidic water which may in time, cause
increased adsorption by soil particles enough to be detected later on.


C. Effects on living organisms through indicator species

When a certain living organism responds to a particular environmental condition, it is known
as a biological indicator or bioindicator. Kovacs (1992) listed several factors that elicit such
responses and these are: a) genetic make-up, b) stage of development, c) changes in
environmental conditions, and d) concentration of pollutants.

In this study, two bioindicators are considered: a) a stage of development in an indicator
species and b) changes in environmental conditions. In the former, the indicator species
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis was used because it has certain tolerance to pollution near mining
sites and aborts its pollen grains in the presence of heavy metals (Regis, 1999; Regis et al.,
2001). This species is an effective test organism because it is able to provide quantitative

                                                                                             13
response to exposure to the pollutant. The second indicators are the phytoplankton (Kovacs,
1992) because they are able to provide qualitative response to changes in environmental
conditions.


C. 1. Pollen grain abortiveness of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Pollen grain abortion above the natural abortive tendency of plants indicates impact on the
capacity of plants to produce fruits and for self-perpetuation. Table 3 and Figures 13 and 14
below prove the effects of heavy metals on plant productivity.


      Table 3. Comparison of percent pollen grain abortion of S. jamaicensis
      Obtained along the banks of Mogpog River and Dawis River

               Station                 % Pollen Grain Abortion
                                 Site 1 Mogpog         Site 2 Dawis
          Station 1                    9.07                 3.78
          Station 2                    7.21                 5.44
          Station 3                    8.93                 3.41


In terms of percent pollen grain abortion, Site 1 (Mogpog) has higher percentage of aborting
pollen grains than Site 2 (Dawis) in all stations. ANOVA confirmed the significant
differences in pollen grain abortion between Mogpog and Dawis study sites. In the former,
Station 2 has lower mean pollen abortion than Stations 1 and 3 which are the mouth
(connected to the sea) and upstream (nearer the dam) respectively. As noted in the soil
analysis, Station 1 may be influenced by other factors that originate from human settlements,
thus, this station receives additional amounts of heavy metals such as lead from vehicular
sources causing an increase in pollen abortion. Nevertheless, Stations 2 and 3 of Mogpog
river shows an increasing trend towards upstream in pollen abortiveness.

Figure 13 below presents various examples of aborted pollen grains of S. jamaicensis in the
study sites.

   nrm
                      abt
                               nrm                               Figure 13. Aborted (abt)
                                                     abt         and normal (nrm) pollen
                                                                 grains of the bioindicator
                                                                 species Stachytarpheta
                                                                 jamaicensis collected from
    abt                                              nrm         the banks of Mogpog River
                                                                 (Photo by E.G.Regis)




                                                                                           14
The following Figures 14 to 19 also categorized the pollen abortiveness by groups according
to a range in pollen abortion. This is a graphical presentation of the trend of pollen abortion
in the indicator species found in both sites and in all stations. In each station, 30 flower buds
were processed and counted. Figures 14 to 16 present the results from Mogpog River.

                      Figure 14. Percent pollen grain abortion of                                                     Figure 15. Percent pollen grain abortion of
                      Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in                                                       Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in
                             Station 1 Mogpog riverbank                                                                      Station 2 Mogpog riverbank



                         6.67
      Category




                                                                                                                             10.00




                                                                                                       Category
                            10.00
                                           30.00                                                                                                        46.67
                                                                   53.33                                                                              43.33
                                                                           Above 45%                                                                                   15.1-45%
                                                                           15.1-45%
                 0                 20           40                   60                                                                                                5.1-15%
                                                                           5.1-15%                                0             20          40                  60
                                  % Pollen abortion                        0-5%                                                % Pollen abortion                       0-5%




Station 1 of Mogpog shows high percentage of pollen grain abortiveness within the natural
range of 0 –5%. This findings is due to the low level of heavy metals found in soil in this
station. Also, the plants in this place grow in an elevated area, thus receives less heavy metal
contaminants.

In Station 2 of Mogpog, the above figure shows a shift in the increase in pollen abortion
towards a higher range (5.1% to 10%) which is above the natural pollen abortiveness. Lower
category (% at natural level) also decreased. There is also a decreased towards the higher
category. This findings indicate increase in the level of heavy metal contaminant, thus, higher
percent pollen abortion.

                     Figure 16. Percent pollen grain abortion of                                  Figure 17. Percent pollen grain abortion in
                     Stachytarpeta jamaicensis by category in                                     Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in
                            Station 3 Mogpog riverbank                                                    Station 1 Dawis riverbank



                                                                                                                  6.67
                                                                                       Category




                         10.00
 Catetory




                                                                                                                   10.00
                                                     76.67
                                                                                                                                                    83.33
                          13.33                                       15.1-45%
                                                                                                                                                             15.1-45%
                                                                      5.1-15%
                                                                                                   0                  20      40     60        80      100   5.1-15%
                 0         20       40     60        80      100
                                                                      0-5%
                                 % Pollen abortion                                                                         % Pollen abortion                 0-5%




In Figure 16, Station 3 of Mogpog River shows highest pollen abortiveness at category 2
(5.1-15%) which is above the natural pollen grain abortiveness. Natural pollen abortiveness
has decreased further. Note that Station 3 is located at higher elevation and nearest the
Maguila-guila dam which is the source of the contaminant of Mogpog River. Figures 17 to
19 presents the results from Dawis River, the reference/control site.


                                                                                                                                                                          15
Figure 18. Percent pollen grain abortion of                           Figure 19. Percent pollen grain abortion of
              Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in                             Stachytarpeta jamaicensis by category in
                      Station 2 Dawis riverbank                                             Station 3 Dawis riverbank
   Category


                   3.33                                                                    15.79




                                                                         Category
                                              43.33
                                                                                         10.53
                                                      53.33
                                                                                                                           73.68
                                                              15.1-45%                                                              15.1-45%

               0           20          40               60 5.1-15%                                                                  5.1-15%
                                                                                    0      20           40            60    80
                          % Pollen abortion                   0-5%
                                                                                                   %Pollen abortion
                                                                                                                                    0-5%




In Figures 17, Dawis River, most of the samples showed natural pollen grain abortiveness.
However, some samples exhibited very high abortive tendencies. This condition might be due
to contribution of pollutant from other sources such as vehicular exhaust, batteries and
pesticides. The sampling area is also a very shallow river (Figure 4g). Thus, pollutants may
have been concentrated here by clay particles in a predominantly sandy soil in this site.

The results presented in Figure 18 shows more than 50% of the samples are within the natural
abortive range. However, there are also more than 40% exhibiting higher than natural pollen
abortiveness. Some values were even above 15%. These results may be attributed to the
presence of human habitations and farms near the sampling area, thus, some human activities
could have contributed to heavy metal pollution.

On the other hand, Figure 19, Station 3, shows that pollen abortion is mostly within the
natural abortive range. Very few flower buds exhibited higher than natural and the values
were not so high. The sampling area is in a peaceful place with crystal clear water flowing
and not much disturbance from human activities. Farmlands are higher in elevation and
mostly composed of coconut trees.


C.2. Heavy metal pollution in Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

The levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in the indicator species Stachytarpheta
jamaicensis are presented in Table 4 below. The results of the chemical analyses done by the
Natural Science Research Institute (NSRI) of the University of the Philippines are presented
in Annexes 4a and 4b.


 Table 4. Values for natural and critical levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in
 plants based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988)
              Heavy metal             Content in Stachytarpheta                                    Natural                       Critical
                                        jamaicensis (mg/kg)                                        Content*                      Content*
                                      Mogpog            Dawis
               Arsenic (As)             0.0852                       0.0620                             1.0                        20
              Cadmium (Cd)               1.17                         0.49                              0.4                         5
               Copper (Cu)                11                           9.0                              30                         >30
 * Reference values based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988; Annex 5)

                                                                                                                                               16
The above results show that the levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper are higher in samples
taken from Mogpog River than those taken from Dawis River, the reference site. Among the
three metals, cadmium in Mogpog was detected higher than the natural content and only
slightly higher in Dawis. Nevertheless, all results show lower than the critical level in plants
based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988).

However, although the current level of cadmium in soil is very low (below detection limit;
Annex 5), plant samples were able to sequester this metal and concentrate it in plant tissues.
This is highly possible because plants could easily absorb cadmium. Thus, the results further
show that the contamination of soil with cadmium is also occurring in Mogpog and most
likely due to acid mine drainage.


C.3. Effects of AMD on freshwater phytoplankton communities

River ecosystems upstream normally have very low diversity and abundance of
phytoplankton. Exception to this is when the section of the river is relatively flat thereby
allowing settlements of organic matter coming from plants and animals that provide algal
nutrients for phytoplankton growth. Another source of algal nutrients is the existence of
many human settlements along the riverbanks.

In mining areas with sulfide ores, a group known as cyanophyta or cyanobacteria includes
species known to use sulfur for metabolic functions even in low level oxygen or its absence.
These species are termed as chemolithautotrophic (Gray and Head, 1999). Species richness of
phytoplankton recorded for Mogpog River and one of its tributary are recorded as 29 and 31
species respectively. Annex 6 presents the various species and compares the phytoplankton
diversity between Mogpog River and one of its tributaries in Station 3, Bocboc Area. The
results show that there is not much difference in species richness between an acidic river
(Mogpog) and its tributary. The only difference lies on the kind of species present in the sites.

There are 12 species that are exclusively found in Mogpog River and 14 species found only in
the tributary. Since the samples were collected from the mouth of this tributary, it is expected
that the species in the tributary will be carried by the water current to Mogpog River. In
undisturbed state, such species would survive. However, disturbance in the river such as in
acidic condition, intolerant species was not be able to survive. These findings therefore show
the destructive nature of acid water on biodiversity by replacement of species and or
disappearance of species. In aquatic ecosystems, phytoplankton are also considered the base
of the food chain.


DISCUSSION

Heavy metals are naturally occurring in Marinduque. Nevertheless, in areas with no mining
activities and river water is not acidic, heavy metals are not remobilized from its source (the
highly mineralized area) to lower slopes. The naturally occurring heavy metals are also found
in small quantities in soil at the upper layers within the tolerable level of plants and animals.



                                                                                              17
However, when mining activities open up an area exposing sulfide rocks to oxygen and water,
chemical reactions naturally occur and produces sulfuric acid and iron sulfate, the latter
appear as red deposits that coat rocks and sediments. This is the phenomenon of acid mine
drainage or AMD. This is shown by the chemical reaction (Jackson and Jackson, 1996)
below:

       2 FeS2 + 7 O2 + 2 H2O              2 FeSO4 + 1 H2SO4

FeSO4 is the one responsible for the red-orange precipitate that coats rocks and sediments in a
river. The resulting sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is the substance that causes the leaching of heavy
metals to the surroundings and creating a very low pH in water and soil such as what
happened in Mogpog River. The process is hastened by sulfur bacteria such as Thiobacillus
thiooxidans and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans through bacterial oxidation processes (Allan, 1988
in Salomons et al., 1995).

Acidic water releases and remobilizes toxic heavy metals such as copper, lead, arsenic,
cadmium, zinc and others that are naturally occurring in sulfide ores. Moreover, the resulting
acidic water kills aquatic organisms as well as soil organisms in the riparian habitat of the
riverbank. These metals may be adsorbed by clay particles and/or deposited along the way as
acidic water flows downstream. Thus, in the study of Tingay (2004) on the water of Mogpog
River, and in this study for soils and plants, although the levels of heavy metal pollution are
still low since most of the metals are still below the critical level, the deposition of such
metals in soil particles is a grave concern. Proof of increasing deposition is shown in the
increasing level of heavy metal such as lead and arsenic from the source (dam) to lower
elevation. Even in acidic water, arsenic is even higher at the water edge than farther from the
water edge. Lead is highest at the source decreasing downslope except at the lowest elevation
which is affected by human activities. Hence, such deposition will continue to impact living
organisms within the vicinity of the river as well as agricultural productivity downslope.

A similar case of heavy metal deposition in sediments occurred in an abandoned mine in the
Island of Rapu-Rapu, province of Albay, Philippines. Past mining activities (from 1950s and
abandoned in 1976) in one river (Pulang Salog, local translation of Red River) showed very
high levels of arsenic in a species of grass and a brown seaweed. This is also true for arsenic
in sediments. Compared with another river (Pagcolbon) in the same island about 2 km away,
although the area was mined and abandoned in the 1990s, the level of heavy metals is much
lower (Regis et al., 2001). Heavy metals were probably gradually deposited in the area over
time. Thus, it is highly probable that this phenomenon will also occur in Mogpog River in the
coming years.

In this study, the following findings show that,

   a) the levels of arsenic and copper are higher in Mogpog River than in Dawis river

   b) the levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in indicator plants are higher in Mogpog
      River than those from Dawis River. Cadmium was also found to exceed the natural
      content in plants in Mogpog river.

   c) acid mine drainage caused the leaching and remobilization of heavy metals from the
      dam to riverbanks in the lower slopes.
                                                                                            18
d) there is gradual deposition of heavy metals in soils along the banks of Mogpog River

   e) soils and plants in the riparian habitats of Mogpog River are contaminated with heavy
      metals. Although the present concentrations of the contaminants are still low, in time
      the gradual deposition of heavy metals will cause their accumulation to concentrations
      above the critical levels that will threaten the survival of whatever is left of the living
      organisms


A. Impacts of heavy metals

Heavy metals cause a variety of physiological abnormalities in many plants. One of these is
the reduction in the uptake of water by the plants due to copper toxicity (Panou-Filotheou et
al., 2001). The consequence of this is decrease rate of transpiration due to the following
effects of copper and other heavy metals: a) reduction in the transpiring surface area Lanaras,
et al., 1988, Barcelo and Poschenrieder, 1990; b) cadmium in bush bean caused reduction in
the mesophyll intercellular spaces resulting in less water diffusing to the stomata (Barcelo et
al., 1988).

Leaf chlorosis is also associated with changes in structure and physiology in chloroplasts such
as reduction in the volume and number of mesophyll chloroplasts (Panou-Filotheou et al.,
2001; Ouzounidou et al., 1992). The shape of chloroplast is also affected by cadmium
(Barcelo et al., 1988; Ouzounidou et al., 1997) and lead (Heumann, 1987).

Heavy metals such as cadmium also cause loss of starch grains in chloroplast. Copper
toxicity damages the chloroplast limiting membrane (Taylor, 1988).

In all the above observations, the ultimate impacts of heavy metal toxicity results to reduction
in the capacity to produce food by photosynthesis by plants. Thus, in soils laden with heavy
metals, plant productivity suffers so that crop production becomes low. This is the reason
perhaps why in mining areas, plant growth is reduced, some plants do not thrive and only a
limited number of species (only the tolerant ones) survive.

In terms of health effects, the following heavy metals have been documented to cause
illnesses:


A.1. Arsenic

Based on the reports of the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, arsenic is
known to cause cancer that attacks the lungs, skin, liver, kidney, bladder and other organs of
the body. Its entry into the human body is through contaminated drinking water and by
ingestion of contaminated food. It passes out slowly through hairs and nails. The inorganic
form of arsenic in food and water is more problematic because it is also a human poison, fatal
at concentration of 60 parts per million (ppm) because it damages the nerves, stomach
intestines and skin. It can also decrease production of the red and white blood cells and its
known to induce abnormal heart rhythm.
(http://www.environment.about.com/library/weekly/blchem.htm?terms=arsenic; Arsenic
                                                                                              19
Project, http://www.hvr.se/nov97/arsenic.html). In combination with other factors, such as
malnutrition and Hepatits B of affected person, the effects of arsenic poisoning becomes
worse (The World Health Organization [WHO], http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact210.html).

Other health effects include: thickening and discoloration of the skin, stomach pain, hearing
impairment, effects on the heart and circulatory system including the gastrointestinal system
and liver, diabetes, developmental effects, damage to the nervous system which is manifested
by tingling or loss of sensation in some parts of the body such as the limbs (EPA Office of
Water Management, http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars10.html; Arsenic Project,
http://www.hvr.se/nov97/arsenic.html)


A.2. Cadmium

This metal has no known biological function, yet, it is readily absorbed by plants through the
root pathway which eventually reach the leaves, fruits and seeds (Johnson, BT., 1997,
http://ace.orst.edu/info/extonet/faqs/foodcon/cadmium.htm). Humans become contaminated
through ingestion of contaminated food. In humans, cadmium has a tendency for chronic
accumulation in the kidneys wherein, at 200 mg/kg fresh weight concentration in the kidney
cortex, causes kidney dysfunction (Alloway, 1995). Likewise, it is also deposited in liver. In
the blood, cadmium binds to the erythrocytes (red blood cells). Since cadmium in the body is
eliminated slowly due to its biological half-life which is 10-30 years), its impact on the body
is metabolic dysfunction of organs affected. Diet that are low in calcium, iron or protein
enhance the absorption of cadmium in the body.


A.3. Lead

Lead contamination is brought about by inhalation of contaminated dust particles in the air
and by ingestion of contaminated food. Once it enters the body, it affects the organ system
especially the central nervous system. In children, it has been reported to cause permanent
developmental problems at low dose. At higher concentration, lead could interfere with the
formation of red blood cells in humans as well as cause neurological disorder. Other diseases
associated with lead include anemia, learning difficulty, decreased mental ability, and
damages to the kidney and immune system (Northwestern University,
http://www.chem.northwestern.edu/~hagodwin/toxicity.html; US Agency for Toxic
Substances and Diseases Registry,
http://www.environment.about.com/library/weekly/blchem2.chtm).


A.4. Copper

Copper is a trace element essential for human health. However, too much copper also cause
health problems. When there is high copper in the air at the workplace, people suffer from
metal fever that manifest as flu-like (http://www.lenntech.com/Periodic-chart-elements/Cu-
en.htm). In addition, long-term exposure can cause irritation of nose, mouth and eyes,
suspected to result to lowered intelligence in adolescents. Headaches, stomachaches,
dizziness, vomiting and diarrhea are also experienced. High uptakes of copper may cause


                                                                                             20
liver and kidney damage, hepatic cirrhosis, brain damage, renal disease and copper deposition
in the cornea of the eyes.


B. The causes of the problem on human health

The reality of the above findings can be explained by the geochemical-physical condition of
the island of Marinduque. These are: a) Presence of sulfide rocks capable of generating acid
in the presence of oxygen and water. This is a natural process that last for hundred of years
until the sulfide rocks in the area have been dissolved. Since sulfide rocks contain other
heavy metals aside from copper in this case, the acid will remobilize the heavy metals and
deposit them in soil particles; b) Steep slope, so that even in Type III climate, rainwater
facilitates the movement of contaminated water and erosion of sediments during the rainy
sao. ye Icm t idsr e b P G S a hv g“esn nt e poone,
 esn T p I l a s ec bd y A A A s ai saos o vr rnucd
                 Ii e            i                          n                  y
relatively dry fro N vm e t A r adw to t r t fh ya .c Ma nuu ia
                  m oe bro pi n e frh e o t er ) r dqe s
                                      l               e s        e ”             i
small island ecosystem with steep slope so that pollutants such as those coming from tailings
dump of the mines can easily be carried by runoff, river water, and flood water into the
marine environment thereby affecting the fishery resources.

The danger to humans becomes highly probable because some plants are able to tolerate
relatively high concentration of heavy metals. Some animals are also able to accumulate
heavy metals in their tissues without causing immediate death. Thus, these realities pose
danger to the unsuspecting persons because heavy metals can be transferred from soil to
plants, then to animals and eventually to humans.

C. Contamination of Mogpog River

The contamination of Mogpog river was apparently a result of irresponsible method of waste
disposal. The following pictures (Figures 20 - 25) provide proofs of this observation:




 Figure 20. Physical filter of the Maguila-guila   Figure 21. A blasted portion of the dam
 siltation dam set up by the mining company        where overflow water from the contaminated
                                                   mine tailings flows through



                                                                                           21
Figure 22. Tunnel (white arrow) where            Figure 23. The lower part of the blasted
contaminated water from the dam above            portion shown in Figure 22 above. Residue
drips into a canal which is connected to the     of the flowing contaminated water is shown
Mogpog River (yellow arrow)                      by the black coating on the rocks (red
                                                 arrow) which is due to sulfur bacteria




   Figure 24 (left). White arrow points to tunnel below the dam where contaminated water
   is collected and conveyed into Mogpog River (blue arrow). Green arrow is the drainage
   canal originating from the overflow of blasted portion of the dam in pictures 2 and 4
   above. Figure 25 (right) picture is the appearance of the red orange acidic and
   contaminated water that flows from the dam.


The apparent use of Mogpog River as a disposal site for the acidic liquid of the mine tailings
caused the contamination of the soil along the riverbank and its vegetation. The acid
generated through the process of acid mine drainage leached out the heavy metals from the
waste rocks of the mines and tailings deposited in the siltation dams. Such heavy metals are
carried by the acidic water and deposited to the soil and sediments and are also carried
downstream where they accumulate in the lower portion of the river. The deposition of heavy
metals in the soil resulted in their entry to the plant bodies and affected the productivity of
plants. Moreover, the acid and the toxic metals killed most of the aquatic organisms except
some tolerant species of phytoplankton.


                                                                                            22
D. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage

Acid mine drainage (AMD) due to mining activities releases heavy metals in the environment
with increasing (decreasing pH) acidity. The current condition of the said river with regards
to decreasing pH of soils from the coast to the dam and the red iron deposits (including hues
of orange) at the bottom and sides of the river channel show that the river is manifesting the
phenomenon of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). In the report of Dr. Alan Tingay (2004), heavy
metals in Mogpog river such as cadmium, copper, iron, and zinc show trends of decreasing
level from the dam upstream to the coast downstream indicating that heavy metals originated
from the mine. The values are also higher in this river than in the reference river (Dawis
River).

Likewise, there is also increasing acidity in soil from the coast to the dam. Mobility of heavy
metals is facilitated by acidic condition. Arsenic for instance is remobilized from the source
(dam) and deposited in soils at lower elevation. Lead in soil along Mogpog riverbank was
also detected in the dam upstream and in other areas downstream with levels higher than the
reference river. The deposition of lead and arsenic is also occurring in areas farther from the
water edge. The same occurrence is probably happening with other heavy metals such as
copper and zinc since elevated levels of these metals in water were reported in the study of
Tinggay (2004) in the same river.


E. Impacts on living organisms

E. 1. Effects on Microorganisms

Microorganisms in soils are ecologically important because they are involved in energy flow
and geochemical cycling of nutrients. Among the functions of these organisms in soil, the
decomposition of plant and animal tissues is the most important because their activities return
nutrients to the soil. Once degraded, the released minerals are taken up by plants and later,
by consumer animals through the food chain.

In the case of phytoplankton, changing conditions in a river could cause a change in diversity
of organisms. Since phytoplankton are also at the base of the food chain in aquatic habitats,
this kind of change in diversity would influence the kind of organism that could thrive in the
water even if acidity has been reduced as in Station 2 of Mogpog River. In this river, there
are also species that thrive at the mouth of a tributary (non-acidic freshwater), yet were not
found in the receiving acidic water of Mogpog. This confirms the destructive nature of acid
mine drainage to aquatic plants in disturbed rivers.

Aside from phytoplankton, acid mine drainage kills microorganisms except those that are
resistant to acid. These resistant strains however such as sulfur bacteria may continue to
thrive in the soil in the absence of other living organisms as food source and survive by using
sulfur and other minerals for metabolic activities. Such bacteria are also capable of
methylating heavy metals. This kind of transformation makes methylated heavy metals to
become soluble in water thereby facilitating their entry into living cells (Jackson and Jackson,
19) O c t m t le m ts r i i t ogn m s oy t ya al t c a a
 96. ne h e y t e la n d h rai ’ bd,h r b o r t
                 e h ad a e se e                            s              e e e           ee
variety of metabolic disorders.


                                                                                            23
E.2. Effects on higher plants

The effects of heavy metal pollution on higher plants are associated with agricultural
productivity. For instance, the phytotoxic effects of arsenic include: sudden decrease in water
mobility as shown by root plasmolysis, necrosis of leaf tips and margins, and halting seed
germination (Alloway, 1995). The danger of arsenic contamination in areas affected by
AMD is that its toxicity on plants increases as the soil becomes more acidic. Another effect
is shown in the present study by the indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, that heavy
metals cause abortion of its pollen grains (see Figure 17). This kind of disturbance is a
problem in crop production.

Pollen grains are plant structures that house the male gametophyte (sperm cells) of flowering
plants and Gymnosperms. In order that they can fertilize the female gametophyte (egg cell) of
a flower, pollen grains must have tough, resistant walls and must be produced in large
numbers to facilitate finding their specific targets during pollination (Moore et al., 1991).
Reduction in number of viable pollen grains decreases chances of pollination, consequently
reduces the capability of plants to develop fruits and seeds to continue their generation. This
is one of the reasons why heavy metal pollution causes decrease in productivity of agricultural
land.

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis as an indicator species, not only provides evidence of
environmental pollution, but also ascertain that other plants could behave in the same manner.
In the study by Regis et al. (2001) in Rapu-Rapu and Regis (2004) in Jose Panganiban, pollen
grains of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis exhibited abortion of its pollen grains. Likewise, the
lt ’ s d o “ o m n ga acueo pvr o l a cm uie i gl m n g
 ae s t y n G l i n s as f oe y fo l o m n i n o i n
  tr u                 d i                            t        c           ts        d i
a a”poi d ei ne o pln ga aot n o crop plants such as rice through
 r s rv e v ecs f o e r n bro f
  e           d     d                l     i        i
experimentation (Maranan and Valisto, 2003). In mining areas in Jose Panganiban, Province
of Camarines Norte, there are also mature coconut trees that do not bear fruits. These
examples show that the impact of mining on terrestrial plants reflect problems in agricultural
productivity.

Moreover, the impacts of acid mine drainage (AMD) are not confined to the water in a river.
The riparian zone along the riverbanks are unique habitats for plants and animals. Acidic
water seriously affects such habitats in terms of heavy metals deposition especially in areas
with clay particles. The resulting contamination of soil with metal-rich acidic water would
not only kill soil fauna and microorganisms but would have a detrimental effect on fruit
bearing plants cultivated by the people.

If, before mining was conducted in Marinduque, the riparian habitat was a source of fertile
soil and sufficient supply of fresh water for raising short term crops, after mining, the
destruction of the river by AMD deposits toxic heavy metals and prevents the use of such
water for the same purpose. For instance, copper can be absorbed by plants through active
and passive transports (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1984). In passive absorption, the metal
in solution may be more likely within the toxic range. Excess copper causes the following
physiological problems in plants: 1) tissue damage and elongation of root cells; 2)
permeability of cell member becomes altered causing leakage of ions such s potassium and
phosporus in roots; and 3) inhibition of photosynthesis. Downstream, even with a reduced


                                                                                            24
acidity, high levels of heavy metals have been deposited since they are also detected at lower
elevation and near the coast.


F. Future Impacts

Based on the results of this study, the following scenario in the future can be expected in
Mogpog river ecosystem:

   1. Contaminated tailings from the dam and beyond it will continue to be deposited
      downstream during heavy rainfall and threaten human habitations and livelihood

   2. The increased level of heavy metal pollution in soil and plants may reach above the
      critical range. This situation will be brought about by continuous deposition of the
      pollutants through water transport downstream where human settlements are
      concentrated, by wind as dust during the drier months, or by horizontal movement of
      the metals from the water edge spreading inward in the riparian zone where people
      plant their crops.

   3. Reduction in agricultural productivity due to toxic effects of heavy metals in soil and
      plants. This event will likely occur because of increasing acidity of soil from the
      water edge towards the riparian zone. Similarly, the increasing acidity will kill soil
      organisms (micro and macro) that are responsible for facilitating the release of
      nutrients from organic matter in the soil.

   4. Reduction in the productivity of fishing grounds within the vicinity of the outfall of
      Mogpog River. Siltation is the major hazard that will cause fish kills by burial or
      choking of aquatic organisms. Toxic level of heavy metal will finish off the rest of the
      organisms that survived siltation and those that happen to visit the place.

   5. Heavy metals in fishery resources will spread to other marine organisms via the food
      chain. In time, major fishery resources will accumulate toxic metals in their bodies
      and can also reach man through the food chain pathway.

   6. The increased level of toxic heavy metals that might accumulate in people may cause
      a variety of health problems experienced by people. Similarly animals, especially
      livestock and domestic non-food animals will show symptoms of health problems.
      Accumulation of heavy metals in the body will be brought about by the movement of
      metals through the food chain, or through regular drinking of contaminated water from
      the river or wells near Mogpog River. The increased concentration of metals in the
      body is due to the fact that most metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury attach to
      the sulfur of the protein cysteine, a natural constituent of the body (Fergusson, 1990).
      Although naturally low in concentration, Cadmium may pose another serious health
      problem because it is absorbed readily but is eliminated slowly in the body (Agency
      for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Division of Toxicology, 1999)

Other observations in Mogpog river system show that silt and deposition of tailings coming
from the dam will continue to happen during heavy rainfall due to the huge volume of tailings
that have accumulated and continually fill up the Maguila-guila dam.
                                                                                              25
V. CONCLUSION

Acid mine drainage (AMD) that is brought about by natural processes in the siltation dam, a
waste dump of Placer Dome-Marcopper Mines, is the most possible cause of pollution and
destruction not only of the river water in Mogpog, but also of the soils in the riparian habitats
in the riverbank. Heavy metals leached out by AMD also caused loss of productivity of plants
through pollen grain abortion. It also altered the plankton composition of the river.

Acid water leached out heavy metals from the dam and deposited them into the lower reaches
of Mogpog River. This fact cannot be denied because wastewater that drips into the tunnel
below the Maguila-guila siltation dam and those that overflows from the siltation dam have
been channeled into Mogpog River for disposal as well as to ease pressure build-up from the
dam especially during the rainy season. Thus, heavy metals will continue to accumulate in
the river ecosystem unless remediation can successfully be implemented. To date however,
there is still no remediation of AMD under the present technology. All recommendations are
still based on experimental procedures and no success stories have been shown under actual
field condition in affected mine sites in tropical countries like the Philippines. In addition
experimental remediation have not included the impacts on human communities in terms of
health and sustainable livelihood not connected with mining activities.

The future scenario therefore is bleak for the people of Mogpog and other villages that settled
along the riparian zone of the river unless rehabilitation of the river to its productive condition
can by done by the company responsible for this mining disaster. With the destruction of the
Mogpog River ecosystem, and the impending disaster that looms ahead from the huge amount
of tailings still waiting to go down from the waste dumps in the mining area, no amount of
money can compensate for the ecosystem destruction brought about by irresponsible mining
and what the people will endure for a long long time.




Prepared by:



EMELINA G. REGIS, Ph.D.
April 18, 2006




                                                                                                26
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                                                                                             30

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Assessment of the effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Mogpog River Ecosystem, Marinduque, Philippines, and Possible Impacts on Human Communities

  • 1. Assessment of the effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Mogpog River Ecosystem, Marinduque, Philippines, and Possible Impacts on Human Communities INTRODUCTION Mogpog River is located in the island of Marinduque, Philippines. It used to be a relatively healthy river where local communities dotting its banks from Barangay Taluntunan down to Barangay Janagdong obtained fishes, crustaceans and other aquatic organisms. Harvesting these resources were either for local consumption or for cash. The river also served as a place for bathing, swimming, washing clothes and for farm use. In the year 1967, Marcopper Mining Corporation, a subsidiary of Placer Dome which owns 39.9% of the corporation in the Philippines (Philippine Indigenous Peoples Links, 2003), started the construction of the copper mine. The company commissioned Tapian Pit in 1979. Lt ,h Sn n n Pt a a o pnd n h 8’t cn i m n w s sT ip sre a rt a A t i iw s l oee i t 0so otn i at . h i e d e e oo s e a e e s t v as the waste rock dump while the former pit as the tailings dump (Oxfam Australia, 2003). However, villagers complained of fish-kills and foul smells being emitted from the river especially after a heavy rainfall (Coumans and Nettleton, 2000). In 1991, an earthen dam was built at the Maguila-guila Creek, the headwater of Mogpog River to hold back the tailings which is accumulating fast in Tapian Pit. In December 6, 1993, Maguila-guila dam collapsed, causing floodwater and contaminated silt to race down the Mogpog River. Then, in the year 2001 Placer Dome left the Philippines (Oxfam Australia, 2003). During the 1993 dam collapsed, about twenty-one (21) barangays in the Municipality of Mogpog were buried in mud and toxic floodwaters. Agricultural crops and various household items and merchandise were swept away by the swiftly moving mud (Asuncion, 2001). The raging water also swept away aquatic organisms and destroyed human habitations along its path. Farms were also covered by mud (Coumans and Nettleton, 2000). On August, 2000, researchers of INECAR visited Mogpog and confirmed the phenomenon of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) occurring in the river. It was also observed that contaminated water drips from the dam into a tunnel just below the dam and allowed to flow into a canal connected to Mogpog River. Because of the acidic condition of the river, the local government provided a footbridge where the people can safely cross. The damage to Mogpog River and the local communities within the vicinity of the river was huge and its impacts are still being felt even ten years after the dam collapsed. For instance, a former productive ricefield in Mogpog was abandoned after the dam collapsed in 1993 because it could not anymore grow crops after it was covered with silt coming from the dam. Only few patches of grasses dot some parts of the land. Figures 1a and 1b show the condition of the abandoned ricefield in Mogpog.
  • 2. 1a 1b Figure 1a. Abandoned ricefield (left) in Mogpog after the dam collapsed and mud (silt) covered it in 1993. Figure 1b. A close-up picture of the reddish orange silt ishown at right. (Photo by E.G.Regis, 2004) On June, 2004, a study on the sediments and biological indicators of pollution was conducted in Mogpog River by a team from the Institute for Environmental Conservation and Research (INECAR) of Ateneo de Naga University. Another team for the water quality analyses, organized by Dr. Alan Tinggay from Australia, joined INECAR. Funds were provided by Oxfam Australia. This report however will only deal with the INECAR study. A separate report for the water quality was also prepared by Dr. Tinggay (2004). Objectives The purpose of the present study is to find out the extent of the damage resulting from the past mining operations of Marcopper Mining Corporation. The researcher intends to relate acid mine drainage (AMD) already occurring in the area with the biophysical condition of Mogpog River. Specifically, the study focuses on a) heavy metal contamination of soil along the riverbanks; and the b) effects of AMD on living organisms through indicator species. 2
  • 3. METHODS Data gathering was done in June 18 to 21, 2004. A second trip was also conducted in September 12 - 14 of the same year to validate some of the results obtained from pollen grain analysis of an indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis. In addition, phytoplankton diversity was included in the study due to the presence of some species in the acidic portion of Mogpog River. In this research, two study sites were covered: a) Mogpog River and b) Dawis River. The latter served as a reference river and considered as the control site to ascertain that heavy metal pollution did not happen naturally but as a result of mining activities. It also provided the bases for determining impacts on soil and on two biological indicators. Figure 2 shows the location of the two Study Sites in the Island of Marinduque. Site 1 Site 2 Figure 2. Sampling Stations (Stn) in Study Sites 1 (Mogpog River) and 2 (Dawis River). Note the steep terrain of the island clearly shown in the PCGS map from NAMRIA.A legend is provided at the lower left of the map. A location map of Marinduque is shown at the left. 3
  • 4. A. Determining the Control/Reference Site This portion was made through vegetational analysis involving weeds. Weeds are good determiners of similarities between two or more areas because these plants are cosmopolitan in nature and they have the ability to thrive in a variety of environment including highly disturbed ones. In this method, the weed composition of two sites was compared in terms of species r hesui S r snsC e iet f i iry(C ) spb se i Bo e e a i ns s g oe e’ ofc n o Sm l i C s a ulhd n rw r t l c n n fi at i . (1990). A value of above 50% species similarity based on Regis and Lagunzad (2002) considered the sites as comparable. The 50% limit was applied in consideration for the likely magnitude of the disturbance such as what happens in many mining sites where disappearance of species is a normal occurrence. In order to discount the possibility of deviating too much from the local conditions, the sites have to be located in the same island, facing the same cardinal point (north, south, east or west) and that normal human activities conducted are also similar except for the activity in question which is mining in this study. Species determination is normally by the presence of flowers. In the absence of such feature, the gross structure becomes the basis and this includes leaf forms and type, stem (herbaceous or woody), clustering appearance, growth form, and other features that can show that the plant is a different species from the others already identified. The results of the vegetational analysis on weeds showed that Mogpog River and Dawis River are comparable by 59.7%, thus, Dawis River could be used as a reference river for the study. It was also observed that more weed species are found in Station 1 (mouth) than in Station 3 (Barangay Bocboc) along the banks of Mogpog River. A table comparing the weeds thriving in the riparian habitats of Study Sites 1 and 2 are presented in Annex 1. B. The sampling stations There were 5 sampling stations (labeled Stations 1 –5) in Mogpog River and 3 sampling stations in the reference river which is Dawis River (Figure 2). Station 1 is located at the mouth of the river. Subsequent stations are located progressively at higher elevation than the preceding. In these stations, three types of samples were collected: a) Soil samples from two locations in each of the sampling stations: water edge and at 15 – 20 meters from the water edge; b) Flower buds gathered only in Stations 1 –3 of both sites since there were no Stachytarphetal jamaicensis encountered in Station 4 and 5 of the Mogpog River; c) Phytoplankton samples from 1 sampling station (Station 3) within Mogpog river and 1 sampling station at the mouth of a tributary for comparison. 4
  • 5. C. Heavy metals in soil One composite sample from 30 randomly collected 1-kg soil samples were obtained from each sampling station in each study site. The samples were collected from two locations: a) at the water edge of the riverbank, and b) from about 15 –20 meters away from the water edge. These samples were obtained from 20 cm below the soil surface. The composites were air-dried and then brought to the University of the Philippines Natural Science Research Institute (UPNSRI), Diliman, Quezon City. Chemical analyses of the soils were on arsenic, lead and cadmium content. The method of analysis was by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). The choice of heavy metals for chemical analyses of soil was guided by the following: 1) People complained of darkening of skin on toes when they regularly cross the river and suspected that this may be due to the presence of arsenic (As). 2) Published literatures show lead (Pb) in blood samples taken from affected children residing near Calancan Bay. 3) Cadmium (Cd) was chosen because it is a natural constituent of copper and gold ores in sulfide rocks and because of its property of being easily absorbed by plants. Other metals were not included due to limited funds. The presence of Copper (Cu) at above the natural level was assessed based on other studies such as those of Dr. Alan Tinggay (2004), the USGS-Armed Forces Institute of Pathology report (May, 2000), an initial investigation conducted by INECAR of Ateneo de Naga University (Regis, 2002) and the results of chemical analyses on arsenic, cadmium and copper for the indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis in this present study. In the initial investigation conducted by INECAR earlier, an acidic blue water was observed in one of the braids of channels of Mogpog River. This indicates the presence of copper sulfate (Vugteveeen, http://www.elmshurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/334raymine.html). Tailings spills that happened in the area would possibly contaminate the soil and sediments with significant amount of this metal. The water quality assessment by Dr. Alan Tingay contained in the Marinduque Scientific Report show elevated levels of copper in the dam and some stations downstream. The USGS-Armed Forces report by Plumlee, et al. (2000) also mentioned high levels of copper in Mogpog River. D. Other parameters measured were soil pH and characteristics such as soil color, soil texture and drainage potential. Soil pH was determined using the method of Heckman (1994). An average of three readings were recorded for each sampling station per study site. Soil type was determined by the Hand method (DeLuc &O H r n20) a ’ e o,02. r 5
  • 6. E. Impacts on living organisms through Biological Indicators of environmental pollution E.1. Pollen Grain Analysis Thirty flower buds were collected from an indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Figure 3a) in each sampling stations of both study sites. Pollen grain analyses were done to determine pollen abortiveness that quantifies heavy metal contamination in the methods of Regis and Lagunzad (2002) and Micieta and Murin (1996). An example of the pollen grain of S. jamaicensis taken through a microscope camera is presented in Figure 3b. Crop plants were not anymore observed included in the study since these were not anymore observed in the sampling areas. F lo w e r b u d Figure 3b. F lo w e r e t Flower spike of S. jamaicensis [Photo by E.G.Regis, 2004] Figure 3c. Normal pollen grain of S. jamaicensis [Photo by E.G.Regis, 2004] Figure 3a. The indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis used in pollen grain analyses. [Photo by E.G.Regis, 2004] Pollen grain analysis comprised of processing and counting of normal and aborted pollen grains. The former included acidifying, squashing and staining. Then, the pollen grains from the two anthers of each flower bud were counted under a compound microscope using a prepared horizontal grid placed at the back of each prepared slide. Thirty flower buds per sampling station per site were processed and their pollen grains counted. E.2. Heavy metal pollution in plants Whole plants were gathered, washed in distilled water and air-dried or oven dried at 50 - 60°C in a drying oven. Homogenization through pounding and grinding followed, then the samples were brought to the University of the Philippines Natural Science Research Institute (UPNSRI). The samples were analyzed for arsenic, cadmium and copper using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). 6
  • 7. E.3. Phytoplankton study Phytoplankton study was included because there are known resistant species in acidic waters. The purpose of using the phytoplankton as indicator species was to determine species richness and the presence/absence of phytoplankton species thriving in Mogpog River compared with one of its tributaries. The phytoplankton samples were collected at Station 3 in Mogpog River and in one of the tributaries of the said river. Other stations were not included since station 1 is located at the river mouth and marine phytoplankton mixes with freshwater types. Station 2 is located at lower elevation downstream and receives several tributaries that possibly increase biodiversity. The method used for sample collection was adapted from Waterwatch (2003). RESULTS The results of the study are presented in three sections: A. Soil/sediment characteristics, B. Soil pollution, and C. Effects on living organisms through indicator species. Soil/sediment characteristics have a bearing on the physico-chemical characteristic conditions of the soil and/or sediments that include acidity/alkalinity and drainage potential indicated by their color and texture. Movement of toxic heavy metals is influenced by these characteristics. A. Soil/sediment characteristics A.1. Soil pH Figure 4. Comparison of soil pH in 2 locations along Mogpog riverbank 8 7.5 7.1 7 6.3 6 4.8 5 pH 4 3.2 3 2.9 2.7 3 2 Near water 1 edge 0 St 1 St 2 St 3 St 4 St 5 15-20 m from Stations water edge Soil pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity that measures reactivity of soil. Figure 4 above shows that soils in Mogpog riverbank become more acidic from Stations 1 to 5. Also, the pH of soil is also more acidic at locations 15 –20 meters from the water edge of the river than along the water edge. The increasing pH (becoming more alkaline) from Station 5 going downstream towards Station 1 is most likely due to dilution by fresh water from the different tributaries received by Mogpog River. In addition, marine contribution during high tides also increased the water pH, thus also the sediment and soil along the riverbanks. Nevertheless, this trend of decreasing pH (more acidic) from Station 1 to 5, can be attributed to acid mine drainage originating from the dam upstream. 7
  • 8. Figure 5. Comparison of soil pH in 2 locations along Dawis riverbank 8 8 8 8 8 7.9 pH Water edge 7 St 1 St 2 St 3 15-20m from Station water edge In the reference river (Figure 5), the pH of soil is alkaline which is the same in all stations for sediments near the water edge. The condition is also true for sediments obtained 15-20 meters from the water edge except in Station 3, which has a slight decreased in pH value by 0.1. Nevertheless, the value still shows alkaline condition, which is due to the presence of calcium carbonate in rocks as evidenced by the presence of remnants of fossilized corals and shells in the area. This is also confirmed by the study of Tinggay (2004) on the level of calcium in water. The slight decrease in the pH may have resulted from the presence of vegetation and decomposing plant and animal remains in the area. Decomposition of organic matter forms humic acid, a soil forming process. Figure 6. Comparison of average soil pH of Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks 10 8 6 pH 4 2 0 Mogpog St 1 St 2 St 3 St 4 St 5 Dawis Station Comparing the average pH of soil in the two study sites (Figure 6), Dawis riverbank is alkaline in all station whereas Mogpog riverbank shows decreasing trend (becoming more acidic) from Station 1 to 5 towards the dam. Thus, acidity can be attributed to acid mine drainage generated in the siltation dam upstream. A.2. Soil color Soil color is the product of various chemical, biological and physical transformations that takes place within a soil. Biological processes bring about the soil organic matter or (SOM) that imparts darkening of soil color to brown and black, thus, higher the organic matter, the darker the soil. On the other hand, bright/light color indicates leaching of oxides of iron and aluminum, calcium, carbonates and/or clay minerals (Fanning and Fanning, 1989). Table 1 below compares the color of soils obtained from the study sites. 8
  • 9. Table 1. Soil characteristics based on color Study Site Sampling Locations and Stations Site I Mogpog Site 2 Dawis Water Edge 15 – m from 20 Water Edge 15 – m from 20 water edge water edge Station 1 Brownish gray Dark Gray Gray to dark gray Dark gray Station 2 Yellowish brown Light brown Gray to dark gray Dark gray Station 3 Yellow to light orange Light orange Gray to dark gray Dark gray brown brown Station 4 Near Tunnel – Light * * * orange brown Station 5 Dam – Light orange * * * brown Former Open area – orange * * * Ricefield brown * no sampling station applicable In the above Table, only the riverbanks of Dawis River and in Station 1 of Mogpog River at location farther from the water edge show dark soil color. The lighter color of soil means well-drained condition. Thus, in Mogpog River, carbonates and/or clay minerals have been leached out due to the acidic condition of the soil whereas in Dawis River, the darker soil condition indicates the presence of organic matter. This condition is confirmed by the study of Tingay (2004) regarding the leaching of metals and minerals due to acid mine drainage. In his study, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfates, Copper, Potassium, Iron and Zinc in water are high in the dam (Station 5 in this study) decreasing towards the lower elevation. A.3. Soil Texture The amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil provide the bases for textural classification of a soil/sediment sample (Fanning and Fanning, 1989). It can also be determined by a simple m t dko na S iT x r gb H n ( e uaadO H r n 20) T b 2bl e o nw s o et i y ad D L c n ’ e o, 02. al h l un r e ew o presents the results of soil characteristics analysis of Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks.based on texture. Table 2. Soil characteristics based on texture. Sampling Location Study Station Site I Mogpog Site 2 Dawis Water edge 15 – m from 20 Water edge 15 – m from 20 water edge water edge Station 1 Sand Sand Sand Loamy sand Station 2 Sand Fine sand Sand Loamy sand Station 3 Silty Fine sand Sand Sandy loam Station 4 Silty clayey * * * Station 5 Silt * * * Former Ricefield Mud/silty * * * * no sampling station applicable Stations 1 and 2 of Mogpog and Station 1 to 3 of Dawis along the water edge are sandy, thus, there is high drainage potential of soils in these locations. In contrast, Stations 4 and 5 of Mogpog showed silty and clayey soils which have low drainage potential but high adsorption 9
  • 10. capacity for minerals such as heavy metals. These areas are near the tunnel below the dam and the dam itself respectively. Acidic condition tends to remobilize the heavy metals and deposit them to lower levels. This is one of the problems of acid mine drainage. Nevertheless, the best texture for a balanced water retention and drainage potential is sandy loam and loamy sand found in Dawis River at 15 – meters from the water edge. 20 Fine and medium-textured soils have high retention of water and exchangeable nutrients. Coarse-textured soils (large soil fragments) however have large pores, thus, percolation is high because they have very weak water-holding capacity. Thus, this type of soil have low water retention due to their rapid infiltration rates. On the other hand, when pores are fine, water is strongly adsorbed by forces that exceed gravity (Fanning and Fanning, 1989). Because it is retained in the soil, water becomes unavailable to plants. Medium-sized pores however have high water availability. In addition, the adsorption of cations (nutrients) and microbial activities are also dependent on surface area of soils. B. Heavy metals in Soil Annex 2 shows the level of heavy metals in soil/sediment samples obtained from various stations at the banks of Mogpog River, the tunnel and the dam. These results are presented in bar graphs in Figures 7 through 12. Reference standards are also presented in Annex 3. B.1. Arsenic in Soils Figure 7. Comparison of Level of Arsenic in Sediment in 2 locations along Mogpog Riverbank 10 9 8 7 mg/kg 6 5 4 3 2 1 Water edge 0 1 2 3 4 5 15-20m from Station water edge In the above Figure, Stations 1 and 2 of Mogpog River show higher values of arsenic in sampling stations located away from the water edge. Lower value is however shown in station 3 at this location. At the water edge, only station 2 recorded higher value than the other stations. It is possible that arsenic is deposited in this station due to its lower elevation than stations 3 to 5. The higher value in Station 2 at the water edge may be due to contribution from other sources. In station 1, the lower value at the water edge may have been due to sediment deposited from the marine environment. From stations 4 going downstream, acidic water and soil might have remobilized the arsenic and deposited it at lower elevation. Arsenic in sediments at location farther from the water edge, also increases going downstream. This may be due to higher pH which is alkaline that decreases remobilization of heavy metals. 10
  • 11. In Station 5, which is the dam, the slight increase in level of arsenic may be due to the fact that arsenic in the tailings are still present in higher quantity. The acidic condition of the water may have caused the movement of some arsenic to station 4 at the tunnel. Thus, sediments from the tunnel are only recipients of the metal carried by the acidic water. There is also the possibility that the transfer of dissolved arsenic from station 5 to 4 through a water medium caused some of the metal to be released into the air. However, from stations 4 to 2 towards the coast, there seems to be a gradual deposition of arsenic. Another source of arsenic may be human activities such as the use of pesticides in farms and other sources due to the presence of human communities in stations 1 to 3. Nevertheless, the trend between Stations 4 and 5 shows that the source of arsenic is the dam upstream. Figure 8. Comparison of level of Arsenic in sediments in 2 locations in Dawis riverbank 7 6 5 mg/kg 4 3 2 1 Near water 0 edge St 1 St 2 St 3 15-20 m from Station water edge In Dawis river, the trend among the stations, show higher arsenic level at locations away from the water edge. This shows that arsenic tend to remain in the same location. Since the pH of soil is alkaline, there is less remobilization of arsenic in this location, hence, arsenic content in sediments are higher at locations away from the water edge. The higher level of soil arsenic in station 1 can also be due to other factors such as human activities that use products containing arsenic. At the water edge, the increasing trend towards the coast shows that arsenic is being carried by the acidic river downstream and deposited there. Nevertheless, the values are much lower than the critical values for arsenic which is 20 mg/kg. Figure 9. Comparison of average level of Arsenic in Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks 10 8 mg/kg 6 4 2 0 St 1 St 2 St 3 St 4 St 5 Mogpog Station DAwis 11
  • 12. In comparing the two rivers, Mogpog riverbank has higher average content of arsenic than Dawis riverbank. The trend shows increasing level of arsenic towards the coast due to deposition of the metal downstream. The exception is Station 5 of Mogpog which is the dam and the most likely source of arsenic. B.2. Lead in Soils Figure 10. Com parison of level of Lead in 2 locations in Mogpog riverbank 50 40 30 mg/kg 20 10 0 Near water edge St 1 St 2 St 3 St 4 St 5 15-20 m fro m Station water edge Very high level of lead was recorded for soils in Station1 of Mogpog River. There is also an increasing trend of the level of lead in soils from Stations 2 to 5 near the water edge and Stations 1 to 3 at 15 – m from the water edge. This shows that the source of lead comes 20 from the dam upstream. Higher content of lead in Station 3 at location farther from the water edge than at the water edge indicates that lead is slowly being deposited in this area. Lead (Pb) has been reported to be the least mobile among the heavy metals. It is also associated mainly with clay minerals. This is probably the reason why Pb is high in the Dam due to the silty and clayey condition of the soil there. On the other hand, high soil pH can precipitate Pb as hydroxide, phosphate or carbonate (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1984 p.155). Again, this explains why Pb content of soil is highest in Station 1 of Mogpog River because aside from the contribution from the siltation dam, the high level of lead in Station 1 near the water edge may be due to human activities that use lead such as fuel used in vehicles including motorized boats since this station is along the mouth of the river. True trend of values is shown in sediments at location away from the riverbank wherein deposition is less influenced by water contaminated with lead coming from anthropogenic activities. Figure 11. Comparison of level of Lead in 2 locations in Dawis riverbank 10.0 8.0 6.0 mg/kg 4.0 2.0 Near water 0.0 edge St 1 St 2 St 3 15-20 m from Station water edge 12
  • 13. Dawis riverbank also shows the same trend as Mogpog River. There is higher level in Station 1 than the other stations and increasing level of lead from Station 2 to 3, which is going upstream in both locations - near the water edge and at 15-20 m away from the water edge. The high level of lead in Station 1 may be due to anthropogenic sources. Nevertheless, the level of lead in the reference river is much lower than Mogpog river. Figure 12. Comparison of average level of Lead in Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks 25.0 20.0 mg/kg 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 St 1 St 2 St 3 St 4 St 5 Mogpog Station Dawis Figure 12 compares the average level of lead in soil along Mogpog and Dawis riverbanks. The results show trend of increasing levels of lead from downstream to upstream in the dam except for Station 1. Nevertheless, the trend shows that although lead is naturally occurring in the area, its higher values in Mogpog means that lead content of sediments have been remobilized by acidic water due to mining activities. B.3. Cadmium in soils Although cadmium was also measured in soil samples, its level is below the detection limit of the analytical laboratory (Annex 2). Water quality assessment by Tingay (2004) shows very low level of cadmium in water in the dam, at the tunnel below the dam and some stations downstream. Thus, adsorption in soil particles is also low. Nevertheless, there is a decreasing level of cadmium in water from the tunnel below the dam towards station 3 downstream and this indicates mobilization of cadmium due to the acidic water which may in time, cause increased adsorption by soil particles enough to be detected later on. C. Effects on living organisms through indicator species When a certain living organism responds to a particular environmental condition, it is known as a biological indicator or bioindicator. Kovacs (1992) listed several factors that elicit such responses and these are: a) genetic make-up, b) stage of development, c) changes in environmental conditions, and d) concentration of pollutants. In this study, two bioindicators are considered: a) a stage of development in an indicator species and b) changes in environmental conditions. In the former, the indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis was used because it has certain tolerance to pollution near mining sites and aborts its pollen grains in the presence of heavy metals (Regis, 1999; Regis et al., 2001). This species is an effective test organism because it is able to provide quantitative 13
  • 14. response to exposure to the pollutant. The second indicators are the phytoplankton (Kovacs, 1992) because they are able to provide qualitative response to changes in environmental conditions. C. 1. Pollen grain abortiveness of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Pollen grain abortion above the natural abortive tendency of plants indicates impact on the capacity of plants to produce fruits and for self-perpetuation. Table 3 and Figures 13 and 14 below prove the effects of heavy metals on plant productivity. Table 3. Comparison of percent pollen grain abortion of S. jamaicensis Obtained along the banks of Mogpog River and Dawis River Station % Pollen Grain Abortion Site 1 Mogpog Site 2 Dawis Station 1 9.07 3.78 Station 2 7.21 5.44 Station 3 8.93 3.41 In terms of percent pollen grain abortion, Site 1 (Mogpog) has higher percentage of aborting pollen grains than Site 2 (Dawis) in all stations. ANOVA confirmed the significant differences in pollen grain abortion between Mogpog and Dawis study sites. In the former, Station 2 has lower mean pollen abortion than Stations 1 and 3 which are the mouth (connected to the sea) and upstream (nearer the dam) respectively. As noted in the soil analysis, Station 1 may be influenced by other factors that originate from human settlements, thus, this station receives additional amounts of heavy metals such as lead from vehicular sources causing an increase in pollen abortion. Nevertheless, Stations 2 and 3 of Mogpog river shows an increasing trend towards upstream in pollen abortiveness. Figure 13 below presents various examples of aborted pollen grains of S. jamaicensis in the study sites. nrm abt nrm Figure 13. Aborted (abt) abt and normal (nrm) pollen grains of the bioindicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis collected from abt nrm the banks of Mogpog River (Photo by E.G.Regis) 14
  • 15. The following Figures 14 to 19 also categorized the pollen abortiveness by groups according to a range in pollen abortion. This is a graphical presentation of the trend of pollen abortion in the indicator species found in both sites and in all stations. In each station, 30 flower buds were processed and counted. Figures 14 to 16 present the results from Mogpog River. Figure 14. Percent pollen grain abortion of Figure 15. Percent pollen grain abortion of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in Station 1 Mogpog riverbank Station 2 Mogpog riverbank 6.67 Category 10.00 Category 10.00 30.00 46.67 53.33 43.33 Above 45% 15.1-45% 15.1-45% 0 20 40 60 5.1-15% 5.1-15% 0 20 40 60 % Pollen abortion 0-5% % Pollen abortion 0-5% Station 1 of Mogpog shows high percentage of pollen grain abortiveness within the natural range of 0 –5%. This findings is due to the low level of heavy metals found in soil in this station. Also, the plants in this place grow in an elevated area, thus receives less heavy metal contaminants. In Station 2 of Mogpog, the above figure shows a shift in the increase in pollen abortion towards a higher range (5.1% to 10%) which is above the natural pollen abortiveness. Lower category (% at natural level) also decreased. There is also a decreased towards the higher category. This findings indicate increase in the level of heavy metal contaminant, thus, higher percent pollen abortion. Figure 16. Percent pollen grain abortion of Figure 17. Percent pollen grain abortion in Stachytarpeta jamaicensis by category in Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in Station 3 Mogpog riverbank Station 1 Dawis riverbank 6.67 Category 10.00 Catetory 10.00 76.67 83.33 13.33 15.1-45% 15.1-45% 5.1-15% 0 20 40 60 80 100 5.1-15% 0 20 40 60 80 100 0-5% % Pollen abortion % Pollen abortion 0-5% In Figure 16, Station 3 of Mogpog River shows highest pollen abortiveness at category 2 (5.1-15%) which is above the natural pollen grain abortiveness. Natural pollen abortiveness has decreased further. Note that Station 3 is located at higher elevation and nearest the Maguila-guila dam which is the source of the contaminant of Mogpog River. Figures 17 to 19 presents the results from Dawis River, the reference/control site. 15
  • 16. Figure 18. Percent pollen grain abortion of Figure 19. Percent pollen grain abortion of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis by category in Stachytarpeta jamaicensis by category in Station 2 Dawis riverbank Station 3 Dawis riverbank Category 3.33 15.79 Category 43.33 10.53 53.33 73.68 15.1-45% 15.1-45% 0 20 40 60 5.1-15% 5.1-15% 0 20 40 60 80 % Pollen abortion 0-5% %Pollen abortion 0-5% In Figures 17, Dawis River, most of the samples showed natural pollen grain abortiveness. However, some samples exhibited very high abortive tendencies. This condition might be due to contribution of pollutant from other sources such as vehicular exhaust, batteries and pesticides. The sampling area is also a very shallow river (Figure 4g). Thus, pollutants may have been concentrated here by clay particles in a predominantly sandy soil in this site. The results presented in Figure 18 shows more than 50% of the samples are within the natural abortive range. However, there are also more than 40% exhibiting higher than natural pollen abortiveness. Some values were even above 15%. These results may be attributed to the presence of human habitations and farms near the sampling area, thus, some human activities could have contributed to heavy metal pollution. On the other hand, Figure 19, Station 3, shows that pollen abortion is mostly within the natural abortive range. Very few flower buds exhibited higher than natural and the values were not so high. The sampling area is in a peaceful place with crystal clear water flowing and not much disturbance from human activities. Farmlands are higher in elevation and mostly composed of coconut trees. C.2. Heavy metal pollution in Stachytarpheta jamaicensis The levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in the indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis are presented in Table 4 below. The results of the chemical analyses done by the Natural Science Research Institute (NSRI) of the University of the Philippines are presented in Annexes 4a and 4b. Table 4. Values for natural and critical levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in plants based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988) Heavy metal Content in Stachytarpheta Natural Critical jamaicensis (mg/kg) Content* Content* Mogpog Dawis Arsenic (As) 0.0852 0.0620 1.0 20 Cadmium (Cd) 1.17 0.49 0.4 5 Copper (Cu) 11 9.0 30 >30 * Reference values based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988; Annex 5) 16
  • 17. The above results show that the levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper are higher in samples taken from Mogpog River than those taken from Dawis River, the reference site. Among the three metals, cadmium in Mogpog was detected higher than the natural content and only slightly higher in Dawis. Nevertheless, all results show lower than the critical level in plants based on Pfeiffer et al. (1988). However, although the current level of cadmium in soil is very low (below detection limit; Annex 5), plant samples were able to sequester this metal and concentrate it in plant tissues. This is highly possible because plants could easily absorb cadmium. Thus, the results further show that the contamination of soil with cadmium is also occurring in Mogpog and most likely due to acid mine drainage. C.3. Effects of AMD on freshwater phytoplankton communities River ecosystems upstream normally have very low diversity and abundance of phytoplankton. Exception to this is when the section of the river is relatively flat thereby allowing settlements of organic matter coming from plants and animals that provide algal nutrients for phytoplankton growth. Another source of algal nutrients is the existence of many human settlements along the riverbanks. In mining areas with sulfide ores, a group known as cyanophyta or cyanobacteria includes species known to use sulfur for metabolic functions even in low level oxygen or its absence. These species are termed as chemolithautotrophic (Gray and Head, 1999). Species richness of phytoplankton recorded for Mogpog River and one of its tributary are recorded as 29 and 31 species respectively. Annex 6 presents the various species and compares the phytoplankton diversity between Mogpog River and one of its tributaries in Station 3, Bocboc Area. The results show that there is not much difference in species richness between an acidic river (Mogpog) and its tributary. The only difference lies on the kind of species present in the sites. There are 12 species that are exclusively found in Mogpog River and 14 species found only in the tributary. Since the samples were collected from the mouth of this tributary, it is expected that the species in the tributary will be carried by the water current to Mogpog River. In undisturbed state, such species would survive. However, disturbance in the river such as in acidic condition, intolerant species was not be able to survive. These findings therefore show the destructive nature of acid water on biodiversity by replacement of species and or disappearance of species. In aquatic ecosystems, phytoplankton are also considered the base of the food chain. DISCUSSION Heavy metals are naturally occurring in Marinduque. Nevertheless, in areas with no mining activities and river water is not acidic, heavy metals are not remobilized from its source (the highly mineralized area) to lower slopes. The naturally occurring heavy metals are also found in small quantities in soil at the upper layers within the tolerable level of plants and animals. 17
  • 18. However, when mining activities open up an area exposing sulfide rocks to oxygen and water, chemical reactions naturally occur and produces sulfuric acid and iron sulfate, the latter appear as red deposits that coat rocks and sediments. This is the phenomenon of acid mine drainage or AMD. This is shown by the chemical reaction (Jackson and Jackson, 1996) below: 2 FeS2 + 7 O2 + 2 H2O 2 FeSO4 + 1 H2SO4 FeSO4 is the one responsible for the red-orange precipitate that coats rocks and sediments in a river. The resulting sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is the substance that causes the leaching of heavy metals to the surroundings and creating a very low pH in water and soil such as what happened in Mogpog River. The process is hastened by sulfur bacteria such as Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans through bacterial oxidation processes (Allan, 1988 in Salomons et al., 1995). Acidic water releases and remobilizes toxic heavy metals such as copper, lead, arsenic, cadmium, zinc and others that are naturally occurring in sulfide ores. Moreover, the resulting acidic water kills aquatic organisms as well as soil organisms in the riparian habitat of the riverbank. These metals may be adsorbed by clay particles and/or deposited along the way as acidic water flows downstream. Thus, in the study of Tingay (2004) on the water of Mogpog River, and in this study for soils and plants, although the levels of heavy metal pollution are still low since most of the metals are still below the critical level, the deposition of such metals in soil particles is a grave concern. Proof of increasing deposition is shown in the increasing level of heavy metal such as lead and arsenic from the source (dam) to lower elevation. Even in acidic water, arsenic is even higher at the water edge than farther from the water edge. Lead is highest at the source decreasing downslope except at the lowest elevation which is affected by human activities. Hence, such deposition will continue to impact living organisms within the vicinity of the river as well as agricultural productivity downslope. A similar case of heavy metal deposition in sediments occurred in an abandoned mine in the Island of Rapu-Rapu, province of Albay, Philippines. Past mining activities (from 1950s and abandoned in 1976) in one river (Pulang Salog, local translation of Red River) showed very high levels of arsenic in a species of grass and a brown seaweed. This is also true for arsenic in sediments. Compared with another river (Pagcolbon) in the same island about 2 km away, although the area was mined and abandoned in the 1990s, the level of heavy metals is much lower (Regis et al., 2001). Heavy metals were probably gradually deposited in the area over time. Thus, it is highly probable that this phenomenon will also occur in Mogpog River in the coming years. In this study, the following findings show that, a) the levels of arsenic and copper are higher in Mogpog River than in Dawis river b) the levels of arsenic, cadmium and copper in indicator plants are higher in Mogpog River than those from Dawis River. Cadmium was also found to exceed the natural content in plants in Mogpog river. c) acid mine drainage caused the leaching and remobilization of heavy metals from the dam to riverbanks in the lower slopes. 18
  • 19. d) there is gradual deposition of heavy metals in soils along the banks of Mogpog River e) soils and plants in the riparian habitats of Mogpog River are contaminated with heavy metals. Although the present concentrations of the contaminants are still low, in time the gradual deposition of heavy metals will cause their accumulation to concentrations above the critical levels that will threaten the survival of whatever is left of the living organisms A. Impacts of heavy metals Heavy metals cause a variety of physiological abnormalities in many plants. One of these is the reduction in the uptake of water by the plants due to copper toxicity (Panou-Filotheou et al., 2001). The consequence of this is decrease rate of transpiration due to the following effects of copper and other heavy metals: a) reduction in the transpiring surface area Lanaras, et al., 1988, Barcelo and Poschenrieder, 1990; b) cadmium in bush bean caused reduction in the mesophyll intercellular spaces resulting in less water diffusing to the stomata (Barcelo et al., 1988). Leaf chlorosis is also associated with changes in structure and physiology in chloroplasts such as reduction in the volume and number of mesophyll chloroplasts (Panou-Filotheou et al., 2001; Ouzounidou et al., 1992). The shape of chloroplast is also affected by cadmium (Barcelo et al., 1988; Ouzounidou et al., 1997) and lead (Heumann, 1987). Heavy metals such as cadmium also cause loss of starch grains in chloroplast. Copper toxicity damages the chloroplast limiting membrane (Taylor, 1988). In all the above observations, the ultimate impacts of heavy metal toxicity results to reduction in the capacity to produce food by photosynthesis by plants. Thus, in soils laden with heavy metals, plant productivity suffers so that crop production becomes low. This is the reason perhaps why in mining areas, plant growth is reduced, some plants do not thrive and only a limited number of species (only the tolerant ones) survive. In terms of health effects, the following heavy metals have been documented to cause illnesses: A.1. Arsenic Based on the reports of the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, arsenic is known to cause cancer that attacks the lungs, skin, liver, kidney, bladder and other organs of the body. Its entry into the human body is through contaminated drinking water and by ingestion of contaminated food. It passes out slowly through hairs and nails. The inorganic form of arsenic in food and water is more problematic because it is also a human poison, fatal at concentration of 60 parts per million (ppm) because it damages the nerves, stomach intestines and skin. It can also decrease production of the red and white blood cells and its known to induce abnormal heart rhythm. (http://www.environment.about.com/library/weekly/blchem.htm?terms=arsenic; Arsenic 19
  • 20. Project, http://www.hvr.se/nov97/arsenic.html). In combination with other factors, such as malnutrition and Hepatits B of affected person, the effects of arsenic poisoning becomes worse (The World Health Organization [WHO], http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact210.html). Other health effects include: thickening and discoloration of the skin, stomach pain, hearing impairment, effects on the heart and circulatory system including the gastrointestinal system and liver, diabetes, developmental effects, damage to the nervous system which is manifested by tingling or loss of sensation in some parts of the body such as the limbs (EPA Office of Water Management, http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/ars/ars10.html; Arsenic Project, http://www.hvr.se/nov97/arsenic.html) A.2. Cadmium This metal has no known biological function, yet, it is readily absorbed by plants through the root pathway which eventually reach the leaves, fruits and seeds (Johnson, BT., 1997, http://ace.orst.edu/info/extonet/faqs/foodcon/cadmium.htm). Humans become contaminated through ingestion of contaminated food. In humans, cadmium has a tendency for chronic accumulation in the kidneys wherein, at 200 mg/kg fresh weight concentration in the kidney cortex, causes kidney dysfunction (Alloway, 1995). Likewise, it is also deposited in liver. In the blood, cadmium binds to the erythrocytes (red blood cells). Since cadmium in the body is eliminated slowly due to its biological half-life which is 10-30 years), its impact on the body is metabolic dysfunction of organs affected. Diet that are low in calcium, iron or protein enhance the absorption of cadmium in the body. A.3. Lead Lead contamination is brought about by inhalation of contaminated dust particles in the air and by ingestion of contaminated food. Once it enters the body, it affects the organ system especially the central nervous system. In children, it has been reported to cause permanent developmental problems at low dose. At higher concentration, lead could interfere with the formation of red blood cells in humans as well as cause neurological disorder. Other diseases associated with lead include anemia, learning difficulty, decreased mental ability, and damages to the kidney and immune system (Northwestern University, http://www.chem.northwestern.edu/~hagodwin/toxicity.html; US Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry, http://www.environment.about.com/library/weekly/blchem2.chtm). A.4. Copper Copper is a trace element essential for human health. However, too much copper also cause health problems. When there is high copper in the air at the workplace, people suffer from metal fever that manifest as flu-like (http://www.lenntech.com/Periodic-chart-elements/Cu- en.htm). In addition, long-term exposure can cause irritation of nose, mouth and eyes, suspected to result to lowered intelligence in adolescents. Headaches, stomachaches, dizziness, vomiting and diarrhea are also experienced. High uptakes of copper may cause 20
  • 21. liver and kidney damage, hepatic cirrhosis, brain damage, renal disease and copper deposition in the cornea of the eyes. B. The causes of the problem on human health The reality of the above findings can be explained by the geochemical-physical condition of the island of Marinduque. These are: a) Presence of sulfide rocks capable of generating acid in the presence of oxygen and water. This is a natural process that last for hundred of years until the sulfide rocks in the area have been dissolved. Since sulfide rocks contain other heavy metals aside from copper in this case, the acid will remobilize the heavy metals and deposit them in soil particles; b) Steep slope, so that even in Type III climate, rainwater facilitates the movement of contaminated water and erosion of sediments during the rainy sao. ye Icm t idsr e b P G S a hv g“esn nt e poone, esn T p I l a s ec bd y A A A s ai saos o vr rnucd Ii e i n y relatively dry fro N vm e t A r adw to t r t fh ya .c Ma nuu ia m oe bro pi n e frh e o t er ) r dqe s l e s e ” i small island ecosystem with steep slope so that pollutants such as those coming from tailings dump of the mines can easily be carried by runoff, river water, and flood water into the marine environment thereby affecting the fishery resources. The danger to humans becomes highly probable because some plants are able to tolerate relatively high concentration of heavy metals. Some animals are also able to accumulate heavy metals in their tissues without causing immediate death. Thus, these realities pose danger to the unsuspecting persons because heavy metals can be transferred from soil to plants, then to animals and eventually to humans. C. Contamination of Mogpog River The contamination of Mogpog river was apparently a result of irresponsible method of waste disposal. The following pictures (Figures 20 - 25) provide proofs of this observation: Figure 20. Physical filter of the Maguila-guila Figure 21. A blasted portion of the dam siltation dam set up by the mining company where overflow water from the contaminated mine tailings flows through 21
  • 22. Figure 22. Tunnel (white arrow) where Figure 23. The lower part of the blasted contaminated water from the dam above portion shown in Figure 22 above. Residue drips into a canal which is connected to the of the flowing contaminated water is shown Mogpog River (yellow arrow) by the black coating on the rocks (red arrow) which is due to sulfur bacteria Figure 24 (left). White arrow points to tunnel below the dam where contaminated water is collected and conveyed into Mogpog River (blue arrow). Green arrow is the drainage canal originating from the overflow of blasted portion of the dam in pictures 2 and 4 above. Figure 25 (right) picture is the appearance of the red orange acidic and contaminated water that flows from the dam. The apparent use of Mogpog River as a disposal site for the acidic liquid of the mine tailings caused the contamination of the soil along the riverbank and its vegetation. The acid generated through the process of acid mine drainage leached out the heavy metals from the waste rocks of the mines and tailings deposited in the siltation dams. Such heavy metals are carried by the acidic water and deposited to the soil and sediments and are also carried downstream where they accumulate in the lower portion of the river. The deposition of heavy metals in the soil resulted in their entry to the plant bodies and affected the productivity of plants. Moreover, the acid and the toxic metals killed most of the aquatic organisms except some tolerant species of phytoplankton. 22
  • 23. D. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage Acid mine drainage (AMD) due to mining activities releases heavy metals in the environment with increasing (decreasing pH) acidity. The current condition of the said river with regards to decreasing pH of soils from the coast to the dam and the red iron deposits (including hues of orange) at the bottom and sides of the river channel show that the river is manifesting the phenomenon of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). In the report of Dr. Alan Tingay (2004), heavy metals in Mogpog river such as cadmium, copper, iron, and zinc show trends of decreasing level from the dam upstream to the coast downstream indicating that heavy metals originated from the mine. The values are also higher in this river than in the reference river (Dawis River). Likewise, there is also increasing acidity in soil from the coast to the dam. Mobility of heavy metals is facilitated by acidic condition. Arsenic for instance is remobilized from the source (dam) and deposited in soils at lower elevation. Lead in soil along Mogpog riverbank was also detected in the dam upstream and in other areas downstream with levels higher than the reference river. The deposition of lead and arsenic is also occurring in areas farther from the water edge. The same occurrence is probably happening with other heavy metals such as copper and zinc since elevated levels of these metals in water were reported in the study of Tinggay (2004) in the same river. E. Impacts on living organisms E. 1. Effects on Microorganisms Microorganisms in soils are ecologically important because they are involved in energy flow and geochemical cycling of nutrients. Among the functions of these organisms in soil, the decomposition of plant and animal tissues is the most important because their activities return nutrients to the soil. Once degraded, the released minerals are taken up by plants and later, by consumer animals through the food chain. In the case of phytoplankton, changing conditions in a river could cause a change in diversity of organisms. Since phytoplankton are also at the base of the food chain in aquatic habitats, this kind of change in diversity would influence the kind of organism that could thrive in the water even if acidity has been reduced as in Station 2 of Mogpog River. In this river, there are also species that thrive at the mouth of a tributary (non-acidic freshwater), yet were not found in the receiving acidic water of Mogpog. This confirms the destructive nature of acid mine drainage to aquatic plants in disturbed rivers. Aside from phytoplankton, acid mine drainage kills microorganisms except those that are resistant to acid. These resistant strains however such as sulfur bacteria may continue to thrive in the soil in the absence of other living organisms as food source and survive by using sulfur and other minerals for metabolic activities. Such bacteria are also capable of methylating heavy metals. This kind of transformation makes methylated heavy metals to become soluble in water thereby facilitating their entry into living cells (Jackson and Jackson, 19) O c t m t le m ts r i i t ogn m s oy t ya al t c a a 96. ne h e y t e la n d h rai ’ bd,h r b o r t e h ad a e se e s e e e ee variety of metabolic disorders. 23
  • 24. E.2. Effects on higher plants The effects of heavy metal pollution on higher plants are associated with agricultural productivity. For instance, the phytotoxic effects of arsenic include: sudden decrease in water mobility as shown by root plasmolysis, necrosis of leaf tips and margins, and halting seed germination (Alloway, 1995). The danger of arsenic contamination in areas affected by AMD is that its toxicity on plants increases as the soil becomes more acidic. Another effect is shown in the present study by the indicator species Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, that heavy metals cause abortion of its pollen grains (see Figure 17). This kind of disturbance is a problem in crop production. Pollen grains are plant structures that house the male gametophyte (sperm cells) of flowering plants and Gymnosperms. In order that they can fertilize the female gametophyte (egg cell) of a flower, pollen grains must have tough, resistant walls and must be produced in large numbers to facilitate finding their specific targets during pollination (Moore et al., 1991). Reduction in number of viable pollen grains decreases chances of pollination, consequently reduces the capability of plants to develop fruits and seeds to continue their generation. This is one of the reasons why heavy metal pollution causes decrease in productivity of agricultural land. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis as an indicator species, not only provides evidence of environmental pollution, but also ascertain that other plants could behave in the same manner. In the study by Regis et al. (2001) in Rapu-Rapu and Regis (2004) in Jose Panganiban, pollen grains of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis exhibited abortion of its pollen grains. Likewise, the lt ’ s d o “ o m n ga acueo pvr o l a cm uie i gl m n g ae s t y n G l i n s as f oe y fo l o m n i n o i n tr u d i t c ts d i a a”poi d ei ne o pln ga aot n o crop plants such as rice through r s rv e v ecs f o e r n bro f e d d l i i experimentation (Maranan and Valisto, 2003). In mining areas in Jose Panganiban, Province of Camarines Norte, there are also mature coconut trees that do not bear fruits. These examples show that the impact of mining on terrestrial plants reflect problems in agricultural productivity. Moreover, the impacts of acid mine drainage (AMD) are not confined to the water in a river. The riparian zone along the riverbanks are unique habitats for plants and animals. Acidic water seriously affects such habitats in terms of heavy metals deposition especially in areas with clay particles. The resulting contamination of soil with metal-rich acidic water would not only kill soil fauna and microorganisms but would have a detrimental effect on fruit bearing plants cultivated by the people. If, before mining was conducted in Marinduque, the riparian habitat was a source of fertile soil and sufficient supply of fresh water for raising short term crops, after mining, the destruction of the river by AMD deposits toxic heavy metals and prevents the use of such water for the same purpose. For instance, copper can be absorbed by plants through active and passive transports (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1984). In passive absorption, the metal in solution may be more likely within the toxic range. Excess copper causes the following physiological problems in plants: 1) tissue damage and elongation of root cells; 2) permeability of cell member becomes altered causing leakage of ions such s potassium and phosporus in roots; and 3) inhibition of photosynthesis. Downstream, even with a reduced 24
  • 25. acidity, high levels of heavy metals have been deposited since they are also detected at lower elevation and near the coast. F. Future Impacts Based on the results of this study, the following scenario in the future can be expected in Mogpog river ecosystem: 1. Contaminated tailings from the dam and beyond it will continue to be deposited downstream during heavy rainfall and threaten human habitations and livelihood 2. The increased level of heavy metal pollution in soil and plants may reach above the critical range. This situation will be brought about by continuous deposition of the pollutants through water transport downstream where human settlements are concentrated, by wind as dust during the drier months, or by horizontal movement of the metals from the water edge spreading inward in the riparian zone where people plant their crops. 3. Reduction in agricultural productivity due to toxic effects of heavy metals in soil and plants. This event will likely occur because of increasing acidity of soil from the water edge towards the riparian zone. Similarly, the increasing acidity will kill soil organisms (micro and macro) that are responsible for facilitating the release of nutrients from organic matter in the soil. 4. Reduction in the productivity of fishing grounds within the vicinity of the outfall of Mogpog River. Siltation is the major hazard that will cause fish kills by burial or choking of aquatic organisms. Toxic level of heavy metal will finish off the rest of the organisms that survived siltation and those that happen to visit the place. 5. Heavy metals in fishery resources will spread to other marine organisms via the food chain. In time, major fishery resources will accumulate toxic metals in their bodies and can also reach man through the food chain pathway. 6. The increased level of toxic heavy metals that might accumulate in people may cause a variety of health problems experienced by people. Similarly animals, especially livestock and domestic non-food animals will show symptoms of health problems. Accumulation of heavy metals in the body will be brought about by the movement of metals through the food chain, or through regular drinking of contaminated water from the river or wells near Mogpog River. The increased concentration of metals in the body is due to the fact that most metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury attach to the sulfur of the protein cysteine, a natural constituent of the body (Fergusson, 1990). Although naturally low in concentration, Cadmium may pose another serious health problem because it is absorbed readily but is eliminated slowly in the body (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Division of Toxicology, 1999) Other observations in Mogpog river system show that silt and deposition of tailings coming from the dam will continue to happen during heavy rainfall due to the huge volume of tailings that have accumulated and continually fill up the Maguila-guila dam. 25
  • 26. V. CONCLUSION Acid mine drainage (AMD) that is brought about by natural processes in the siltation dam, a waste dump of Placer Dome-Marcopper Mines, is the most possible cause of pollution and destruction not only of the river water in Mogpog, but also of the soils in the riparian habitats in the riverbank. Heavy metals leached out by AMD also caused loss of productivity of plants through pollen grain abortion. It also altered the plankton composition of the river. Acid water leached out heavy metals from the dam and deposited them into the lower reaches of Mogpog River. This fact cannot be denied because wastewater that drips into the tunnel below the Maguila-guila siltation dam and those that overflows from the siltation dam have been channeled into Mogpog River for disposal as well as to ease pressure build-up from the dam especially during the rainy season. Thus, heavy metals will continue to accumulate in the river ecosystem unless remediation can successfully be implemented. To date however, there is still no remediation of AMD under the present technology. All recommendations are still based on experimental procedures and no success stories have been shown under actual field condition in affected mine sites in tropical countries like the Philippines. In addition experimental remediation have not included the impacts on human communities in terms of health and sustainable livelihood not connected with mining activities. The future scenario therefore is bleak for the people of Mogpog and other villages that settled along the riparian zone of the river unless rehabilitation of the river to its productive condition can by done by the company responsible for this mining disaster. With the destruction of the Mogpog River ecosystem, and the impending disaster that looms ahead from the huge amount of tailings still waiting to go down from the waste dumps in the mining area, no amount of money can compensate for the ecosystem destruction brought about by irresponsible mining and what the people will endure for a long long time. Prepared by: EMELINA G. REGIS, Ph.D. April 18, 2006 26
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