1. Momentum and Its Conservation Or How I Learned to Love Collisions

3. Impulse and Momentum It is always exciting to watch a baseball player hit a home run. However, to impress your friends and family, instead of analyzing the collision in terms of accelerations and forces on the bat and ball, we will concentrate on a different way of analyzing the collision.

5. Before the collision, the baseball moves toward the bat. During the collision, the baseball is squashed against the bat. After the collision, however, the baseball moves at a higher velocity away from the bat, and the bat continues in its path, but at a slower velocity. How are the velocities of the ball, before and after the collision, related to the force acting on it? Newton’s second law describes how the velocity of an object is changed by a net force acting on it. The change in velocity of the ball must have been caused by the force exerted by the bat on the ball. The force changes over time.

6. Newton’s second law of motion, F = m a , can be rewritten by using the definition of acceleration as the change in velocity divided by the time needed to make that change. It can be represented by the following equation: Multiplying both sides of the equation by the time interval,  t, results in the following equation: F  t = m  v Impulse , or F  t , is the product of the average force on an object and the time interval over which it acts. F = m a = m

7. Impulse is measured in newton-seconds. The right side of the equation, m  v , involves the change in velocity:  v = v f - v i . Therefore, m  v = m v f - m v i . The product of the object’s mass, m , and the object’s velocity, v , is defined as the momentum of the object. Momentum is measured in kg•m/s. An object’s momentum, also known as linear momentum, is represented by the following equation p = mv

8. Recall the equation F  t = m  v = m v f - m v i . Because m v f = p f and m v i = p i , this equation can be rewritten as follows: F  t = m  v = p f - p i The right side of the equation, p f - p i , describes the change in momentum of an object. Thus, the impulse of an object is equal to the change in its momentum, which is called the impulse-momentum theorem . The impulse-momentum theorem is represented by the following equation. If the force on an object is constant, the impulse is the product of the force multiplied by the time interval over which it acts.

9. Using the Impulse-Momentum Theorem to Save Lives A large change in momentum occurs only when there is a large impulse. A large impulse can result either from a large force acting over a short period of time or from a smaller force acting over a long period of time. What happens to the driver when a crash suddenly stops a car? An impulse is needed to bring the driver’s momentum to zero. An air bag reduces the force by increasing the time interval during which it acts.

10. It also exerts the force over a larger area of the person’s body, thereby reducing the likelihood of injuries.

12. The Conservation of Momentum You have seen how a force applied during a time interval changes the momentum of a baseball. But in the discussion of Newton’s third law of motion, you learned that forces are the result of interactions between objects moving in opposite directions. The force of a bat on the ball is accompanied by an equal and opposite force of the ball on the bat. Is the momentum of the bat, therefore, also changed?

13. Two-Particle Collisions Although it would be simple to consider the bat as a single object, the ball, the hand of the player, and the ground on which the player is standing are all objects that interact when the baseball player hits the ball. A much easier system is the collision of two balls of unequal mass and velocity. During the collision of the two balls, each briefly exerts a force on the other. Despite the differences in sizes and velocities of the balls, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite, according to Newton’s third law of motion. These forces are represented by the following equation. F B on A = -F A on B

16. Because the time intervals over which the forces are exerted are the same, how do the impulses received by both balls compare? They must be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. How do the momenta of the balls compare after the collision? According to the impulse-momentum theorem, the final momentum is equal to the initial momentum plus the impulse. Ball A: p A2 =F B on A Δt + p A1 Ball B: p B2 = F A on B Δt + p B1

17. Use the result of Newton’s third law of motion –F A on B = F B on A. P A2 = -F A on B Δt + P A1 Add the momenta of the two balls. m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1 v ' 1 + m 2 v ' 2 P A2 = -F A on B Δt + P A1 P B2 = F A on B Δt + P B1 P A2 + P B2 = P A1 + P B1 +

18. This shows that the sum of the momenta of the balls is the same before and after the collision. That is, the momentum gained by ball 2 is equal to the momentum lost by ball 1. If the system is defined as the two balls, the momentum of the system is constant. A kewl animation

19. Explosions You have seen how important it is to define each system carefully. The momentum of the tennis ball changed when the external force of the racket was exerted on it. The tennis ball was not an isolated system. On the other hand, the total momentum of the two colliding balls within the isolated system didn’t change because all forces were between objects within the system.

20. Can you find the final velocities of the two in-line skaters in Figure 9-8 ? Assume that they are skating on such a smooth surface that there are no external forces. They both start at rest one behind the other. Skater A gives skater B a push. Now both skaters are moving, making this situation similar to that of an explosion. Because the push was an internal force, you can use the law of conservation of momentum to find the skaters’ relative velocities. The total momentum of the system was zero before the push. Therefore, it also must be zero after the push. p. 238

22. The momenta of the skaters after the push are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. The backward motion of skater A is an example of recoil. The velocities depend on the skaters’ relative masses. If skater A has a mass of 45.kg and skater B’s mass is 60.0kg, then the ratio of their velocities will be 60/45 or 1.33. The less massive skater moves at the greater velocity. But, without more information about how hard they pushed, you can’t find the velocity of each skater. v A2 = m B m A — v B2

23. Two-Dimensional Collisions Up until now, you have looked at momentum in one dimension only . The law of conservation of momentum holds for all closed systems with no external forces. It is valid regardless of the directions of the particles before or after they interact. Now you will look at momentum in two dimensions. For example, billiard ball A strikes stationary ball B. Consider the two balls to be the system. The original momentum of the moving ball is p A1 ; the momentum of the stationary ball is zero. Therefore, the momentum of the system before the collision is equal to p A1 .

24. m 1 m 2 After Collision v 1 ' v 2 '

25. After the collision, both balls are moving and have momenta. According to the law of conservation of momentum, the initial momentum equals the vector sum of the final momenta, so p A1 = p A2 + p B2 . The equality of the momentum before and after the collision also means that the sum of the components of the vectors before and after the collision must be equal. Therefore, the sum of the final y -components must be zero. p A2y + p B2y = 0 They are equal in magnitude but have opposite signs. The sum of the horizontal components is also equal. p A1 = p A2x + p B2x

26. Example: A 2.00-kg ball, A , is moving at a speed of 5.00 m/s. It collides with a stationary ball, B , of the same mass. After the collision, A moves off in a direction 30.0 º to the left of its original direction. Ball B moves off in a direction 90.0º to the right of ball A's final direction. How fast are they moving after the collision? Solution: 1. Sketch the before and after states Before A B v A1 v B1 =0 A B After v A2 v B2

27. 2. Draw a momentum vector diagram. Note that p A2 and p B2 form a 90 º angle. 3. Perform calculations: Determine initial momenta: p A1 = m a v a1 = (2.00 kg)(5.00m/s) = 10.0 kg •m/s p B1 = 0 Find p 2 : p 2 = p 1 = 10.0 kg•m/s 90 º p A2 30 º p B2 p 2 • p A1 p B1

28. Find p A2 and p B2 . p A2 = p 2 cos 30.0 ° p B2 = p 2 sin 30.0 ° = (10.0 kg•m/s)(0.866) = (10.0 kg•m/s)(0.500) = 8.66 kg•m/s = 5.00 kg •m/s Find final speeds. = 4.33 m/s = 2.50 m/s p A2 m A v A2 = v B2 = p B2 m B = 8.66 kg •m/s 2.00 kg = 5.00 kg •m/s 2.00 kg