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bolivia: revolutions and
beyond Reciprocal Agreements for Water An environmental management revolution in in the Santa Cruz valleys By Nigel Asquith September 21, 1967. A hot wind sweeps tum- the Masicuri River and his spinach fields the number found in the whole of North bleweed through the village of Alto Seco. will be dry all winter. Claudioâs ten cows, America. These forests have other uses Women peer from behind drawn shutters, his only other income source, struggle to too: the region provides drinking water to catch a glimpse of the visitors who ar- find water. They spend most of their time to the 1.5 million residents of Santa Cruz, rived earlier in the day. They had walked close to the temporary streams: compact- and supplies irrigation water and flood slowly into the village, carrying immense ing soil, eroding the stream banks, pol- protection to the fertile lowlands where backpacks. The men made camp in an luting the water and grazing on the few soy producers drive Boliviaâs agricultural abandoned house next to a waterhole, and remaining forest tree seedlings. export economy. during the evening talked to a group of 15 The upland forests of the Santa Cruz Deforestation and cattle-grazingâa amazed and silent peasants: âThe gov- valleys are also increasingly threatened tragedy of commons exacerbated by cli- ernment has abandoned Alto Seco: you by illegal land incursions. Encouraged by mate changeâare fundamentally chang- have no healthcare, no paved road, and farmersâ unions and local leaders, landless ing the Santa Cruz valleys. The valleys no clean water.â âBut donât worryâ said migrants from the altiplano are entering are fast losing their ability to provide Comandante Che Guevara. âWeâre here to the region to clear water-producing cloud food, water and other environmental ser- help. Weâre communists.â forests for agriculture. Deforestation and vices to their residents, while the farmers September 21, 2010. The same hot forest degradation in the Mosqueras and are as poor as they were when Che failed wind still sweeps tumbleweed through Vilcas watersheds of Cruceño Valleys in- to persuade them to rise up and revolt. Alto Seco. Little has changed: villagers creased by almost 500% between 1986 Water scarcity has led to reduced agricul- greet visitors with the same guarded sus- and 2004, while downstream flooding tural yields, and of the 3,000 children in picion, and Alto Seco still has no health- over the same period caused $250 mil- the region, almost a sixth spend signifi- care, no paved road, and no clean wa- lion in damages. In 2006, floods in the cant time out of school, suffering from ter. âBut donât worryâ said Maria Teresa lower Rio Grande destroyed more than diarrhea caused by drinking water con- Vargas, the leader of the latest group of 250,000 acres of soy and other crops. taminated by their familiesâ own cows. visitors. âWeâre here to help. Weâre con- Except where they suffer intense graz- In early 2003 in the municipality of servationists.â ing pressure, the eastern slopes of the Pampagrande, in the small village of Santa Claudio GutiĂ©rrez could do with the Andes support some of the worldâs most Rosa de Lima, a quiet revolution began. At help. With each passing year, he sees few- biodiverse forests. Bordering the northern a meeting facilitated by a non-governmen- er rain clouds above his farm. Rainfall has edge of the Santa Cruz valleys is AmborĂł tal organization, FundaciĂłn Natura Boliv- halved in the 50 years since Che and his National Park, home to 10% of all the bird ia, five downstream irrigators negotiated a guerrillas passed through the Santa Cruz species on planet earth. The 100 square groundbreaking deal with their upstream valleys, and with current rates of defores- mile Los Negros Valley supports 235 counterparts. âFor every 25 acres of forest tation, Claudio expects that in five years resident bird species, almost a quarter of you conserve for a year,â AndrĂ©s Rojas told 58â ReVistaâ fall 2011 photos courtesy of nigel asquith
2.
section header SerafĂn Carrasco,
âwe will give you one mental servicesâ tariff are channeled, the Left to right: Small streams from inside beehive and training on how to produce municipal government agrees to annual Amboro National Park feed the Los Negros River and provide important irrigation water; and sell honey.â And so the first reciprocal purchase of beehives, fruit tree seedlings, the Comarapa Cloud Forests; the Los Negros agreement for water was struck. irrigation pipes or other development River affected by upstream deforestation By 2010, the initial five Santa Rosa tools, to be given in compensation for exacerbated by climate change; agriculture farmers protecting 1,235 acres had mush- forest conservation activities, and Fun- in the middle of Los Negros watershed. roomed to 63 families conserving 10,000 daciĂłn Natura invests cash from its do- acres. The scheme had spread to neigh- nors, and provides technical support to ment offered Claudio six beehives and boring Comarapa and Mairana munici- get the scheme up and running. training and equipment for honey pro- palities, which protected another 12,000 Maria Teresa Vargas of Natura ex- ductionâa value of more than $600âin acres through conservation contracts. The plains: âthe model is cheap, efficient and exchange for the conservation of 75 acres crucial innovation, though, is not just that transparent. Each party pays its own of his water-producing cloud forests, he upstream farmers have signed contracts costs, including technician salaries, fuel was converted. Claudio is slowly convinc- to conserve their forests. What really is and other expenses, so that every single ing the rest of his family, starting with his noteworthy is that the downstream water dollar that enters the water fund is in- brothers JesĂșs, Carlos and JosĂ©, that the users are paying for the schemes. In 2007, vested in upstream conservation. The scheme can also work for them. residents of Los Negros, Comarapa and accounts of the water co-operatives are A more important question for Na- Mairana voted to increase their water tar- open for all members to see, so there is tura Bolivia is whether the local water iffs by 9%, 15% and 7% respectively. simply no space for mismanagement or funds achieve their stated goal. âWhile In Comarapa, for example, every $20 misappropriation of fundsâ. it all sounds great on paper,â notes Ma- invested by FundaciĂłn Natura Bolivia In 2007 the concept was scaled up a ria Teresa Vargas, âwe havenât yet proven and its donors is matched by $30 of local level when RubĂ©n Costas, the Governor that these funds really are catalyzing new funds, which together purchase a beehive of the Department of Santa Cruz, created conservation in areas which otherwise to compensate for conservation of 5 acres a new 1.8 million-acre protected area to would be degraded or deforested, and if of water-producing forest for five years. conserve the forested headwaters of the local people really have received benefits Honey revenue per acre of forest con- Santa Cruz valleys. The Rio Grande-Valles that would not have occurred without served is $10 per year, so within five years Cruceños Protected Area filled a hole in the funds.â the landowner has not only used the $20 of Boliviaâs conservation map, creating a This lack of knowledge about the donor funds to conserve five acres of forest, biodiversity corridor between AmborĂł impact of conservation activities is not but has also sold $50 worth of honey. For- and Iñao National Parks, and, like a virus, unique to the Santa Cruz water funds. est conservation and watershed manage- the water fund concept replicated into Across the globe, conservation initiatives ment have thus been transformed from Moro Moro, Vallegrande, Postrervalle, large and small have rarely been subject unenforceable top-down impositions by Samaipata and Pucara municipalities. to scientific analysis of their effectiveness. central government, to negotiated agree- In Pucara, close to Alto Seco, Claudio Instead, conservationists have depended ments among participating equals. GutiĂ©rrez took some convincing. âVisi- on intuition and anecdote to guide the While the details of each municipal tors have been coming and going from design of investments. This makes little scheme differ, the basic concept is the Pucara since before the time of Che,â sense: as Paul Ferraro and Subhrendu same everywhere. Three parties sign a he asserted. âThey come with so many Pattanyak suggested in 2006 (in PLOS ten-year agreement: the water co-opera- promises, and always end up providing Biology): âIf we want to ensure that do- tive opens a separate bank account, into nothing.â But once the Pucara hydroelec- norsâ limited resources make a difference, which revenues from the new âenviron- tric cooperative and municipal govern- we must accept that testing hypotheses drclas.harvard.edu/publications/revistaonlineâ ReVista 59
3.
bolivia: revolutions and
beyond about what policies and interventions assessed the diversity of beetles and am- Kelsey Jack explains: protect environmental services requires phibians in each communityâs forests. âAll conservation and development the same scientific rigor and state-of-the- FundaciĂłn Natura technicians then re- project face financial constraints, yet art methods that we invest in testing eco- turned to all 120 communities to report we actually donât know if many popular logical hypotheses.â back on results of the data collection interventions work or not. There is no Understanding of the ecological as- process; to explain to the farmers how better way of assessing whether an in- pects of conservation rests, in part, on current land practices such as extensive tervention actually works than through well-designed empirical studies. In con- cattle grazing are destroying the environ- a randomized experiment, and, given trast, our understanding of the way in ment and their own water supplies; and that project resources are finite, there is which policies can help protect biodiver- to demonstrate the economic viability of no fairer way to allocate funds to com- sity rests primarily on anecdotal moni- alternative productive activities such as munities than in a random draw. Our toring of projects that were not even honey and fruit production, and ratio- methodology randomly assigns which communities receive the project first, and we use this âexperimentâ to then sci- entifically assess if the project actually Harvardâs Sustainability Science Program helped works or not. What is increasingly clear develop an evaluation to show if direct incentives for is that effective conservation and devel- opment requires evidence about what land and water conservation were effective. works, including the sometimes sur- prising ways that potential beneficiaries respond to the proposed interventions.â designed to answer the question, âDoes nalization of cattle ranching. this intervention work better than no in- In August 2011, the experiment itself Just ask Che. His communist revo- tervention at all?â Sadly, we thus have no finally began. Through a simple lottery lution in the Santa Cruz valleys ground idea if the billions of dollars invested in conducted in front of local officials, 60 to an abrupt haltâmainly because he conservation in the last decades have ac- communitiesâhalf of the communities didnât understand his audienceâs needs, tually achieved anything. in the areaâwere selected to receive and they werenât convinced that he In 2009, FundaciĂłn Natura Bolivia funding for reciprocal agreements. All could help them. Perhaps Natura Bo- approached Kelsey Jack at Harvardâs farmers in the selected communities who liviaâs conservation effort, led by people Sustainability Science Program to try to own land within 300 feet of streams and from the region, addressing a recog- develop a program evaluation: a study rivers are eligible to receive in-kind pay- nized local problem, will have more suc- that could show, once and for all, wheth- mentsâi.e. fruit trees or bee boxesâat cess. âWe will keep fighting to protect er giving farmers like Claudio GutiĂ©rrez the equivalent rate of $2 per acre of wa- the peopleâs water supplies,â asserts Ma- direct incentives to conserve their land ter-producing forest conserved for a year. ria Teresa Vargas of Natura: âHasta la could achieve cost-effective conservation Farmers in the other 60 communities victoria siempre.â Unlike the events of and development. Jack and Harvard col- will receive nothing other than infor- 1967, a rigorous experimental method- leagues then spent a year and half with mation about the state of the environ- ology will determine whether Naturaâs Natura figuring out how such an experi- ment, and follow up data collection will revolution really is victorious or not. ment could best be implemented. Fol- indicate whether there is more effective lowing the logic of the natural sciences, conservation in the sites where compen- Nigel Asquith was a 2009-2010 Giorgio the analysis is straightforward in its de- sation is paid, and if these payments have Ruffolo Fellow in Sustainability Science sign. However, it is costly, complex, and had an effect on local livelihoods and at the Harvard Kennedy School. While slow in its implementation. perceptions about the environment and at Harvard, he helped develop a research To establish a baseline, every single local institutions. Once the experimental program to assess the efficiency of the family in the Rio Grande-Valles Cruce- results are in, farmers in the 60 ânon- Natura Boliviaâs work in the Santa Cruz ños Protected Area initially completed a treatedâ communities will then become valleys. His research was supported by 15-page questionnaire about their socio- eligible for the scheme. the Sustainability Science Program at economic situation, their perceptions Critics of such program evaluations Harvard, the European Commission, the about the environment and the role of assert that they are unfair (âHow can MacArthur Foundation, and the UKâs various institutions in their lives. At the you deny project benefits to some com- Ecosystem Services for Poverty Allevia- same time, researchers measured water munities and not others?â) and unethi- tion Program funded by DFID, ESRC quality in, above, and below each com- cal (âHow can researchers justify âplay- and NERC. Contact: nigelasquith@ munity, mapped vegetation cover, and ing godâ with peopleâs lives?â). Harvardâs yahoo.com. 60â ReVistaâ fall 2011 | winter 2012
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