1. THE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION

2. •Formerly known as USSR: United Soviet Socialists
Republic
•Presently known as the RUSSIAN FEDERATION
•The biggest country in the world in land area covering more
than 1/8th of the Earth’s inhabited land area
•Ranked 9th in terms of population with 143 million people as of 2012
•Has the world’s largest reserve of mineral and energy
resources
•Largest global producer of Gas and Oil
•Has the world’s largest forest reserve
•Has one Ms. Universe in the name of Oxana Fedorova

4. BACKGROUND
•Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was able
to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th
centuries).
•In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty continued this
policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific. Under PETER I (ruled
1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic Sea and the country
was renamed the Russian Empire.
•During the 19th century, more territorial acquisitions were made in
Europe and Asia. Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05
contributed to the Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation
of a parliament and other reforms.
•Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led
to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and to
the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household.

5. BACKGROUND
•The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and
formed the USSR.
•The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53) strengthened Communist
rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of
millions of lives.
•General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced
glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to
modernize Communism, but his initiatives inadvertently released
forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14
other independent republics.

6. BACKGROUND
Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic
ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian
state in which the leadership seeks to legitimize its rule
through managed national elections, populist appeals by
former President PUTIN, and continued economic growth.
Russia has severely disabled a Chechen rebel
movement, although violence still occurs throughout the North
Caucasus.

7. Demographics
Ethnic Russians comprise 81% of the country's
population. The Russian Federation is also home to
several sizeable minorities. In all, 160 different other
ethnic groups and indigenous peoples live within
its borders. Though Russia's population is
comparatively large, its density is low because of the
country's enormous size. Population is densest
in European Russia, near the Ural Mountains, and in
southwest Siberia. 73% of the population lives in
urban areas while 27% in rural ones.

8. Language
Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100
languages. According to the 2002
Census, 142.6 million people speak
Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million
and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers.
Russian is the only official state language, but
the Constitution gives the
individual republics the right to make their
native language co-official next to Russian

10. Religion
OrthodoxChristianity, Islam, Judaism and Buddhism
are Russia’s traditional religions, and are all legally a
part of Russia's "historical heritage”. The Russian
Orthodox Church was the country's state religion
prior to the Revolution and remains the largest
religious body in the country. Estimates of believers
widely fluctuate among sources.
Easter is the most popular religious festival in Russia,
celebrated by more than 90% of all Russian citizens,
including large numbers of non-religious.

11. Politics
The 1993 constitution declares Russia a
democratic, federative, law-based
state with a republican form of
government.
State power is divided among the legislative,
executive, and judicial branches.

12. Politics
Diversity of ideologies and religions is
sanctioned, and a state or compulsory ideology
may not be adopted. The right to a multiparty
political system is upheld.
The content of laws must be made public before they
take effect, and they must be formulated in accordance
with international law and principles. Russian is
proclaimed the state language, although the republics
of the federation are allowed to establish their own
state.

13. Federal Subjects
The Russian Federation comprises
83 federal subjects. These subjects
have equal representation—two
delegates each—in the Federation
Council.
However, they differ in the degree of
autonomy they enjoy
.

14. Federal Subjects
•46 oblasts (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with
locally elected governor and legislature.
•21 republics: nominally autonomous; each has its own
constitution, direct-elected head of republic or a similar post, and
parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language
alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in
international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic
minorities.
•9 krais (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory"
designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to
the administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or
autonomous oblasts.

15. Federal Subjects
•4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally
autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic
minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in
the 1990s. With the exception of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all
autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai
or an oblast of which they are a part.
•1 autonomous oblast (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast):
historically, autonomous oblasts were administrative units
subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except for the Jewish
AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
•2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that
function as separate regions.

16. Political Divisions

17. Federal Districts
Federal subjects are grouped into eight federal
districts, each administered by an envoy appointed
by the President of Russia. Unlike the federal subjects,
the federal districts are not a subnational level of
government, but are a level of administration of the
federal government.
Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the
federal subjects and the federal government and are
primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of
the federal subjects with the federal laws.

18. RUSSIAN FEDERAL DISTRICTS

19. Executive Branch
The 1993 constitution created a dual executive
consisting of a president and prime
minister, but the president is the
dominant figure.
The constitution spells out many prerogatives
specifically, but some powers enjoyed by Yeltsin
were developed in an ad hoc manner.

20. Executive Branch
Office Name Party Since
President Vladimir Putin United Russia 7 May 2012
Prime Minister
Dmitry
Medvedev
United Russia 8 May 2012
PUTIN Medvedev

21. Executive Branch
•Ministry of the Interior of the
Russian Federation
•Ministry of Civil
Defence, Emergencies and Disaster
Relief of the Russian Federation
•Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Russian Federation
•Federal Agency for the
Commonwealth of Independent
States, Compatriots Living
Abroad, and International Cultural
Cooperation
•Ministry of Defence of the Russian
Federation
•Federal Service for Military-
Technical Cooperation
•Federal Service for Technical and
Export Control of the Russian
Federation
•Federal Agency for Special
Construction
•Federal Agency for the
Procurement of Armaments,
Military and Special Equipment,
and Logistical Resources
(Rosoboronpostavka)
•Ministry of Justice of the Russian
Federation
•Federal Penitentiary Service
•Federal Bailiff Service
PRESIDENT OF THE RUSSIAN
FEDERATION

22. Presidential Powers
•Determines the basic direction of Russia's domestic
and foreign policy and represents the Russian state
within the country and in foreign affairs.
•Appoints and recalls Russia's ambassadors upon
consultation with the legislature
•Accepts the credentials and letters of recall of foreign
representatives
•conducts international talks, and
•signs international treaties.

23. Presidential Powers
•empowered to appoint the prime minister to chair the
Government (called the cabinet or the council of
ministers in other countries), with the consent of the
State Duma.
• chairs meetings of the Government, which he also
may dismiss in its entirety. Upon the advice of the
prime minister, the president can appoint or remove
Government members, including the deputy prime
ministers.

24. Presidential Powers
•submits candidates to the State Duma for the post of
chairman of the Central Bank of the Russian
Federation (RCB) and may propose that the State Duma
dismiss the chairman.
• submits candidates to the Federation Council for
appointment as justices of the Constitutional Court, the
Supreme Court, and the Superior Court of
Arbitration, as well as candidates for the office of
procurator general, Russia's chief law enforcement
officer.
•also appoints justices of federal district courts.

25. Presidential Powers
Several prescribed powers put the president in a superior
position vis-à-vis the legislature. The president has broad
authority to issue decrees and directives that have the force
of law without legislative review, although the constitution notes
that they must not contravene that document or other laws.
Under certain conditions, the president may dissolve the State
Duma, the lower house of parliament, the Federal
Assembly.
The president has the prerogatives of
scheduling referendums (a power previously reserved to the
parliament), submitting draft laws to the State
Duma, and promulgating federal laws.

26. Presidential Powers
Under the 1993 constitution, if the president commits "grave
crimes" or treason, the State Duma may file impeachment
charges with the parliament's upper house, the Federation
Council.
These charges must be confirmed by a ruling of the Supreme
Court that the president's actions constitute a crime and by a
ruling of the Constitutional Court that proper procedures in
filing charges have been followed. The charges then must be
adopted by a special commission of the State Duma and
confirmed by at least two-thirds of State Duma deputies. A
two-thirds vote of the Federation Council is required for
removal of the president.

27. Presidential Powers
If the Federation Council does not act within three
months, the charges are dropped. If the president
is removed from office or becomes unable to exercise
power because of serious illness, the prime minister is
to temporarily assume the president's duties;
a presidential election then must be held within
three months.
The constitution does not provide for a vice president,
and there is no specific procedure for determining
whether the president is able to carry out his duties.

28. Informal powers and power centers
Many of the president's powers are related to the
incumbent's undisputed leeway in forming an
administration and hiring staff.
The presidential administration is composed of several
competing, overlapping, and vaguely delineated
hierarchies that historically have resisted efforts at
consolidation.
This structure is similar to, but several times larger
than, the top-level apparatus of the Soviet-
era Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

29. Informal powers and power centers
Another center of power in the presidential administration is
the Security Council, which was created by statute in mid-
1992. The 1993 constitution describes the council as formed
and headed by the president and governed by statute.
Since its formation, it apparently has gradually lost influence
in competition with other power centers in the presidential
administration.
The decree's description of the Security Council's
consultative functions was especially vague and wide-
ranging, although it positioned the head of the Security
Council directly subordinate to the president. As had been
the case previously, the Security Council was required to
hold meetings at least once a month.

30. Informal powers and power centers
Other presidential support services include the Control
Directorate (in charge of investigating official
corruption), the Administrative Affairs Directorate, the
Presidential Press Service, and the Protocol
Directorate.
The Administrative Affairs Directorate controls state
dachas, sanatoriums, automobiles, office buildings, and
other perquisites of high office for the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches of government, a
function that includes management of more than 200
state industries with about 50,000 employees.

31. Informal powers and power centers
The president also has extensive powers over
military policy. As the Supreme Commander-
in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian
Federation of the armed forces, the president
approves defense doctrine, appoints and
removes the high command of the armed
forces, and confers higher military ranks and
awards.

32. Informal powers and power centers
The president is empowered to declare
national or regional states of martial
law, as well as state of emergency. In both
cases, both houses of the parliament must be
notified immediately.

33. Presidential Elections
The constitution sets few requirements for
presidential elections, deferring in many
matters to other provisions established by law.
The presidential term is set at six years, and
the president may only serve two consecutive
terms.

34. Presidential Elections
A candidate for president must be a citizen of Russia
at least 35 years of age, and
a resident of the country for at least ten years.
If a president becomes unable to continue in office
because of health
problems, resignation, impeachment, or death, a
presidential election is to be held not more than three
months later. In such a situation, the Federation Council
is empowered to set the election date..

35. Government of Russia
Exercises executive power in the Russian
Federation.
The members of the government are the:
•Prime Minister of Russia (Chairman of the Government),
•the deputy prime ministers, and
•the federal ministers.
It has its legal basis in the Constitution of the Russian
Federation and the federal constitutional law "On the Government
of the Russian Federation"

36. Government of Russia
After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Council of
Ministers had become the main executive body. At some
points it contained over 65 state committees, 16–17
ministers, 5 federal services, and over 30 governmental
agencies.
After the 2004 reform, government duties were split
between 17 ministries, 5 federal services, and over 30
governmental agencies.
The prime minister is appointed by the president of the
Russian Federation and confirmed by the State Duma. He or
she succeeds to the presidency if the current president
dies, is incapacitated, or resigns.

37. Government of Russia
The body was preceded by Government of the Soviet
Union.
Since the Russian Federation emerged in 1991, the
government's structure has undergone several major
changes. In the initial years, government bodies,
primarily the different ministries, underwent massive
reorganization as the old Soviet governing networks
were adapted to the new state. Many reshuffles and
renamings occurred.

38. Government of Russia
On 28 November 1991 President of the
RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed presidential
decree №242 "On reorganization of the
government bodies of the RSFSR"
The most recent change took place on May 21,
2012 when President Vladimir Putin signed
presidential decree on forming Dmitry
Medvedev's Cabinet.

39. Responsibilities and Power
The government is the subject of the 6th
chapter of the Constitution of the Russian
Federation.
According to the constitution, the government
of the Russian Federation must:

40. Responsibilities and Power
•draft and submit the federal budget to the State
Duma; ensure the implementation of the budget and
report on its implementation to the State Duma;
•ensure the implementation of a uniform
financial, credit and monetary policy in the Russian
Federation ;
•ensure the implementation of a uniform state policy in
the areas of culture, science, education, health
protection, social security and ecology;

41. Responsibilities and Power
•manage federal property;
•adopt measures to ensure the country's defence, state
security, and the implementation of the foreign
policy of the Russian Federation;
•implement measures to ensure the rule of law, human
rights and freedoms, the protection of property
and public order, and crime control;
•exercise any other powers vested in it by the
Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws
and presidential decrees.

42. Responsibilities and Power
The government issues its acts in the way of
decisions and orders. These must not
contradict the constitution, federal
constitutional laws, federal laws,
and Presidential decrees, and are signed by
the Prime Minister.

43. Structure
The 2012 Russian government is made up
of the prime minister, a first deputy prime
minister, six deputy prime ministers and
21 other ministers. There are a total of 29
members of the cabinet.

44. Structure
Most ministries and federal services report directly
to the prime minister, who then reports to the
president.
A small number of bodies responsible for security and
foreign policy are, however, directly under the
president's authority. Informally they are collectively
referred to as the "presidential bloc.“ This consists
of the Interior Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, the
Emergencies Ministry, the Defence
Ministry, the Justice Ministry and seven federal
agencies and services.

45. Legislative Branch- PARLIAMENT
The 616-member parliament, termed the Federal
Assembly, consists of two houses, the 450-
member State Duma (the lower house) and the 166-
member Federation Council (the upper house).
Russia's legislative body was established by the
constitution approved in the December 1993
referendum. The first elections to the Federal Assembly
were held at the same .

46. Legislative Branch- PARLIAMENT
The Federal Assembly is prescribed as a
permanently functioning body, meaning that it
is in continuous session except for a regular
break between the spring and fall sessions.
The new constitution also directs that the two
houses meet separately in sessions open to the
public, although joint meetings are held for
important speeches by the president or foreign
leaders.

47. Structure of Federal Assembly
The composition of the Federation Council was
a matter of debate until shortly before the
2000 elections. The legislation that emerged in
December 1995 over Federation Council
objections clarified the constitution's language
on the subject by providing ex officio council
seats to the heads of local legislatures and
administrations in each of the eighty-nine
subnational jurisdictions, hence a total of 178
seats.

48. Structure of Federal Assembly
As composed in 1996, the Federation Council included
about fifty chief executives of subnational jurisdictions
who had been appointed to their posts by Yeltsin
during 1991-92, then won popular election directly to
the body in December 1993.
But the law of 1995 provided for popular elections of
chief executives in all subnational jurisdictions,
including those still governed by presidential
appointees. The individuals chosen in those elections
then would assume ex officio seats in the Federation
Council.

49. Structure of Federal Assembly
Each house elects a chairman to control the
internal procedures of the house.
The houses also form Parliamentary
committees and commissions to deal with
particular types of issues.
Unlike committees and commissions in
previous Russian and Soviet parliaments, those
operating under the 1993 constitution have
significant responsibilities in devising legislation
and conducting oversight.

50. Structure of Federal Assembly
Committee positions are allocated when new
parliaments are seated.
The general policy calls for allocation of
committee chairmanships and memberships
among parties and factions roughly in
proportion to the size of their representation.

51. Legislative Powers
The two chambers of the Federal
Assembly possess different powers and
responsibilities, with the State Duma the
more powerful.
The Federation Council, as its name and
composition implies, deals primarily with issues
of concern to the subnational jurisdictions,
such as adjustments to internal borders and
decrees of the president establishing martial
law or states of emergency.

52. Legislative Powers
As the upper chamber, it also has responsibilities in
confirming and removing the procurator general and
confirming justices of the Constitutional Court, the
Supreme Court, and the Superior Court of
Arbitration, upon the recommendation of the
president.
The Federation Council also is entrusted with the final
decision if the State Duma recommends removing the
president from office.

53. Legislative Powers
The constitution also directs that the Federation
Council examine bills passed by the lower
chamber dealing with budgetary, tax, and other fiscal
measures, as well as issues dealing with war and peace
and with treaty ratification.

54. Legislative Powers
In the consideration and disposition of most legislative
matters, however, the Federation Council has less
power than the State Duma.
All bills, even those proposed by the Federation
Council, must first be considered by the State Duma. If
the Federation Council rejects a bill passed by the State
Duma, the two chambers may form a conciliation
commission to work out a compromise version of the
legislation.

55. Legislative Powers
The State Duma then votes on the compromise bill.
If the State Duma objects to the proposals of the upper
chamber in the conciliation process, it may vote by a
two-thirds majority to send its version to the president
for signature.
The part-time character of the Federation Council's
work, its less developed committee structure, and its
lesser powers vis-à-vis the State Duma make it more a
consultative and reviewing body than a law-
making chamber.

56. Legislative Powers
The State Duma confirms the appointment of
the prime minister, although it does not have the
power to confirm Government ministers.
The power to confirm or reject the prime minister is
severely limited. According to the 1993
constitution, the State Duma must decide within one
week to confirm or reject a candidate once the
president has placed that person's name in nomination.
If it rejects three candidates, the president is
empowered to appoint a prime minister, dissolve the
parliament, and schedule new legislative elections.

57. Legislative Powers
The State Duma's power to force the resignation of the
Government also is severely limited. It may express a
vote of no-confidence in the Government by a
majority vote of all members of the State Duma, but
the president is allowed to disregard this vote.

58. Legislative Powers
If, however, the State Duma repeats the no-confidence
vote within three months, the president may dismiss
the Government. But the likelihood of a second no-
confidence vote is virtually precluded by the
constitutional provision allowing the president
to dissolve the State Duma rather than the
Government in such a situation.

59. Legislative Powers
The Government's position is further buttressed by
another constitutional provision that allows the
Government at any time to demand a vote of
confidence from the State Duma; refusal is grounds for
the president to dissolve the Duma.

60. The legislative process
The legislative process in Russia includes three
hearings in the State Duma, then approvals by
the Federation Council, the upper
house and sign into law by the President.

61. The legislative process
Draft laws may originate in either legislative
chamber, or they may be submitted by the
president, the Government, local legislatures
and the Supreme Court, the Constitutional
Court, or the Superior Court of Arbitration
within their respective competences.

62. The legislative process
Draft laws are first considered in the State
Duma. Upon adoption by a majority of the full
State Duma membership, a draft law is
considered by the Federation Council, which
has fourteen days to place the bill on its
calendar.
Conciliation commissions are the prescribed
procedure to work out differences in bills
considered by both chambers.

63. The legislative process
Constitutional provision dictating that draft
laws dealing with revenues and expenditures
may be considered "only when the
Government's findings are known"
substantially limits the Federal Assembly's
control of state finances.

64. The legislative process
The legislature may alter finance legislation
submitted by the Government at a later time, a
power that provides a degree of traditional
legislative control over the purse. The two
chambers of the legislature also have the
power to override a presidential veto of
legislation.
The constitution requires at least a two-thirds
vote of the total number of members of both
chambers.

65. The legislative process
The legislature may alter finance legislation
submitted by the Government at a later time, a
power that provides a degree of traditional
legislative control over the purse. The two
chambers of the legislature also have the
power to override a presidential veto of
legislation.
The constitution requires at least a two-thirds
vote of the total number of members of both
chambers.

66. Judicial branch
The Ministry of Justice administers Russia's
judicial system. The ministry's responsibilities
include the establishment of courts and the
appointment of judges at levels below the
federal district courts. The ministry also gathers
forensic statistics and conducts sociological
research and educational programs applicable
to crime prevention.

67. Judicial branch
The Russian judiciary is divided into three
branches: The courts of general jurisdiction
(including military courts); subordinated to the
Supreme Court; the arbitration (commercial)
court system under the High Court of
Arbitration; and the Constitutional Court (as
well as constitutional courts in a number of
administrative entities of the Russian
Federation).

68. Judicial branch
Civil and criminal cases are tried in courts of
primary jurisdiction, courts of appeals, and
higher courts. The general court system's
lowest level is the municipal court, which
serves each city or rural district and hears more
than 90% of all civil and criminal cases. The
next level of courts of general jurisdiction is the
regional courts.

69. Judicial branch
At the highest level is the Supreme Court.
Decisions of the lower trial courts can be
appealed only to the immediately superior
court unless a constitutional issue is involved.
The arbitration court system consists of city or
regional courts as well as appellate circuit
courts subordinated to the High Court of
Arbitration. Arbitration courts hear cases
involving business disputes between legal
entities and between legal entities and the
state.

70. Judicial branch
Judges are approved by the President after
being nominated by the qualifying collegia,
which are assemblies of judges. These collegia
also have the authority to remove judges for
misbehavior, and to approve procurator's
requests to prosecute judges.
For court infrastructure and financial support, judges
must depend on the Ministry of Justice, and for
housing they must depend on local authorities in the
jurisdiction where they sit

71. Judicial branch
The Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation is a court of limited subject matter
jurisdiction. The 1993 constitution empowers
the Constitutional Court to arbitrate disputes
between the executive and legislative branches
and between Moscow and the regional and
local governments.

72. Judicial branch
The court also is authorized to rule on violations of
constitutional rights, to examine appeals from various
bodies, and to participate in impeachment proceedings
against the president. The July 1994 Law on the
Constitutional Court prohibits the court from
examining cases on its own initiative and
limits the scope of issues the court can hear.

73. Judicial branch
The system of general jurisdiction courts
includes the Supreme Court of the
Russian Federation, regional level
courts, district level courts and justices of
the peace.

74. Local and Regional Government
The Russian Federation has made few changes
in the Soviet pattern of regional jurisdictions.
The 1993 constitution establishes a federal
government and enumerates eighty-nine
subnational jurisdictions, including twenty-one
ethnic enclaves with the status of republics.
There are ten autonomous regions, or okruga
(sing., okrug ), and the Jewish Autonomous
Oblast (Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast', also
known as Birobidzhan).

75. Local and Regional Government
Besides the ethnically identified jurisdictions,
there are six territories (kraya ; sing., kray ) and
forty-nine oblasts (provinces). The cities of
Moscow and St. Petersburg are independent of
surrounding jurisdictions; termed "cities of
federal significance," they have the same status
as the oblasts. The ten autonomous regions
and Birobidzhan are part of larger jurisdictions,
either an oblast or a territory.

76. Local and Regional Government
As the power and influence of the central
government have become
diluted, governors and mayors have
become the only relevant government
authorities in many jurisdictions.

77. Local jurisdictions under the constitution
Under the 1993 constitution, the
republics, territories, oblasts, autonomous
oblast, autonomous regions, and cities of
federal designation are held to be "equal in
their relations with the federal agencies of
state power"; this language represents an
attempt to end the complaints of the
nonrepublic jurisdictions about their inferior
status.

78. Local jurisdictions under the constitution
Equal representation in the Federation Council
for all eighty-nine jurisdictions furthers the
equalization process by providing them
meaningful input into legislative activities,
particularly those of special local concern.
However, Federation Council officials have
criticized the State Duma for failing to
represent regional interests adequately.

79. Power sharing
Flexibility is a goal of the constitutional provision
allowing bilateral treaties or charters between the
central government and the regions on power sharing.
For instance, in the bilateral treaty signed with the
Russian government in February 1994, the Republic of
Tatarstan gave up its claim to sovereignty and accepted
Russia's taxing authority, in return for Russia's
acceptance of Tatar control over oil and other resources
and the republic's right to sign economic agreements
with other countries.

80. Presidential power in the Regions
The president retains the power to appoint and
remove presidential representatives, who act
as direct emissaries to the jurisdictions in
overseeing local administrations'
implementation of presidential policies.

81. Presidential power in the Regions
The governments of the republics include a
president or prime minister (or both) and a
regional council or legislature. The chief
executives of lower jurisdictions are called
governors or administrative heads. Generally, in
jurisdictions other than republics the executive
branches have been more sympathetic to the
central government, and the legislatures.