1. Archetypes of Wisdom
Douglas J. Soccio
Chapter 7
The Stoic: Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius

2. Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to
answer the following questions:
What is hedonism?
What is Cyrenaic hedonism?
What is Epicurean hedonism?
What is Cynicism?
How is Socrates related to Cynicism and Stoicism?
What is the Stoic Logos?
What is under our control according to the Stoics?
What is the Cosmopolis?
Who was James Stockdale?

3. Stoicism
Initially, Stoicism emerged as a reaction against the belief
that pleasure is always good and pain is always bad or evil.
The Stoic seeks serenity (peace of mind) through self-
discipline.
Happiness comes only through detachment from all things
external. The disciplined, reasonable person can be happy
under any and all conditions.
For the Stoics, everything is a matter of attitude. Nothing
can make you happy or unhappy without your consent.

4. Hedonism
To a considerable extent, Stoicism is a refutation of the
belief that happiness is determined by means of pleasure
and pain. This kind of philosophy is called hedonism
(from the Greek root hedone, meaning pleasure).
One of the earliest schools of hedonism was started on the
coast of North Africa by Aristippus (c.430-350 B.C.E.),
who felt that, because sensory pleasures are more intense
than mental or emotional ones, they are the best of all.
Also, actual pleasures in the present are more desirable
than potential pleasures in the future, since the latter may
or may not come and things may be different for us then.

5. Epicureanism
The unrefined hedonism of Aristippus was soon improved
by Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.), who moved to Athens at
the age of eighteen to complete his military service.
Believing that political activities and ambitions were
pointless, Epicurus started a school of philosophy called
“the Garden.” This was one of the few places in Greece
where women were allowed and encouraged to interact
with men as equals.
Epicurus claimed that only the quality of our pleasures and
pains is important. This departure from Aristippus’
emphasis on quantity distinguishes Epicureanism: a
desire for a pleasant life of simplicity, prudence, and
friendship.

6. Cynicism
Another influence on the origins of Stoicism was
Cynicism, a philosophic “school” in the loosest sense.
Founded by Antisthenes (c.455-360 B.C.E.), who formed
a school called the Cynosarges (The Silver Dog), the
Cynics revolted against the rigidity of Plato and Aristotle
(while admiring Socrates’ disdain for fashion).
The Cynics believed that the very essence of civilization is
corrupt, and so lived austere, unconventional lives. They
distrusted luxury as a “hook” that always brought
complications and frustration into people’s lives.
What happiness there is could only come from self-
discipline and rational control of all desires and appetites,
with minimal contact with conventional society.

8. Stoic Admiration
The philosophical school known as Stoicism was founded
in Greece by Zeno (c. 334-262 B.C.E.) around 300 B.C.E.
Because Zeno lectured at a place called the stoa poikile, or
painted porch, his followers were known as “men of the
porch.”
Alexander’s empire fell apart immediately after his death,
and the Romans quickly adopted Stoicism (as they did so
much of Greek culture).
One reason that Stoicism flourished in Rome may have
been the admiration that Stoics had for the Cynics, whom
they regarded as a sort of ideal – with their sturdy
character and “free open-air spirit.”

9. Roman Stoicism
Stoicism appealed to Romans living in times of great
uncertainty, under emperors of widely differing abilities
and virtues.
It spread throughout the Roman world because it was
advocated by three important public figures:
Cicero (106 – 43 B.C.E.).
Cato (95 – 46 B.C.E.).
Seneca (c. 4 B.C. – 6.5 C.E.) a Roman senator and one
of the finest Stoic writers.

10. Epictetus: From Slave to Sage
Ironically, one of the most important Stoic philosophers
was a former slave named Epictetus (c. 50-130 C.E.).
Perhaps because a slave’s life is not his own, Epictetus had
insight into the major issue of Stoicism: controlling what
we can and accepting what is beyond our control.
As a slave, the only absolute control Epictetus had was
over his own reactions to what happened. His motto was
Anechou kai apechou: Bear and forbear.
Freed after Nero’s death in 68 C.E., Epictetus became a
well-known teacher. At about 90 C.E., all philosophers
were ordered out of Rome by the emperor Domitian, so he
fled to Nicopolis in Greece, where he taught until very old.

11. Philosopher-King
Another notable Stoic was the Roman Emperor Marcus
Aurelius (121-180 C.E.). While their pay scales varied,
the philosophies of Epictetus and Aurelius were very
similar.
By temperament a scholar and a recluse, Marcus Aurelius
lived surrounded by commotion, deception, and crowds,
and so told himself – in his journal, known to us as his
Meditations – to “look within” and to “only attend to
thyself” (the only thing the Stoics believe we can control).
The last truly great figure of Imperial Rome, Marcus
Aurelius was once described as “by nature a saint and a
sage, by profession a warrior and a ruler” – a Stoic
Philosopher-King.

12. The Fated Life
The Stoics believed that the actual course of our lives is
directed by the Logos – which they thought of as World
Reason, Cosmic Mind, God, and Providence, or fate.
The Stoics learned, as many of us do, that our lives are not
entirely our own. But rather than complain about what
they could not control, the Stoics chose to master what
they could – their own minds.
The Stoics felt that serenity comes to those whose will is
in accord with the World Reason, the Logos, as such
thinking leads to a reduction of frustration and anxiety.
As Epictetus says, “we are actors playing roles we do not
choose, and our duty is to play them as best we can,
knowing that our fate is part of a much larger order.”

13. Stoic Wisdom
If this is true, then nothing that happens can be “wrong” or
“bad,” since everything that happens is part of God’s
rational plan.
If your life is beyond your control, direct your efforts
toward what you can control – your attitude or will.
Developing a disinterested rational will is a matter of
having no personal attachments or motives.
For Stoics, wisdom consists in thinking of things that
happen to you as you would any other event in the world,
as a necessary part of the whole. And as everyone else is
in the same situation, we are all part of a “universal city” –
where each person is indifferent to themselves, knowing
that “Logos knows best.”

14. Control versus Influence
Even though the Stoics believed in destiny, or fate, they
also talked about choosing appropriate actions, in addition
to just controlling our attitudes.
In other words, there appear to be gaps in our fate – and
there you can have some influence.
For example, technically speaking, you cannot absolutely
control your grades, although you have considerable
influence over them.
Likewise, we do not control our destinies; we influence
them just enough so that we should do our best to behave
responsibly.

15. Some Things Are Not in Our
Control
According to Epictetus, “Not in our power are the body,
property, reputation, offices and in a word, whatever are
not our own acts.”
Once an individual realizes that how long he or she lives,
who likes or doesn’t like them, and their social status are
beyond their control, the individual can quit being fearful.
One can manage his or her health with moderation, but one
cannot be bitter if after watching his or her diet and
exercising daily, he or she develops cancer.
Bitterness will not get a person well. Bitterness, or envy,
or resentment are never one’s fate; they are always the
choice of the individual.

16. Some Things Are in Our
Control
However, writes Epictetus, “In our power are opinion,
movement towards a thing, desire, aversion; and in a word,
whatever are our own acts.”
What is in our power is our free will. We control our
feelings about things, because we control our thinking.
This frees us from depending on other people’s opinions of
us for our self-esteem or happiness.
We suffer to the extent that we take our lives personally.
So, our status, good fortunes, mishaps, and relationships
should be evaluated with the same disinterested
detachment that we would give to everything else.

17. Suffering and Courage
Stoicism is a “mature” philosophy in that its appeal seems
to increase with experience, that is, with frustration and
disappointment.
Growing up emotionally and philosophically involves
adopting realistic expectations and accepting one’s limits.
As Seneca says, “Prosperity can come to the vulgar and to
ordinary talents, but to triumph over adversity and the
disasters of mortal life is the privilege of the great man.”
So, while making reasonable efforts to get what we want,
it is wise to learn to be happy with what we get.

18. Stoicism Today
Today, Stoicism forms the basis of various cognitive
(rationalistic) psychological therapies.
Three of the most influential are:
William Glasser’s reality therapy.
Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive therapy.
Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy.

19. The Life of James Bond
Stockdale
What we know as the Enchiridion of
Epictetus can be a powerful consolation
and support to people undergoing the
severest trials.
James Bond Stockdale (1923-2005), a vice
admiral (retired) in the U.S. Navy, credited
the lessons of Epictetus with helping him
survive as a prisoner of war in North
Vietnam for over seven years, including
four in solitary confinement.
He was awarded the Congressional Medal
of Honor after his release.
Stockdale published an article titled “The
World of Epictetus” in 1978.

20. Discussion Questions
What do you think of James Stockdale’s claim that a good
philosophical education is highly practical?
Review his position and comments. What traits does he
have in common with Epictetus? Do you agree or disagree
that Stockdale is a Stoic?

21. Chapter Review:
Key Concepts and Thinkers
Stoicism Epictetus (c. 50 -130 C.E.).
Hedonism Aristippus (c. 430-350 B.C.E.)
Cyrenaic hedonism Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.)
Cynicism Zeno (c. 334-262 B.C.E.)
James Bond Stockdale (1923-
Cynic 2005)
Logos
Stoics
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C. E.)