Ch10

COMPUTER-BASED SUPPLY CHAIN
MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION
SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
10
CHAPTER PREVIEW

The success of many organizations, private, public, and military, depends on their
ability to manage the flow of materials, information, and money into, within, and
out of the organization. Such a flow is referred to as a supply chain. Because sup-
ply chains may be long and complex and may involve many different business
partners, we frequently see problems in the operation of the supply chains. These
problems may result in delays, in customers’ dissatisfaction, in lost sales, and in
high expenses of fixing the problems once they occur. World-class companies,
such as Dell Computer, attribute much of their success to effective supply chain
management (SCM), which is largely supported by IT.
In this chapter we describe the nature and types of supply chains and explain
why problems occur there. Then we outline the IT-based solutions, most of which
are provided by integrated software such as MRP and ERP. Next we show you
how EC can cure problems along the supply chain. Finally we describe the prob-
lems of fulfilling orders in e-commerce systems and some of the solutions used.

CHAPTER OUTLINE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
10.1 Supply Chains and Their Management 1. Understand the concept of the supply chain, its
10.2 Supply Chain Problems And Solutions importance, and its management.
10.3 IT Supply Chain Support and Systems Integration 2. Describe the various types of supply chains.
10.4 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 3. Describe the problems in managing supply chains.
10.5 E-Commerce And Supply Chain Management 4. Describe the major categories of supply chain
10.6 Order Fulfillment in E-Commerce solutions.
5. Explain the need for software integration and describe
the available software.
6. Explain how EC improves supply chain management.
7. Describe EC order-fulfillment problems and solutions.

HOW DELL MANAGES ITS SUPPLY CHAIN

www.dell.com The Business Problem
Michael Dell started his business as a student, from his university dorm, by using a
mail-order approach for selling PCs. This changed the manner by which PCs were
sold. The customer did not have to come to a store to buy a computer, and Dell was
able to customize the computer to the customer’s specifications. The direct-mail ap-
proach enabled Dell to underprice his rivals, who were using distributors and retail-
ers, by about 10 percent. For several years the business grew, and Dell constantly
captured market share. In 1993, Compaq, the PC market leader at that time, decided
to drastically cut prices in order to drive Dell out of the market. As a result of the
price war, Dell Computer Corporation had a $65 million loss from reduced sales and
inventory writedowns in the first six months of 1993 alone. The company was on the
verge of bankruptcy.
The IT Solution
Dell realized that the only way to win the marketing war was to introduce fundamen-
tal changes along the supply chain, from its suppliers all the way to its customers.
Among the innovations used to restructure the business were the following.
• Most orders from customers and to suppliers were moved to the Web. Customers
configure what they want, and find the cost and the deliverability in seconds, all on-
line.
• Dell builds most computers only after they are ordered. This is done by using just-
in-time manufacturing, which also enables quick deliveries, low inventories, little or
no obsolescence, and lower marketing and administrative costs. This is an example
of mass customization cited previously in the text.
• Component warehouses, which are maintained by Dell’s major suppliers, are lo-
cated within 15 minutes of Dell factories. Not only does Dell get components
quickly, but those components are up to 60 days newer than the ones acquired by
major competitors.
• Shipments, which are done by UPS and other carriers, are all arranged electroni-
cally.
• Dell collaborates electronically with its buyers to pick their brains for new product
ideas.
• Dell’s new PC models are tested at the same time as the networks that they are on
are tested. This collaboration reduces the testing period from 60 or 90 days to 15.
In addition to competing on price and quality, Dell started competing on speed.
Since 2000, if you order a customized PC on any working day in the United States, the
computer will be on the delivery truck the next day. A complex custom-made PC will
be delivered in no more than 5 days.
In 2001, Dell was selling more than $4 million worth of computers each day on its
Web site, and this amount was growing by 6 percent per month! In 1999, Dell added
electronic auctions (dellauction.com) as a marketing channel. Eventually, Dell is aim-
ing to sell most of its computers and servers from its Web site (dell.com).
In addition, Dell created customized home pages for its biggest corporate cus-
tomers, such as Eastman Chemical, Monsanto, and Wells Fargo. At these sites, cus-
tomers’ employees use configuration tools and work-flow software to design
computers, get the order approved inside the client organization, and place the order
quickly and easily. The electronic ordering by both larger and smaller customers

enables Dell to collect payments very quickly, even before it starts to assemble the
computers.
Once orders are received they are transferred electronically to the production
floor. Intelligent systems prepare the required parts and component list for each com-
puter, and check availability. If not in stock, components and parts are automatically
and electronically ordered directly from suppliers, who sometimes deliver in less than
60 minutes. Computerized manufacturing systems tightly link the entire demand and
supply chains from suppliers to buyers. This system is the foundation on which the
build-to-order strategy rests.
Dell also electronically passes along to its suppliers data about its defect rates, en-
gineering changes, and product enhancements. Since Dell and its suppliers are in con-
stant communication, the margin for error is reduced. Dell employees collaborate
electronically with business partners in real time on product designs and enhance-
ments. Also, suppliers are required to share sensitive information with Dell, such as
their own quality problems. Suppliers follow Dell’s lead because they also reap the
benefits of faster cycle times, reduced inventory, and improved forecasts.
Dell is using several other information technologies, including e-mail, EDI,
videoteleconferencing, electronic procurement, computerized faxes, an intranet, DSS,
a Web-based call center, and more. Dell also uses the Internet to create a community
around its supply chain. Dell’s corporate portal has links to bulletin boards where
partners from around the world can exchange information about their experiences
with Dell’s products, logistics, and customer service.
The Results
By 1999, Dell had become the world’s number-two PC seller, and in 2001 it became
number one. It is considered one of the world’s best-managed and most profitable
companies.
Sources: Compiled from articles in Business Week (1997–2001), Information Week (1998–2001), cio.com
(2001), and us.dell.com/dell/media.

What We Learned from This Case
The Dell case demonstrates that the new build-to-order business model changed the
manner in which business is done in the PC industry (and later, in the server industry).
To implement such a model on a large scale (mass customization), Dell built superb
supply chain management that includes both suppliers and customers. A major success
factor in Dell’s operation was the improvements made by using IT along the entire sup-
ply chain. Dell created flexible and responsive IT-based manufacturing systems that are
integrated with the supply chain. In addition, Dell is able to collect payment before it
starts to assemble computers, thus shortening the corporate cash flow. Dell successfully
implemented the concepts of supply chain management, enterprise resource planning,
supply chain intelligence, and customer-relationship management. The first three topics
are the subject of this chapter. (CRM is described in Chapter 8.)

10.1 SUPPLY CHAINS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Definitions and Benefits
Initially, the concept of a supply chain referred to the flow of materials from their
sources (suppliers) to the company, and then inside the company for processing. Then,
finished products were moved to customers. Today the concept is much broader.

320 Chapter 10 Computer-Based Supply Chain Management and Information Systems Integration

Definitions. A supply chain refers to the flow of materials, information, payments,
and services, from raw material suppliers, through factories and warehouses, to end
customers. A supply chain also includes the organizations and processes that create
and deliver products, information, and services to the end customers. It includes many
tasks such as purchasing, payment flow, materials handling, production planning and
control, logistics and warehousing inventory control, and distribution and delivery.
The function of supply chain management (SCM) is to plan, organize, coordinate, and
control all the supply chain’s activities.

Benefits. The goals of modern SCM are to reduce uncertainty and risks in the supply
chain, thereby positively affecting inventory levels, cycle time, business processes, and
customer service. All these benefits contribute to increased profitability and competi-
tiveness. The benefits of supply chain management have long been recognized both in
business and in the military. As early as 401 B.C., Clerchus of Sparta said, that the sur-
vival of the Greek army depended not only upon its discipline, training, and morale,
but also upon its supply chain. The same idea was later echoed by famous generals
such as Napoleon and Eisenhower.

The Components of Supply Chains
The term supply chain comes from a picture of how partnering organizations in a spe-
cific supply chain are linked together. Figure 10.1 shows a relatively simple supply
chain, which links a company with its suppliers (on the left) and its distributors and

Upstream Internal Downstream

Flow of
2nd-Tier Distributors
Information
Suppliers
1st-Tier
Suppliers
The Assembly/
2nd-Tier
Generic Manufacturing Retailers
Suppliers
Process and Packaging
1st-Tier Flow of
Suppliers Material
2nd-Tier
Suppliers Customer

Oil
Plastic
Refinery

Sheet Distributors
Metal
Shipping
Sheet Shipping
Metal Toys Toys
Retailers
Lumber Assembler/ Packaging
Company Manufacturer

Customer

Box
Pulp Paper
Makers,
Company Company
Printers

Figure 10.1 A linear supply chain.

Section 10.1 Supply Chains and Their Management 321

customers (on the right). The upper part of the figure shows a generic supply chain;
the lower part shows the chain of a toy manufacturer. Notice that suppliers may have
their own (second-tier) suppliers. In addition to flow of material there is a flow of in-
formation (shown only in the upper part of the figure) and money as well. The flow of
money usually goes in the direction opposite to the flow of materials.
Note that the supply chain is linear and it involves three basic parts:
1. Upstream supply chain. This part includes the organization’s first-tier suppliers
(which themselves can be manufacturers and/or assemblers) and their suppliers.
Such a relationship can be extended, to the left, in several tiers, all the way to the
origin of the material (e.g., mining ores, growing crops). Here the major activities
are purchasing and shipping.
2. Internal supply chain. This part includes all the processes used by an organization
in transforming the inputs shipped by the suppliers into outputs, from the time ma-
terials enter the organization to the time that the finished product goes to distribu-
tion, outside the organization. Activities here include materials handling, inventory
management, manufacturing, and quality control.
3. Downstream supply chain. This part includes all the processes involved in distrib-
uting and delivering the products to final customers. Looked at very broadly, the
supply chain actually ends when the product reaches its after-use disposal—pre-
sumably back to “Mother Earth” somewhere. Activities here include packaging,
warehousing, and shipping. These activities may be done by using several tiers of
distributors (e.g., wholesalers and retailers).
Supply chains come in all shapes and sizes and may be fairly complex, as shown in
Figure 10.2. As can be seen in the figure, the supply chain for a car manufacturer in-
cludes hundreds of suppliers, dozens of manufacturing plants (for parts) and assembly
plants (assembling cars), warehouses, dealers, direct business customers (buying
fleets), wholesalers (some of which are virtual), customers, and support functions such
as product engineering, purchasing agents, banks, and transportation companies.
Notice that in this case the chain is not strictly linear as it was in Figure 10.1. Here
we see some loops in the process. In addition, sometimes the flow of information and
even goods can be bidirectional, as it would be, for example, for the return of products
(known as reverse logistics). For an automaker, that would be cars returned to the
dealers in cases of defects or recalls by the manufacturer. Also notice that the supply
chain is much more than just physical. It includes both information and financial
flows. As a matter of fact, the supply chain of a service such as obtaining a mortgage
or a digitizable product may not include any physical materials. (See Problem-Solving
Activity 4 for an example.)

Types of Supply Chains
The supply chain shown in Figure 10.1 is typical for a manufacturing company. If the
company is a traditional one, it will produce items that will be stored in warehouses
and other locations, making the supply chain more complex. If the company uses a
make-to-order business model, there will be no need for storing finished products, but
there will be need to store raw materials and components. Therefore, it is clear that
supply chains depend on the nature of the company. The following four types are very
common.

Integrated make-to-stock. The integrated make-to-stock supply chain model focuses
on tracking customer demand in real time, so that the production process can restock
the finished-goods inventory efficiently. This integration is often achieved through use


Wholesalers

Organizational
Fleets
CARS CARS
Car Dealers

Assembly Material
Customers Allocated
Planning (19 plants)
buildable
Sales
orders
Operations Vehicle scheduling Shipping

New products Preproduction planning Assembly Line
and engineering
Product
changes
Engineering Components scheduling Warehousing

Ship Planning/sequencing
release Receiving

PARTS
PARTS
Manufacturing
Stampings
(57 plants)
Request
Ship releases
Engines Transmissions Castings to buy
and engineering
changes
Electrical/Fuel Components
Electronics PURCHASING
Handling Devices Group Request
to buy
Figure 10.2 An automo- Glass
Plastics/ Climate
Trim Products Controls
tive supply chain. (Source:
Modified from R. B. Hand- MATERIALS Suppliers
field and E. L. Nichols, Jr., (hundreds)

Introduction to Supply
Advance ship notice
Chain Management, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Engineering changes and
Hall, 1999.) ship releases

of an information system that is fully integrated (an enterprise system, described in
Section 10.4). Through application of such a system, the organization can receive real-
time demand information that can be used to develop and modify production plans
and schedules. This information is also integrated further down the supply chain to
the procurement function, so that the modified production plans and schedules can be
supported by input materials.

EXAMPLE
Starbucks matches supply and demand using IT. Starbucks Coffee (starbucks.com)
uses several distribution channels, not only selling coffee drinks to consumers, but
also selling beans and ground coffee to businesses such as airlines, supermarkets, de-
partment stores, and ice-cream makers. Sales are also done through direct mail, in-
cluding the Internet. Starbucks is successfully integrating all sources of demand and
matching it with the supply by using Oracle’s automated information system for man-
ufacturing (called GEMMS). The system does distribution planning, manufacturing
scheduling, and inventory control (using MRP). The coordination of supply with mul-
tiple distribution channels requires timely and accurate information flow about de-
mand, inventories, storage capacity, transportation scheduling, and more. The
information systems are critical in doing all the above with maximum effectiveness
and reasonable cost. Finally, Starbucks must work closely with hundreds of business
partners. ●

Section 10.1 Supply Chains and Their Management 323

Continuous replenishment. The idea of the continuous replenishment supply chain
model is to constantly replenish the inventory by working closely with suppliers
and/or intermediaries. However, if the replenishment process involves many ship-
ments, the cost may be too high, causing the supply chain to collapse. Therefore very
tight integration is needed between the order-fulﬁllment process and the production
process. Real-time information about demand changes is required in order for the
production process to maintain the desired replenishment schedules and levels. This
model is most applicable to environments with stable demand patterns, as is usually
the case with distribution of prescription medicine. The model requires intermediaries
when large systems are involved. Such a distribution channel is shown in Figure 10.3a,
for McKessen Co. (whose case is described in Section 10.5 in detail).

Build-to-order. Dell Computer (opening case) is best known for its application of
the build-to-order model. The concept behind the build-to-order supply chain model
is to begin assembly of the customer’s order almost immediately upon receipt of the
order. This requires careful management of the component inventories and delivery
of needed supplies along the supply chain. A solution to this potential inventory prob-
lem is to utilize many common components across several production lines and in sev-
eral locations.

McKesson

New
Material Retail
Pharmaceutical
Sources Business Pharmacies
Manufacturers
Customers
Distribution
Centers

McKesson
Physical Flow Distribution Customers
Flow of Information Centers
(a) Integrated pharmaceutical supply chain. (Flow of payments not shown.)

Suppliers

Transportation
Solectron Company
(FedEx, UPS)

Ingram Micro

Top of Form

Ingram MICRO
Front Section

Go

Product List
Bottom of Form

NEWS FAVORITES SETUP CENTER

Production Create New

EDIT PORTFOLIO
HELP
CUSTOMIZE REARRANGE PORTFOLIOS

NOW IS THE TIME FOR ALL GOOD MEN TO COME TO THE AIDE OF THEIR COUNTRY
QUOTE SEARCH ?

Figure 10.3 Types of
Ingram'sWeb-site
supply chains. (Source for
part b: R. Kalakota and
M. Robinson, E-Business
2.0, Reading, MA.,
Reseller/Customer Addison Wesley, 2000,
(b) Build-to-order supply chain with no inventory. p. 301, Fig. 9.10.)


One of the primary benefits of this type of supply chain model is the perception that
each customer is receiving a personalized product. In addition, the customer is receiving
it rapidly. This type of supply chain model supports the concept of mass customization.

Channel assembly. A slight modification to the build-to-order model is the channel
assembly supply chain model. In this model, the parts of the product are gathered and
assembled as the product moves through the distribution channel. This is accom-
plished through strategic alliances with third-party logistics (3PL) firms. These ser-
vices sometimes involve either physical assembly of a product at a 3PL facility or
collection of finished components for delivery to the customer. For example, a com-
puter company would have items such as the monitor shipped directly from its vendor
to a 3PL facility, such as at Federal Express and UPS. The customer’s computer order

‘s A b o u t B u s i n e s s lego.com MKT POM

10.1: Lego struggles with global issues
Lego Company of Denmark is a major producer of toys, • Invoicing must comply with the regulations of many
including electronic ones. In 1999, the company decided countries.
to market its Lego Mindstorms on the Internet. Mind- • Should Lego create a separate Web site for Mind-
storms’ users can build a Lego robot using more than 700
storms? What languages should be used there?
traditional Lego elements, program it on a PC, and
transfer the program to the robot. • Some countries have strict regulations regarding
Lego sells its products in many countries using sev- advertising and sales to children. Also laws on con-
eral regional distribution centers. When the decision to sumer protection vary among countries. How
do global e-commerce was made, the company had the would the company ensure compliance with these
following concerns: regulations and laws?
• Choice of countries. It did not make sense to go to all • How to handle restrictions on electronic transfer of
countries, since sales are very low in some countries individuals’ personal data.
and some countries offer no logistical support services. • How to handle the tax and import duty payments in
• A supportive distribution and service system would different countries.
be needed. In the rush to get its innovative product to mar-
• Merging the offline and online operations or creat- ket, Lego did not solve all of these issues before the
ing a new centralized unit seemed to be a complex direct marketing was introduced. The resulting prob-
undertaking. lems forced Lego to close the Web site for business. It
took almost a year to solve all global trade-related is-
• Existing warehouses were optimized to handle dis-
sues and eventually reopen the site. By 2001 Lego was
tribution to commercial buyers, not to the individ-
selling online many of its products, priced in U.S. dol-
ual customers who would be the buyers over the
lars, but the online service was available in only 15
Internet.
countries.
• It would be necessary to handle returns around the
Questions
globe.
• Lego products were selling in different countries in 1. Visit Lego’s Web site (lego.com). What are the
different currencies and at different prices. Should company’s latest EC activities?
the product be sold on the Net at a single price? In 2. Investigate what Lego’s competitors are doing.
which currency? How would this price be related to 3. Do you think the Web is the best way for Lego to
the offline prices? go global? Why or why not?
• The company would need a system to handle the di- 4. Contact Lego and find out how they will ship to
rect mail and track individual shipments. you. Draw the supply chain.

Section 10.2 Supply Chain Problems and Solutions 325

would therefore only come together once all items were placed on a vehicle for deliv-
ery. A channel assembly may have low or zero inventories, and it is popular in the
computer technology industry. An example is shown in Figure 10.3b with a large dis-
tributor, Ingram Micro, at the center of the supply chain.

Global Supply Chains
Supply chains that involve suppliers and/or customers in other countries are referred
to as global supply chains. The major reasons why companies go global in their supply
chains are: lower prices of materials, services, and labor; availability of products or
technology that are unavailable domestically; high quality of products available in
global markets; the firm’s global sales strategy; intensification of global competition,
which drives companies to cut costs; the need to develop a foreign presence; and ful-
fillment of counter trade. The introduction of e-commerce has made it much easier
and cheaper to find suppliers in other countries (e.g., by using electronic bidding) and
to reach many customers.
Global supply chains are usually longer than domestic ones, and they may be com-
plex. Therefore, additional uncertainties and problems are likely. Information tech-
nologies are extremely useful in supporting global supply chains. For example,
TradeNet in Singapore connects sellers, buyers, and government agencies via elec-
tronic data interchange (EDI). (TradeNet’s case is described in detail on the Web site
of this book.) A similar network, TradeLink, operates in Hong Kong, using both EDI
and EDI/Internet to connect thousands of trading partners. Some of the issues that
may create difficulties in global supply chains are legal issues, customs fees and taxes,
language and cultural differences, fast changes in currency exchange rates, and political
instabilities. An example of such difficulties can be seen in IT’s About Business 10.1.

Before you go on . . .

1. Define a supply chain and its management and benefits.
2. Describe the components of a supply chain.
3. Define reverse logistics.
4. Describe the major types of supply chains.
5. Describe a global supply chain and its difficulties.

10.2 SUPPLY CHAIN PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
A large number of problems may develop along supply chains. Here we demonstrate
the most recurrent ones.

Background
Supply chain problems have been recognized both in the military and in business op-
erations for generations. Some even caused armies to lose wars or companies to go
out of business. The problems are most evident in complex or long supply chains and
in cases where many business partners are involved. In the business world there are
numerous examples of companies that were unable to meet demand, had too large


and expensive inventories, and so on. On the other hand, some world-class companies
such as Wal-Mart, Federal Express, and Dell have superb supply chains with many in-
novative features.

EXAMPLE
Problems with “Santa’s 1999” supply chain. A recent example of a supply chain
problem was the difficulty of fulfilling orders received electronically for toys during
the 1999 holiday season. During the last months of 1999 online toy retailers, including
Amazon.com, and Toys ‘R’ Us, conducted a massive advertising campaign for Inter-
net ordering. This included $20–$30 discount vouchers for shopping online. The retail-
ers underestimated the overwhelming customer response and were unable to get the
necessary toys from the manufacturing plants and warehouses and deliver them to the
customers’ doors by Christmas Eve. As compensation, Toys ‘R’ Us offered each of its
unhappy customers a $100 store coupon. Despite its generous offer, over 40 percent of
the unhappy Toys ‘R’ Us customers said they would not shop online at Toys ‘R’ Us
again. ●
In the remaining portion of this section we will look closely at some of the major
problems in managing the supply chain and at some proposed solutions, many of
which are supported by IT.

Problems Along the Supply Chain
The problems along the supply chain stem mainly from two sources: (1) from uncer-
tainties, and (2) from the need to coordinate several activities, internal units, and busi-
ness partners.
A major source of supply chain uncertainties is the demand forecast, as demon-
strated by the Santa’s 1999 toy example. The demand forecast may be influenced by
several factors such as competition, prices, weather conditions, technological develop-
ment, and customers’ general level of confidence. Other supply chain uncertainties
are delivery times, which depend on many factors ranging from machine failures in
the production process to road conditions and traffic jams that interfere with ship-
ments. Quality problems with materials and parts may create production delays.
Coordination problems occur when a company’s departments are not well con-
nected, when messages to business partners are misunderstood or lost, and when par-
ties are not informed, are misinformed, or are informed too late on what is needed or
is occurring.
A major symptom of ineffective supply chain management is poor customer ser-
vice, which hinders people or businesses from getting products or services when and
where needed, or gives them poor-quality products. Other symptoms are high inven-
tory costs, loss of revenues, extra cost of expediting shipments, and more. One of the
most persistent SCM problems is known as the bullwhip effect.

The bullwhip effect. The bullwhip effect refers to erratic shifts in orders along the
supply chain. This effect was initially observed by Procter & Gamble (P&G) in con-
nection with its disposable diapers product (Pampers). Although actual sales in stores
were fairly stable and predictable, orders from wholesalers and distributors to P&G
(the manufacturer) had wild swings, creating production and inventory problems for
P&G. An investigation revealed that distributors’ orders were fluctuating because of
poor demand forecast and lack of coordination and trust among the supply chain part-
ners. If each distinct entity along the supply chain makes ordering and inventory deci-
sions with an eye to its own interests (fear of product outages) above those of the
chain, stockpiling may occur simultaneously at as many as seven or eight places across

Section 10.2 Supply Chain Problems and Solutions 327

the supply chain. Such stockpiling can lead in some cases to as many as 100 days of in-
ventory (instead of the usual 10 to 15 days)—inventory that is waiting, “just in case.”
Keeping such large inventory can be very expensive for supply chain partners, costing
as much as 24 percent of the value of the items stocked, each year.
The bullwhip effect is not unique to P&G. Firms ranging from Hewlett-Packard
in the computer industry to Bristol-Myers Squibb in the pharmaceutical field have ex-
perienced a similar phenomenon. A 1998 grocery industry study projected that simply
by sharing information, $30 billion in savings could materialize in the grocery industry
supply chains alone. To avoid the “sting of the bullwhip,” companies must share infor-
mation. Such sharing is facilitated by EDI, extranets, and groupware technologies,
and it is now part of collaborative commerce as it is done by P&G with its major cus-
tomers, as the following example shows.

EXAMPLE
Information sharing between two giants. One of the most notable examples of in-
formation sharing is between Procter and Gamble (P&G) and Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart
provides P&G access to sales information about every P&G product that Wal-Mart
sells. The information is collected electronically by P&G on a daily basis, from every
Wal-Mart store. By monitoring the inventory level of each P&G item in every store,
P&G knows when the inventories fall below the threshold that requires a shipment.
This way, P&G is able to manage the inventory replenishment for Wal-Mart. All this
is done electronically. The benefit for P&G is accurate demand information. P&G has
similar agreements with other major retailers. Thus, P&G can plan production more
accurately, avoiding some of the problem of the bullwhip effect. In fact, P&G imple-
mented a Web-based “Ultimate-Supply System,” which replaced 4,000 different EDI
links to suppliers and retailers in a more cost-effective way. ●
Other problems along the supply chain. Many other supply chain problems exist.
One major problem is known as phantom stockouts. Such a problem occurs when cus-
tomers are told that a product they want is not available, though in fact the product is
available (e.g., when the product is misplaced, or the count of in-stock is inaccurate).
According to Harvard Business Review (May 2001), phantom stockouts cut one com-
pany’s profitability by 25 percent.

Solutions to Supply Chain Problems
Over the years organizations have developed many solutions to supply chain problems.
One of the earliest solutions was vertical integration. For example, Henry Ford pur-
chased rubber plantations in South America in order to control tire production for his
cars. Today, many companies whose success depends on tight coordination of all the
parts use vertical integration. For example, Starbucks Coffee owns coffee-processing
plants, warehouses, and distribution systems, all tied together by software programs.
Undoubtedly, the most common solution used by companies is building invento-
ries as insurance against supply chain uncertainties. This way products and parts flow
smoothly through the production processes. The main problem with this approach is
that it is very difficult to correctly determine inventory levels for each product and
part. If inventory levels are set too high, the cost of keeping the inventory will be very
large. If the inventory is too low, there is no insurance against high demand or slow
delivery times, and revenues (and customers) may be lost. In either event the total
cost, including inventory holding cost and the cost of sales opportunities lost and bad
reputation, can be very high. Thus, companies make major attempts to control inven-
tory, usually with the aid of inventory control software or supply chain software that
includes inventory modules.


Manager’s Checklist 10.1

IT Solutions to Supply Chain Problems • Use outsourcing rather than do-it-yourself during demand peaks.
• Similarly, “buy” rather than “make” production inputs whenever
appropriate.
• Configure optimal shipping plans.
• Create strategic partnerships with suppliers.
• Use the just-in-time approach to purchasing, in which suppliers deliver small
quantities whenever supplies, materials, and parts are needed. (See the Dell
opening case.)
• Reduce the lead time for buying and selling.
• Use fewer suppliers.
• Improve supplier-buyer relationships.
• Manufacture only after orders are in, as Dell does with its custom-made
computers.
• Achieve accurate demand by working closely with suppliers to forecast
demand.

Effective supply chain and inventory management requires coordination of all ac-
tivities and links of the supply chain. Successful coordination enables materials and
goods to move smoothly and on time from suppliers to manufacturers to customers,
which enables firms to keep inventories low and costs down. For example, computer-
ized point-of-sale (POS) information can be transmitted once a day, or even in real
time, to distribution centers, suppliers, and shippers. This enables firms to achieve op-
timal inventory levels. Other solutions for solving SCM problems are provided in
Manager’s Checklist 10.1.
In conclusion, in today’s competitive business environment, the efficiency and ef-
fectiveness of supply chains in most organizations are critical for the organization’s
survival and are greatly dependent upon the supporting information systems. In the
next section, we will show you how IT is used to support supply chains.

1. Describe typical problems along the supply chain.
2. Define the bullwhip effect.
3. Describe some solutions to supply chain problems.

10.3 IT SUPPLY CHAIN SUPPORT AND SYSTEMS INTEGRATION

Effective solutions to supply chain problems have been provided by IT for decades.
Indeed, the concept of the supply chain is interrelated with the computerization of its
activities, which has evolved over 50 years. Some examples of how IT solves recurrent
supply chain problems are provided in Table 10.1. (Some of the supporting technolo-
gies mentioned in this table are described in Chapters 11 and 12.)

Section 10.3 IT Supply Chain Support and Systems Integration 329

Table 10.1 Some Supply Chain Problems and Their IT Solutions
Supply Chain Problem IT Solution
Linear sequence of processing is too slow. Parallel processing, using workflow software.
Waiting times between chain segments are excessive. Identify reason (using decision support software) and
expedite communication and collaboration (intranets,
groupware).
Existence of non-value-added activities. Value analysis (SCM software) , simulation software.
Slow delivery of paper documents. Electronic documents and communication system (e.g.,
EDI, e-mail).
Repeat process activities due to wrong shipments, poor Electronic verifications (software agents), automation,
quality, etc. eliminating human errors, electronic control systems.
Batching; accumulate work orders between supply SCM software analysis; digitize documents for online
chain processes to get economies of scale, delivery.
(e.g., save on delivery).
Learn about delays after they occur, or learn too late. Tracking systems, anticipate delays, trend analysis, early
detection (intelligent systems).
Excessive administrative controls such as approvals Parallel approvals (workflow), electronic approval system,
(signatures). Approvers are in different locations. analysis of need.
Lack of information, or too slow flow. Internet/intranet, software agents for monitoring and alert,
barcodes, direct flow from POS terminals.
Lack of synchronization of moving materials. Workflow and tracking systems, synchronization by
software agents.
Poor coordination, cooperation, and communication. Groupware products, constant monitoring, alerts,
collaboration tools.
Delays in shipments from warehouses. Use robots in warehouses, use warehouse management
software.
Redundancies in the supply chain. Too many purchasing Information sharing via the Web, creating teams of
orders, too much handling and packaging. collaborative partners supported by IT.
Obsolescence of parts and components that stay too Reducing inventory levels by information sharing internally
long in storage. and externally, using intranets and groupware.
Scheduling problems, manufacturing lack of control. Intelligent agents for B2B modeling (see gensym.com).

The Evolution of Computerized Aids
Historically, many of the supply chain activities were managed with paper transac-
tions, which can be very inefficient. Therefore, since the time when computers first
began to be used for business, people have wanted to automate the processes along
the supply chain. The first software programs, which appeared in the 1950s and early
1960s, supported short segments along the supply chain. Typical examples are inven-
tory management systems, production scheduling, and billing. The major objectives
were to reduce costs, expedite processing, and reduce errors. Such applications were
developed in the functional areas, independent of each other, and they became more
and more sophisticated with the passage of time. But it was difficult to combine them.
In a short time it became clear that interdependencies exist among some of the
supply chain activities. One early realization was that production schedule is related
to inventory management and purchasing plans. As early as the 1960s, the material


requirements planning (MRP) model was devised. This model essentially integrates
production, purchasing, and inventory management of interrelated products (see
Chapter 8). It became clear that computer support could greatly enhance the use of
this model, which may require daily updating. This resulted in commercial MRP soft-
ware packages coming on the market.
MRP packages were useful in many cases, and they are still in use today, helping
to drive inventory levels down and streamlining portions of the supply chain. How-
ever, some of the MRP applications failed. One of the major reasons for such failure
was that schedule-inventory-purchasing operations are closely related to both finan-
cial and labor resources, but were not included in the MRP packages. The realization
of this failure resulted in an enhanced MRP methodology and software called manu-
facturing resource planning (MRP II), which adds labor and financial planning to the
simpler MRP model.
This evolution continued, leading to the enterprise resource planning (ERP) con-
cept, which expanded MRP II to other activities in the entire enterprise. ERP was
confined initially to include internal suppliers and customers, but later it incorporated
external suppliers and customers in what is known as extended ERP software. (We
look at ERP again in more detail in Section 10.4.)
The above evolution of computerized integrated systems is shown in Figure 10.4.
The next step in this evolution, which is just beginning to make its way into business
use, is the inclusion of markets and communities. (See mySAP.com for details.)
Notice that throughout this evolution there have been more and more integra-
tions along several dimensions (more functional areas, combining transaction process-
ing and decision support, inclusion of business partners). The question is—why?

Why Systems Integration?
Creating the twenty-first century enterprise cannot be done effectively with twentieth-
century computer technology, which is functionally oriented. Functional systems may
not let different departments communicate with each other in the same language.
Worse yet, crucial sales, inventory, and production data often have to be painstak-
ingly entered manually into separate computer systems every time they need to be

Inventory
Production Production
1960 + MRP
Scheduling Managment
Purchasing

Major
Finance,
1970 MRP + MRP II Manufacturing
Labor
Resources

Coordinated
+ All Internal Manufacturing
1980 MRPII ERP
Resources and Service
Transactions

Internal Customers Internal
1990 ERP + Internal SCM
and Suppliers ERP/SCM

Internal External Suppliers Extended Extended
2000 +
ERP/SCM and Customers SCM ERP/SCM

Figure 10.4 The evolu-
tion of integrated systems. Time

Section 10.3 IT Supply Chain Support and Systems Integration 331

processed together. In many cases employees simply do not get the information they
need, or they get it too late.
The following are the major tangible and intangible benefits of systems integra-
tion (in order of importance):
• Tangible benefits: Inventory reduction, personnel reduction, productivity improve-
ment, order management improvement, financial-close cycle improvements, IT cost
reduction, procurement cost reduction, cash management improvements,
revenue/profit increases, transportation and logistics cost reduction, maintenance
reduction, and on-time delivery improvement.
• Intangible benefits: Information visibility, new/improved processes, customer re-
sponsiveness, standardization, flexibility, globalization, and business performance
Notice that in both types of benefits many items are directly related to improved sup-
ply chain management.

Supply Chain and Value Chain Integration
The integration of the links in the supply chain has been facilitated by the need to
streamline operations in order to meet customer demands in the areas of product and
service cost, quality, delivery, technology, and cycle time brought by increased global
competition. This requires flexibility of the integrated systems.

Types of integration: from supply to value and system chains. The most obvious in-
tegration is of the segments of the supply chain and/or of the information that flows
among the segments. But there is another type of integration, related to what are
called value chains. The term value chain (Chapter 13) describes the primary activities
of an organization (inboard logistics, operations, etc.), along with its support activities
(infrastructure, human resources, technology, etc.), and the net value that is added to
the organization’s product or service by each primary activity, sequentially.
Traditionally, we thought of the value chain in terms of one organization’s pri-
mary activities such as purchasing, transportation, warehousing, and logistics. How-
ever, when the value chain is extended to include suppliers, customers, and so forth, it
becomes a value system, or integrated value chain (Chapter 13). The integrated value
chain is a more encompassing concept. It is the process by which multiple enterprises
within a shared market channel collaboratively plan, implement, and manage (elec-
tronically as well as physically) the flow of goods, services, and information along
their entire joint chain in a manner that increases customer-perceived value (value
proposition). This process optimizes the efficiency of the chain, creating competitive
advantage for all stakeholders in their own value chains.
Another way of defining value chain integration is as a process of collaboration
that optimizes all internal and external activities involved in delivering greater per-
ceived value to the ultimate customer. A supply chain is transformed into an inte-
grated value chain when it:
• Extends the chain all the way from subsuppliers (tier 2, 3, etc.) to customers
• Integrates back-office operations with those of the front office
• Becomes highly customer-centric, focusing on demand generation and customer
service as well as demand fulfillment and logistics
• Is proactively designed by chain members to compete as an extended enterprise,
creating and enhancing customer-perceived value by means of cross-enterprise col-
laboration
• Seeks to optimize the value added by information and utility-enhancing services

‘s A b o u t B u s i n e s s POM MKT

10.2: How Warner-Lambert applies an integrated supply chain
One of Warner-Lambert’s major products is Listerine shared strategic plans, performance data, and market in-
antiseptic mouthwash (now a division of Pfizer). The ma- sight with Wal-Mart over private networks (see the fig-
terials for making Listerine come from eucalyptus trees in ure). The company realized that it could benefit from
Australia and are shipped to the Warner-Lambert (W-L) Wal-Mart’s market knowledge, just as Wal-Mart could
manufacturing plant in New Jersey, USA. The Listerine is benefit from W-L’s product knowledge. In CPFR, trad-
distributed by wholesalers and by thousands of retail ing partners collaborate on demand forecast. The project
stores, some of which are giants such as Wal-Mart. The includes major SCM and ERP vendors such as SAP and
problem that W-L faces is to forecast the overall demand Manugistics. During the CPFR pilot, W-L increased its
in order to determine how much Listerine to produce. A products’ shelf-fill rate—the extent to which a store’s
wrong forecast will result either in high inventories, or in shelves are fully stocked—from 87 percent to 98 percent,
shortages. Inventories are expensive to keep, and short- earning the company about $8 million a year in addi-
ages may result in loss of revenue and reputation. tional sales for much less investment. W-L is now using
Warner-Lambert forecasts demand with the help of the Internet to expand the CPFR program to all its sup-
Manugistic Inc.’s Demand Planning Information System. pliers and retail partners.
(Manugistic is a vendor of IT software for SCM.) Then Warner-Lambert is involved in another collabora-
the system analyzes manufacturing, distribution, and tive retail-industry project, the Supply-Chain Operations
sales data against expected demand and business climate Reference (SCOR), an initiative of the Supply-Chain
information. Its goal is to help W-L decide how much Council in the United States. SCOR divides supply chain
Listerine (and other products) to make and distribute operations into parts, giving manufacturers, suppliers,
and how much of each raw ingredient is needed, and distributors, and retailers a framework with which to
when. The sales and marketing group of W-L enters the evaluate the effectiveness of their processes along the
expected demand for Listerine into another SCM soft- same supply chains.
ware) which schedules the production of Listerine in the
amounts needed and generates electronic purchase or-
Questions
ders for W-L’s suppliers. 1. Can you identify other industries, besides retailing,
W-L’s supply chain excellence stems from the Col- for which a similar collaboration would be benefi-
laborative Planning, Forecasting, and Replenishment cial?
(CPFR) program. This is a retailing-industry project for 2. Why was Listerine a target for the pilot SCM col-
which piloting was done at W-L. In the pilot project W-L laboration?
A CPFR Wal-Mart Warner-Lambert (W-L)
project. In a pilot
project, Wal-Mart
has used the
CPFR to link up Operational ERP
System
with one of its
key suppliers,
Intranet

Warner-Lambert,
manufacturer of EDI
consumer prod-
ucts like Lister- Intranet
Data warehouse
ine. Through
CPFR work- SCM
benches (spread- Manufacturing
sheet-like Planning
Wal-Mart W-L
documents with RetailLink CPFR CPFR
ample space for Server Server
collaborative
comments), Wal- Sales data about
W-L Products
Mart buyers and
Warner-Lambert ? ?
Inventory Internet Review and
planners are able Plan Forecast Comments
to jointly develop
product forecasts. Planner Planner

Section 10.4 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 333

Presently only a few large companies are successfully involved in a comprehen-
sive collaboration to reengineer the value system. One such effort is described in IT’s
About Business 10.2, a case about Warner-Lambert, manufacturer of consumer prod-
ucts like Listerine.
Through CPFR workbenches (spreadsheet-like documents with ample space for
collaborative comments), Warner-Lambert (W-L) planners and buyers from Wal-
Mart, a giant buyer of W-L products, are able to jointly develop forecasts of overall
product demand. Such forecasts help guide W-L’s production planning for its manu-
facturing plants. This kind of collaboration is referred to as collaborative commerce
networks, a type of collaborative commerce (see Chapter 9).
Another example of supply chain integration is product development systems that
allow suppliers to dial into a client’s intranet, pull product specifications, and view illus-
trations and videos of a manufacturing process. Finally, one should distinguish between
integration inside a company (integrating the information systems of departments, con-
necting to database, connecting the ordering system to the back-end production activi-
ties), and interorganizational system integration (connecting systems of different
organizations).

1. Trace the evolution from MRP to ERP.
2. Describe the need for software integration.
3. Define value chain and value system.

10.4 ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP)
With the advance of enterprisewide client server computing comes a new challenge:
how to control all major business processes with a single software architecture in real
time. The integrated solution known as enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a
process of managing all resources and their use in the entire enterprise in a coordi-
nated manner. ERP’s major objective is to integrate all departments and functions
across a company onto a single information system that can serve all of the enter-
prise’s needs. For example, improved order entry allows immediate access to inven-
tory, product data, customer credit history, and prior order information. This
availability of information raises productivity, quality, and profitability, and it in-
creases customer satisfaction. The implementation of ERP is done by commercial
software available from companies such as SAP, Oracle, and PeopleSoft. An ERP im-
plementation is illustrated in IT’s About Business 10.3.
ERP software crosses functional department lines. It includes dozens of inte-
grated modules such as sales, procurement, inventory control, manufacturing schedul-
ing, accounts payable, accounts receivable, payroll, monthly financial statements, and
systems management. An ERP suite provides a single interface for managing all the
routine activities performed in manufacturing—from entering sales orders to coordi-
nating shipping and after-sales customer service. As of the late 1990s, ERP systems
have begun to be extended along the supply chain to suppliers and customers, incor-
porating functionality for customer interaction and for managing relationships with
suppliers and vendors.


‘s A b o u t B u s i n e s s colgate.com

10.3: Colgate-Palmolive uses ERP to smooth its supply chain
Colgate-Palmolive is the world leader in oral-care prod- pany to access more timely and accurate data, and re-
ucts (mouthwashes, toothpaste, and toothbrushes) and a duce costs (see figure at our Web site).
major supplier of personal-care products (baby care, de- An important factor for Colgate was whether it
odorants, shampoos, and soaps). In addition, the com- could use the ERP software across the entire spectrum
pany’s Hill’s Health Science Diet is a leading pet-food of the business. Colgate needed the ability to coordinate
brand worldwide. Foreign sales account for about 70 globally and act locally. Colgate’s U.S. division installed
percent of Colgate’s total revenues. SAP R/3 for this purpose (see description of SAP R/3 on
To stay competitive, Colgate continuously seeks to the book’s Web site).
streamline its supply chain, where thousands of suppliers
and customers interact with the company. At the same
time, Colgate faces the challenges of new-product accel- Questions
eration, which has been a factor in driving faster sales
1. Draw the supply chain of Colgate’s toothpaste.
growth and improved market share. Also, Colgate is de-
(To do so, you need to find how the product is
vising ways to offer consumers a greater choice of better
made and distributed.)
products at a lower cost to the company, which creates
complexities in the manufacturing and the supply chains. 2. What role does the ERP software play?
To better manage and coordinate its business, Colgate 3. What benefits can customers, like yourself, derive
embarked on an ERP implementation to allow the com- from the ERP?

But ERP was never meant to fully support supply chains. ERP solutions are cen-
tered around business transactions. As such, they do not provide the computerized de-
cision support needed to respond rapidly to real-time changes in supply, demand,
labor, or capacity. This deficiency has been overcome by the second generation of
ERP.

Second-Generation ERP
ERP has traditionally excelled in the ability to manage administrative activities like
payroll, inventory, and order processing. For example, an ERP system has the func-
tionality of electronic ordering or the best way to bill the customer—but all it does
is automate the transactions. The reports generated by ERP systems gave planners
statistics about what happened in the company, costs, and financial performance.
However, the planning systems with ERP were rudimentary. Reports from first-
generation ERP systems provided a snapshot of the business at a point in time. But
they did not support the continuous planning that is central to supply chain plan-
ning—planning that continues to refine and enhance the plan as changes and events
occur, up to the very last minute before executing the plan. First-generation ERP
systems did not support decision making either. To get such support for segments of
the supply chain, companies used standalone (unintegrated) supply chain manage-
ment (SCM) software.

SCM software. Planning systems oriented toward decision making were provided
by SCM software. To illustrate, consider how ERP and SCM approach an order-
processing problem. There is a fundamental difference: The question in SCM be-
comes “Should I take your order?” instead of the ERP approach of “How can I best
take or fulfill your order?” The following example demonstrates how SCM software
works.

Section 10.4 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 335

EXAMPLE

IBM links its global supply chain with SCM software. IBM reengineered its global
supply chain in order to achieve quick responsiveness to customers and to do so with
minimal inventory. To support this effort, it developed a supply chain analysis tool
called the Asset Management Tool (AMT). AMT integrates analytical performance
optimization, simulation, activity-based costing, graphical process modeling, and en-
terprise database connectivity into a system that allows quantitative analysis of ex-
tended supply chains. IBM has used AMT to study such issues as inventory budgets,
customer-service targets, and new-product introductions. The system was imple-
mented at a number of IBM business units and their supply chain partners. AMT ben-
efits include savings of over $750 million in material costs and reductions in
administrative expenses each year. ●
However, SCM solutions need to be coordinated, and they sometimes require in-
formation provided by ERP software. Therefore, it makes sense to integrate ERP and
SCM.

Integrating ERP and SCM. How is ERP/SCM integration done? One approach is to
work with different software products from different vendors. For example, a com-
pany might use SAP R/3 as an ERP and add to it Manugistics’ manufacturing-
oriented SCM software (as shown in the Warner-Lambert case). Such an approach,
which is known as the “best of breed” approach, requires fitting different softwares,
from different vendors, which may be a complex task unless special interfaces exist.

Table 10.2 Comparing SCM and SCI
Supply Chain Management (SCM) Supply Chain Intelligence (SCI)
Largely about managing the procurement Provides a broad view of an entire supply
and production links of the supply chain. chain to reveal full product and component
life cycle.
Transactional. Analytical.
Tactical decision making. Strategic decision making.
Helps reduce costs through improved Reveals opportunities for cost reduction,
operational efficiency. but also stimulates revenue growth.
Usually just the SCM application’s data Integrates supplier, manufacturing, and
(as a vertical stovepipe). product data (horizontal).
Records one state of data, representing Keeps a historic record.
“now”.
Assists in material and production planning. Does what-if forecasting based on historic
data.
Quantifies cost of some materials. Enables an understanding of total cost.
Shows today’s yield but cannot explain Drills into yield figures to reveal what
influences on it; thus provides no help for caused the performance level, so it can be
improvements. improved.
Simple reporting. Collaborative environment with personalized
monitoring of metrics.
Source: P. Russom, “Increasing Manufacturing Performance Through Supply Chain Intelligence,” DM Re-
view, (September 2000).


The second approach is for the ERP vendors to add SCM functionalities, such as
decision support and business intelligence capabilities. Business intelligence refers to
analysis performed by DSS, EIS, data mining, and intelligent systems (see Chapters
11 and 12). These added capabilities solve the integration problem. But as is the case
with integration of database management systems and spreadsheets in Excel, the re-
sult can be a product with some not-so-strong functionalities. However, most ERP
vendors are adding such functionalities for another reason: It is cheaper for the cus-
tomers. Packages with these added functionalities represent the second-generation
ERP, which includes not only decision support but also customer relationship man-
agement (CRM) (Chapter 8), e-commerce (Section 10.5), and data warehousing and
mining (Chapter 11). Some second-generation systems include a knowledge manage-
ment (Chapter 11) component as well.

Supply chain intelligence. The inclusion of business intelligence in supply chain
software solutions is referred to by some as supply chain intelligence (CSI). CSI ap-
plications enable strategic decision making by analyzing data along the entire supply
chain. To better understand CSI, it is worthwhile to compare it with SCM, as shown
in Table 10.2.


1. Deﬁne ERP and its functionalities.
2. Describe SCM software.
3. Describe the second-generation ERP (integrated ERP/SCM).
4. What is supply chain intelligence?

10.5 E-COMMERCE AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
E-commerce is emerging as a superb approach for providing solutions to problems
along the supply chain. As seen in the Dell example at the beginning of the chapter,
many supply chain activities, from taking customers’ orders to parts procurement, can
be conducted as EC initiatives.

EC Activities Along the Supply Chain
A major role of EC is to facilitate buying, selling, and collaborating along the supply
chain. Here we describe the types of EC activities along the supply chain.

Upstream activities. Several innovative EC models can improve the upstream sup-
ply chain activities. These models are described generally as e-procurement. Three are
presented in Chapter 9: reverse auctions, aggregation of vendors’ catalogs at the
buyer’s site, and procurement via consortia and group purchasing.

Internal SCM activities. Internal SCM activities include different intrabusiness EC
activities. These activities range from entering orders of materials, to streamlining
production, to recording sales, to tracking shipments. They are usually conducted over
a corporate intranet. Details and examples are provided in Chapters 8 and 9.

Section 10.5 E-Commerce and Supply Chain Management 337

Downstream activities. Typical EC downstream activities are related to online selling
as described in Chapters 8 and 9. Two popular models of downstream activities follow.

Selling on your own Web site. Large companies such as Intel, Cisco, and IBM use this
model. At the company’s own Web site, buyers review electronic catalogs from which
they buy. Large buyers are provided with their own Web pages and customized catalogs.

Auctions. Large companies such as Dell conduct auctions of products or obsolete
equipment on their Web sites. Electronic auctions can shorten cycle time and the sup-
ply chain and save on logistics and administrative expenses. One online auctioneer,
for example, is Autodaq (autodaq.com). The buyers are car dealers who then resell
the used cars (the transaction is B2B2C). Traditional car auctions are done on large
lots, where the cars are displayed and physically auctioned. In the electronic auction,
the autos do not need to be transported to a physical auction site, nor do buyers have
to travel to an auction site. Savings of $500 per car can be realized.

Exchanges. Considerable support to B2B supply chains can be provided by elec-
tronic exchanges (Chapter 9). Such exchanges are shown in Figure 10.5. Notice that in
this example there are three separate exchanges. In other cases there may be only one
exchange for the entire industry.

Restructuring the Supply Chain
E-commerce can introduce structural changes in the supply chain. For example, the
creation of electronic markets drastically changes order processing and fulﬁllment. In
many cases, linear supply chains are changed to hubs, as shown in the case of ORBIS
Corp. in IT’s About Business 10.4.

Finanacial
Market
Plan Banks
Wholesale
Distributors
Retailers

Suppliers
Manufacturers

Supplier Customer
Logistics
Oriented Oriented
Exchanges
Exchanges Exchanges

Customers
Virtual
Manufacturers
Contract Returned Items
Manufacturers
Logistics
Providers

Information Flows
Goods Flow

Figure 10.5 Web-based supply chain involving exchanges.


‘s A b o u t B u s i n e s s productbank.com.au

10.4 Orbis changes a linear physical supply chain to an electronic hub

Supplier Ad Scanning Digital
Retailer Courier Catalog
(Sony) Agency House Image
ORBIS.

Orbis Corp. is a small Australian company that provides With the new system, manufacturers send digitized
Internet and EC services. One of its services is called photos to Orbis, and Orbis enters and organizes the pho-
ProductBank (productbank.com.au). This service revo- tos in a database. When retailers need pictures, they can
lutionized the flow of information and products in the view online the images in the database and decide which
B2B advertising field. In order to understand how the they want to include in their catalog. The retailers com-
service works, let’s look at how a retail catalog or municate electronically with their ad agency about what
brochure is put together. A catalog shows pictures of images they want to include in their catalogs. The ad
many products. These pictures are obtained from manu- agency makes suggestions and works on the design of
facturers such as Sony or Nokia. The traditional process the catalog. Once the design is complete, the catalog can
is linear, as shown in the figure. be downloaded by the printer. The transaction cost per
The traditional process works like this: When retail- picture (usually paid by the manufacturer) is 30 to 40
ers need a photo of a product they contact the manufac- percent lower, and the cycle time is 50 to 70 percent
turers, who send the photos via a courier to an ad shorter than in the traditional catalog production
agency. The ad agency decides, in cooperation with the method.
retailer, which photos to use and how to present them.
The ad agency then rushes the photos to be scanned and
converted into digital images, which are transferred to Questions
the printer. The cycle time for each photo is 4 to 6 weeks, 1. Identify the benefits to the supply chain partici-
and the total transaction cost of preparing one picture pants.
for the catalog is about $150 AU.
2. Where does the cost reduction come from?
ProductBank simplifies this lengthy process. It has
centralized the entire process by changing the linear flow 3. Where does the cycle time reduction come from?
of products and information to a digitized hub as shown 4. Explain the benefits of electronic collaboration be-
in the figure. tween the catalog owners and the ad agency.

Printer

Sony

Retailer 1

Nokia
Product-
bank.com Retailer 2
Hub
Other

Other

Other

Ad Agency 1 Ad Agency 2

Section 10.5 E-Commerce and Supply Chain Management 339

Integration of EC with ERP
Since many middle-sized and large companies already have an ERP system, and since
e-commerce needs to interface with ERP, it makes sense to integrate the two. For ex-
ample, SAP started building some EC interfaces in 1997, and in 1999 introduced
mySAP.com as a major initiative. The mySAP initiative is a multifaceted Internet
product that includes EC, online trading sites, an information portal, application host-
ing, and user-friendly graphical interfaces.
The logic behind integrating EC and ERP is that by extending the existing ERP
system to support e-commerce, organizations not only leverage their investment in
the ERP solution, but also speed up the development of EC applications. The prob-
lem with this approach is that the ERP software is very complex and inflexible (diffi-
cult to change), so it is difficult to achieve easy, smooth, and effective integration. One
other potential problem is that ERP systems tend to focus on back-office (administra-
tive) applications, whereas EC focuses on front-office applications such as sales and
order taking, customer service, and other customer relationship management (CRM)
activities. Ideally, one should attempt to achieve tight integration along the entire sup-
ply chain as done by McKesson, described in IT’s About Business 10.5.

‘s A b o u t B u s i n e s s mckesson.com

10.5: How McKesson integrates the pharmaceutical supply chain
McKesson Drug Company is the largest U.S. distributor tion of the bullwhip effect discussed earlier. On the up-
of pharmaceuticals, healthcare products, medical sup- stream side, McKesson uses e-procurement with its
plies, and related products (mckesson.com). It is posi- major suppliers. It also collaborates with them electroni-
tioned between manufacturers and retailers and other cally on demand forecasts by product. Finally, McKesson
business customers, such as hospitals. Its supply chain is uses an eleborate intrabusiness e-commerce system be-
shown in Figure 10.3a. tween its headquarters, the distribution centers, and the
With annual sales of over $22 billion and close to transportation units (company owned and outsourced).
40,000 business customers, who generate over 2,000,000 All documentation flows electronically in the system.
purchasing orders every month, for thousands of products, Also, warehouse management and order pick-ups are
the supply chain and its management are rather complex. computerized to minimize pickers’ efforts.
Effectiveness and efficiency, which are needed for The benefits to McKesson of its integration of the
survival, can be achieved only with a tight integration with supply chain include rapid, reliable, and cost-effective
both the major customers and the suppliers. To enable customer order processing. Sales personnel are no
such integration with its major customers (such as CVS longer primarily order takers; they can do proactive mar-
drug chain and Rite Aid), McKesson assumed the respon- keting. Purchasing from suppliers has been reorganized
sibility of monitoring and replenishing the inventory of its to tightly match actual sales, and productivity of the
major products at the store level. In other cases, virtually warehouse staff has been significantly increased. Finally,
all purchasing orders are submitted to McKesson elec- customers are more loyal to McKesson because of the
tronically. Once submitted, orders are organized by re- benefits they enjoy.
gion and stored on a mainframe. Regional distribution
centers pull the orders daily and make the necessary deliv- Questions
eries. In addition, all payments are made online.
1. Enter mckesson.com and identify any new supply-
McKesson provides its business customers with
chain related initiatives.
Web-based up-to-date sales data, by product and by
store, enabling the customers to make better marketing, 2. Identify the B2B2C activities used by McKesson.
promotions, inventory, and pricing decisions. The tight 3. In theory, manufacturers can sell direct to retail-
software integration with the customers on the down- ers, eliminating McKesson. Explain McKesson’s
stream side of the supply chain enables better demand strategy to protect itself. Is the company likely to
forecast, which results in lower inventories and elimina- be successful? Why or why not?

Ch10

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