Bridgewater Treatises

1. Maria G. Mandourari
BRIDGEWATER
TREATISES

2. Bridgewater Treatises on the Power,
Wisdom and Goodness of God as
Manifested in the Creation (1833—1836)
Eighth Earl of Bridgewater, the Rev.
Francis Henry Egerton (1756-1829)
 Seven leading men of science
 One prominent theological commentator

3. The Treatises
Treatise I, by Thomas Chalmers:
The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and
Intellectual Constitution of Man. 2 vols.
Treatise II, by John Kidd:
On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man.
Treatise III, by William Whewell:
On Astronomy and General Physics.
Treatise IV, by Charles Bell:
The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as
Evincing Design.

4. Treatise V, by Peter Mark Roget:
Animal and Vegetable Physiology Considered with Reference to
Natural Theology. 2 vols.
Treatise VI, by William Buckland:
Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural
Theology. 2 vols.
Treatise VII, by William Kirby:
On the History Habits and Instincts of Animals. 2 vols.
Treatise VIII, by William Prout:
Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion.

5. Extraordinary contemporary
interest & ―celebrity‖
 unprecedented sales
 widespread reviewing

6. 1837: Charles Babbage's ((26 December 1791 –
18 October 1871) was an English polymath. He
was a mathematician, philosopher, inventor and
mechanical engineer, who is best remembered
now for originating the concept of a
programmable computer
Ninth Bridgewater Treatise

7. 1882: William Stanley Jevons (1
September 1835 – 13 August 1882) was a
British economist and logician.
unofficial Bridgewater Treatise

8. 1835: Lord Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham
and Vaux (19 September 1778 – 7 May 1868)
was a British statesman who became Lord
Chancellor of Great Britain
Discourse of Natural Theology

9. A). Presented the pious middle classes:
 nontechnical
 religiously conservative compendium of
contemporary science

10. B). Written:
Scientific and religious credentials
(e.g. the President of the Royal Society and
the Archbishop of Canterbury)

11. J. D. Yule:
few commentators regarded it as being
primarily a contribution to demonstrative
natural theology, or to formal apologetics

12. The Results of the bequest
 The publication of a scientific
encyclopaedia
Successful in presenting a science
acceptable to many middle-class readers
Formed an important part of the
pedagogic apparatus of those engaged in
popular education

13. THE BRIDGEWATER TREATISES AS POPULAR
LITERATURE
Sir Charles Bell (12 November 1774 – 28 April 1842) was a
Scottish surgeon, anatomist, neurologist and
philosophical theologian.
Treatise IV:
The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design.

14. Peter Mark Roget (18 January 1779 – 12 September
1869) was a British physician, natural theologian and
lexicographer. He is best known for publishing, in 1852,
the Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (Roget's
Thesaurus), a classified collection of related words.
Treatise V:
Animal and Vegetable Physiology Considered with
Reference to Natural Theology. 2 vols.

15.  1826
 founding members of the SDUK (The Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, founded
in 1826, and wound up in 1848, was a Whiggish
London organisation that published
inexpensive texts intended to adapt scientific
and similarly high-minded material for the
rapidly expanding reading public. It was
established mainly at the instigation of Lord
Brougham with the objects of publishing
information to people who were unable to
obtain formal teaching, or who preferred self-
education).
 scientific treatises for the Society's Library of
Useful Knowledge (1827—46)

16. The Rev. Thomas Chalmers (17 March 1780 – 31 May 1847),
was a Scottish minister, professor of theology, political
economist, and a leader of the Church of Scotland and of the
Free Church of Scotland. He has been called "Scotland's
greatest nineteenth-century churchman". He served as Vice-
president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh from 1835-42
Treatise I:
The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual
Constitution of Man

17. Theoretical problem of pauperism in his
Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns
(1821-1826)
 The practical problems facing the urban poor
(in Glasgow and then in the West Port in
Edinburgh)
Social management of the working classes
depended crucially on the effects of Christian
and scientific education

18. The Bridgewater Treatises were not
expensive when considered as
philosophical works
but their prices were prohibitive for the
working-class readers and for the petit
bourgeoisie
This was a source of great dissatisfaction to
many commentators (e.g. in Quarterly Review
& Unitarian Christian Reformer)

19. Why the Bridgewater
bequest was so widely
interpreted as an
opportunity to publish a
cheap and educational
treatise of scientific natural
theology?

20. The age of the
cheap literature
Quarterly Review
in which literacy was
on the increase
Unitarian
Christian Reformer

21.  opportunity to publish an 'ennobling'
scientific series which was sufficiently
cheap to compete with street literature
 Commentators: how the Bridgewater
bequest might have been better managed
to meet educational criteria

22. BROUGHAMITE EDUCATION
Set the pace of early nineteenth-century
education:
 Pioneering several new educational media
mechanics'
institutes
immediately after
1823

23.  The movement was not centrally
co-ordinated
 The bourgeois patrons and
managers shared some elements of
the educational philosophy
elaborated in Henry Brougham's
Practical Observations on the
Education of the People (1825)

24. 1826: The Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge (SDUK):
important support for the mechanics' institutes,
including much-needed cheap literature
Science formed the paradigm of Broughamite
educational practice, both in the institutes and in the
SDUK.

25. Why science was
particularly appropriate for
working-class education?
According to Henry Brougham's Objects,
Advantages and Pleasures of Science
(1827)

26. I. A scientific education helps a
man 'to provide for his daily
wants', not merely by increasing
his skills, but also by inculcating
'habits of regular labour'

27. II. ‗It enables men to make
improvements in the arts, and
discoveries in philosophy, which
may directly benefit themselves and
mankind'.

28. III.The abstract pleasure of discovery,
which is associated with the
advantage of becoming 'a wiser and
therefore a more exalted creature'.

29. IV. ‗The highest of all our gratifications
in the contemplation of science' is
that 'we are raised by them to an
understanding of the infinite wisdom
and goodness which the Creator has
displayed in his works'.

30. Natural theology
• Broughamite educationalists: the teaching
of science could only strengthen the cause of
religion
•Natural theology was potentially
controversial within the SDUK

31. scientific education
Manage the working classes by the power of highly
objectified natural science.
Many Broughamites had faith in the controlling
power of science.
If the working classes were given a scientific
education, they would become peacable,
respectable and diligent.
The Bridgewater Treatises were well-suited to the
educational programme of the more moderate
Broughamites

32. Important Broughamite criteria:
1. Authoritative
2. Systematic
3. Contemporary
4. Readable
5. No concessions to the revolutionary
underworld

33. The Broughamite concern with safe
science was explicit.
The Treatises: valuable, independently of
the theological argument
The objective scientific credentials of the
Treatises reconciled their natural theology
with the Society's policy

34. The mechanics'
institutes

35. Three main categories:
1) Lectures
2)Classes
3) Libraries

36. Lectures & Classes
might be dispensed with in smaller
institutes
Libraries
Indispensable

37. Establishment and maintenance
of a library:
the most expensive
often the main attraction
 a major source of recruitment

38. Institute libraries:
 Disagreements over educational
philosophy
 Dominated by books which were
not chosen by either educationalists
or members

39. •Manual for Mechanics' Institutes
•1839
• London barrister, Baldwin Francis Duppa
• Detailed advice about their foundation and
management
•500 books which were considered desirable
for inclusion in institute libraries

40. The recommended books:
o The Bridgewater Treatises of Whewell, Bell,
Roget and Buckland
o Six works of formal natural theology in the SDUK
oNo section for religious or theological books
o The works were classified under the heading
'Moral and Political Philosophy - Metaphysics —
Law'.

41. The Bridgewater Treatises were
widely dominants in mechanics'
institutes libraries
Almost complete absence of the series
from working-class libraries
established by churches and chapels

42. High Prices
Treatises could not have been
acquired casually

43. Burnley and Keighley: more of the
Bridgewater Treatises than the
institute at Lancaster.
Even the most proletarian institutes
had to show caution in order to gain
necessary middle-class patronage

44. lecturers & Bridgewater
Treatises
Dr Lloyd who discussed Buckland's
Bridgewater Treatise at length in the
series of six lectures he gave before
Leamington Mechanics' Institute in
1837

45. George Birkbeck, to whom William
Whewell had sent a copy of his
Bridgewater Treatise intended for
the London Mechanics' Institute

46.  Bridgewater Treatises were the
textbooks to which lecturers directed
their pupils for further study.
 Probably used in some of the classes,
especially since these were often run
in tandem with lecture-courses

47. The Library of Useful Knowledge
(1827-1846)
SDUK:
i. New cheap publication media further its
programme of popular scientific education
ii. First publishing project: the Library of Useful
Knowledge (LUK)

48. Library of Useful Knowledge:
 Earliest truly popular ventures in
scientific educational publishing
 Considerable attention from
historians
 No treatise 'contain any matter of
controversial Divinity or interfere with
the principles of revealed religion'

49. Peter Mark Roget Sir Charles Bell
wrote treatises for the LUK

50. Roget:
Electricity‘ (1827)
‗‗Galvanism‘ (1829)
 ‗Magnetism and Electromagnetism‘ (1831)
 subjects very different from those covered in his
Bridgewater Treatise
 Highly praised, and sold many thousands of
copies

51. Charles Bell's:
 ‗Animal Mechanics‘, or, ‗Proofs of
Design in the Animal Frame‘ (1827-
29)
 Lucid: less incomprehensible
biological sciences

52.  First part of the LUK treatise,
(August 1827): mechanism &
functionalist anatomy
 Second part (February 1829):
―showing the application of living
forces‖
 Paley‘s strictly mechanical
natural theology of Paley
 Vital phenomena

53. The Penny Magazine (1832-1845) and the Penny
Cyclopaedia (1833-1846)
•Penny Magazine: other ‘useful knowledge’
miscellanies attempted to imitate.
•The Penny Cyclopaedia in weekly numbers
ultimately filled twenty nine (29)

54. • Volumes and was edited by George
Long, one of the compilers of the
book-list in the SDUK Manual.
• A number of extracts from the
Bridgewater Treatises: avoided
theological references and related
entirely to the scientific exposition of
the Treatise in question.

55. Natural theological books with sufficient
scientific credibility
 Provided:
1. Working epitome of contemporary science
2. Uncorrupted by radical ideas
3. Set out in a relatively systematic and
introductory form
4. Imprimatur of the Archbishop of
Canterbury: opponents would view the
Bridgewater Treatises as an indication of
its wholesomeness

56. HIGH CHURCH EDUCATION
• Religious tract produced by the SPCK.
•One of the Committee's first publications was the
weekly Saturday Magazine (1832—1844)
•Primary object of the Saturday Magazine: replace
revolutionary politics of the radical press and the
equally revolutionary secular 'useful knowledge'
of the Penny Magazine

57. Bridgewater Treatises:
oAttractive to the Society
oExposition of a science which reinforce the
High Church ideology

58. EVANGELICAL EDUCATION
•Chalmers: use of natural theology
convince skeptics of the being of God
•Natural theology: reduces the need of grace
• Bridgewater Treatises: combined entertaining and
useful knowledge with ennobling sentiments

59. Bridgewater Treatises:
 Publish safe science
 Oppose the doctrines of infidel science
 Served:
Theological
General Educational
functions
providing safe science

60. Conclusion
• Much too expensive for working-class readers to buy
• Readership was increased through the efforts of paternalist
educators
• Workers could read the Treatises in mechanics' institutes,
such libraries
• Could hear them in lectures and classes
• could also read extensive extracts from them in various
'useful knowledge' miscellanies

61. •None of these media was used mainly
by the working classes
•Treatises were far more widespread in
popular education than has been
appreciated
• Unique among the natural theology
literature
• Provided science: culturally
appropriate to a wide range of
paternalist educators

62. Nineteenth century is the Premier Age of British Public
Science
The importance of science
Legitimation of science
Many disciplines began to professionalize
Science in the public sphere
Science and civic arena
Science and educational system
Science and religion
Common language and a shared forum
 Journals and periodicals in public science
communication

63. References List
• G. E. M. Anscombe, (1958), ‗Modern Moral
Philosophy‘ in Philosophy, Vol. 33, No. 124, pp. 12
• Bailey, Edward (1962). Charles Lyell. Nelson, London
• Birkbeck to Whewell, (1833), Trinity College,
Cambridge, Add. Ms. a.20131
• Chester W. New (1961).The life of Henry Brougham
To 1830, Oxford at the Clarendon Press
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Clifford, William
Kingdon". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press
• Encyclopædia Britannica Online,
http://www.britannica.com/

64. • David Knight, (2004), ‗Davy, Sir Humphry, baronet
(1778–1829)‘, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press
• Donald K. McKim; David F. Wright (1992).
Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Westminster
John Knox Press. p. 61
• A. D. Morrison-Low Brewster, (2004), Sir David
(1781–1868), natural philosopher and academic
administrator. Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press
• Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004)
Biography of John Tyndall by W. M. Brock
• N. A. Rupke, (1983), The Great Chain of History:
William Buckland and the English School of
Geology (1814—1849), Oxford, p.20

65. • The Bridgewater Treatises On the Power Wisdom
and Goodness of God As Manifested in the
Creation, Added by John van Wyhe, Fellow,
National University of Singapore; Researcher,
History & philosophy of science, Cambridge
University in the Victoria Web Organisation,
http://www.victorianweb.org/science/bridgewat
er.html
• Isaac Todhunter, (1876), William Whewell: An
Account of his Writings, with selection from his
literary and scientific correspondence, London:
Macmillan, (volume 1, volume 2)
• Jonathan Topham (1992). Science and popular
education in the 1830s: the role of the
Bridgewater Treatises. The British Journal for the
History of Science, 25, pp 397-430

66. • Frank M. Turner, (1980), Public Science in Britain,
1880-1919, The University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science Society Stable, Isis, Vol. 71,
No. 4, pp. 589-608
• Terence Whalen (1999). Edgar Allan Poe and the
masses: the political economy of literature in
antebellum America. Princeton University Press. p.
254
• Photos by Wikimedia Commons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
• R Yeo, (1993), Defining science: William Whewell,
natural knowledge and public debate in early
Victorian Britain, pp. 77-115
• J. D. Yule, (1976), 'The impact of Science on British
Religious Thought in the Second Quarter of the
Nineteenth Century', Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Cambridge, (BLLD Accession No. D17081/76), 189n.