Table Wines: Definition, Manufacturing process, wine Laws, Countries & Regions...

1. TABLE WINES
DEFINITION____________________________________
Table wines are also called Still Wines and form the largest category. These are natural
wines and are the result of fermentation of grape juice with little or no addition of other
substances. These are made without any diversions from natural processes. These
wines may be red, pink or white in colour. Their alcoholic content varies between 8 –
15% by volume, more usually between 10 – 13% by volume. For example: Medoc,
Beaujolais, Hock, Moselle, Alsace etc
MAKING A TABLE WINE (RED, ROSE & WHITE)______
The winemaking process starts as soon as possible, after the harvest. Each vigneron
makes wine in his own particular way in his own district, usually following the fashion of
his forefathers. Also referred to as Vinification, the steps involved are:
(i) Grading, Weighing & Destalking: Refractometer is an instrument used to access
the sugar content of the must before the start of vintage. For this, a grape is crushed
into its end, which is then held to the eye and pointed towards the sun. If the grapes are
ready for harvest the scale inside the eyepiece will indicate this by showing the sugar
level. If the scale shows a low level the harvest will be delayed. The amount of potential
alcohol can thus be measured using a refractometer.
After harvesting, grapes are graded according to quality. They are weighed to determine
the quantity required for fermentation. Furthermore, the stalks are removed using a
destalking machine, which is called in French as “foulloir-egrappoire”. Thus, the
resulting wine will be low in tannin and thus mature quickly, at the same time relatively
decreasing its staying power. Such wines are made to be drunk young.
(ii) Crushing (Pressing): Juice (called must) is extracted from grapes by crushing it
with feet (troddening) traditionally in some regions or pressing it with mechanical
presses.
Hydraulic and Archimedean screw presses are popular in some regions, while other use
the revolving cylinder or the pneumatic bar press. The pneumatic bar press is like a
large balloon inside a cylinder. The balloon is placed amongst the grapes and then
inflated, forcing the juice out through the slatted side.
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2. The specific gravity of the must is measured with the help of a hydrometer, which
indicates the sugar content and thus the alcoholic content. This procedure is necessary,
as there are laws in most countries, which specify the minimum alcoholic strength of
wines. These laws may allow the wine-maker to add small quantities of sugar should
the must show insufficient alcohol potential. This process of enrichment is called
'Chaptalization’. At this 'crushing' stage if red wine has to be made, the skins of red
grapes are allowed to come in contact with the juice (approximately 10 to 30 days),
which gets the colour from the skin. In the case of white wines made from red grapes,
the skin is separated immediately. In case if it is made from white grapes, the must may
or may not be left with skins. Rose wines are made by allowing the skins of red grapes
to come in contact for a short while with the juice to get the desired pink colour
(approximately one day).
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3. (iii) Sulphuring: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is added fairly early in the fermentation process
to prevent air from oxidising the juice and converting the alcohol into vinegar. The air
has bacteria, principally “acetobacter” which is 'aerobic' i.e. it is alive in the presence of
oxygen. These acetobacters can convert alcohol into vinegar. Sulphur dioxide, being
hungry for oxygen, takes up the oxygen from the must to let the wine yeast, which is
anaerobic (able to work in the absence of oxygen) to convert the grape sugar into
alcohol. Sulphur dioxide also forms a coating on the surface of the juice to prevent the
air from entering the juice and thereby letting the wine yeast to do its work.
(iv) Fermentation: Fermentation is the process of adding wine yeast to must to convert
the natural sugar present into ethyl alcohol. In this process, carbon dioxide is released
making fermentation violent at first and then slow. The yeast added is 3% to 5% of the
volume of must. Fermentation, once started should be continous and complete, though
it can be artificially stopped for a specific style of wine. Being an exothermic reaction,
fermentation causes a rise in temperature and hence care is taken to keep the
temperature within controlled limits (i.e between 5°C to 35°C) or else the activity of the
yeast will stall or stop altogether. Incomplete fermentations are a problem and may be
due to too high or too low a fermenting temperature or to the use of poor quality grapes
or even to the use of inferior yeasts with a low alcohol tolerance. Ideally, white wines
are fermented slowly and coolly between the temperature of 15°C and 20°C to impart
delicacy and fragrance. Red wines are fermented more quickly and at a higher
temperature between 25°C and 30°C that helps to extract colour and body for the wine.
Modern wine-makers favour a slow, cool fermentation as they consider it helps to
preserve aroma and intensifies flavour. Very high temperatures cause imperfect
fermentations resulting in loss of bouquet and the development of the vinegar microbe
Asceti mycodermae. The fermentation process usually takes two days to four weeks
according to the tradition of the house. Acidity caused by grape acids at this stage is
controlled by adding water or acidifying agents such as gypsum.
(v) Cellaring and Second Pressing: Once fermentation is complete the "running wine"
or “vin de goutte” is run off into casks for maturing. The casks are filled to the full to
exclude air. The casks are purged of any acetobacter by steaming and adding sulphur
dioxide. The filled casks are put in cellars for the wine to mature. This is called
"cellaring". The residue of pips and skin (called marc) left in the fermentation tank or
vat is sent for further pressing and the resultant juice, called “vin de presse”, is rich in
tannin. The wine-maker may decide whether to add vin de presse to vin de goutte. The
pips and skins are sent for a third pressing and the juice fermented and distiled to
produce “eau-de-vie-de-marc”. Thus, nothing is wasted and the sugar in the grape is
completely utilised.
(vi) Racking: The wine is separated from the dead yeasts that decompose and give an
odd flavour to the wine. This dead yeast settles at the bottom of the casks. The wine is
carefully pumped into another cask without disturbing the dead yeast leaving some wine
at the bottom called lees, which is sent for distilling into eau-de-vie-de-marc.
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4. (vii) Fining and Filteration: This is the process of converting the cloudy wine into clear
'fine' wine. This may be done with a gelatinous substance such as isinglass (bladder of
sturgeon fish), white of egg or Bentonite—colloid clay, which collects the protein haze in
the wine during its passage to the bottom of the cask. The wine may then be passed
through fine filters.
(viii) Refrigeration: The young wine is pumped into a refrigeration unit to stabilise the
wine.
(ix) Blending: This as an art that requires considerable experience, judgement and
sensitivity. It is a legitimate, natural and honest way of improving the quality of a wine.
Blending is done of wines from different vineyards and different years. This process
ensures a consistent quality.
(x) Maturing: This takes place naturally by allowing the wine to rest in oak barrels for
one or two years to gain maturity and pick up a soft and mellow character from the oak
wood. The wines undergo malolactic fermentation. (This is a secondary fermentation,
which most wines undergo. It usually takes place in the spring following the vintage and
results in the harsh malic acid being converted into the softer lactic acid and Carbon
dioxide. There is no increase of alcohol. Only a lowering of the total acidity of the wine,
making it softer and rounder on the palate.)
Some white wines are matured sur lie – on the lees – that means matured without
racking or finning. This practise gives a greater depth of flavour, enhanced freshness
and liveliness to the wine. Maturisation can be induced artificially by agitation, heating,
refrigeration and electrical impulses. But, all these methods are undesirable.
(xi) Bottling: This is done before the blended and matured wine has lost its bouquet,
finesse, quality and colour. Before bottling takes place, these bottles are sterilized. Cool
and dry weather is chosen. Later on these bottles are closed with a fine, soft, supple
cork, which are finally sealed with Spanish wax.
(xii) Pasteurization: Pasteurization is the process to prolong the age of wine and free
the wine from further fermentation. The wine in bottles are immersed upright in double
boilers with water at 180°F to 190°F, for 1-2 minutes.
(xiii) Ageing: Wine is aged in bottles. The period of ageing may differ from house to
house. For example: Bordeaux and Burgundy wines are aged for 3-4 years while
Chablis is aged for 18 months.
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5. WINE-PRODUCING COUNTRIES AND REGIONS______
Only a small area of the world is ‘wine producing’. The vine producing good quality wine
grows successfully between 30-50º latitudes north and south of the equator. It usually
produces good quality grapes when it is five years old and will continue to yield healthy
grapes up to the age of 35 years.
Three quarters of the world’s wine is produced in Europe and almost half in the
European Community (EC). France and Italy produce the most wine, with Italy being
the largest producer. In Europe, other countries of importance are Germany, Spain,
Portugal, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania & Bulgaria, Austria, Switzerland, Austria,
and Luxembourg. Mediterranean wine producing countries are Greece, Cyprus,
Israel, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Turkey. Newer wine world countries are
New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Canada – Ontario & British Columbia and
South America - Brazil, Chile, Paraguay & Uruguay.
1. FRANCE:
France is a pre-eminent table wine producer in the world. It vies with Italy as the largest
producer of wine, but has no equal in terms of sheer quality and variety. France sets the
standards to which others follow. Wine is produced throughout the country, except for
the part north of a line extending from Nantes through Paris to the eastern frontier
abutting Luxembourg.
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6. Stringent wine laws (known as Code du Vin) control the productions together with
natural endowment of soil and climate contribute greatly to the France’s wine quality.
Nowadays, making and labeling of French wines is controlled by EU wine laws under
the following heads:
(i) VINS DE QUALITE PRODUITS DANS DES REGIONS DETERMINEES (VQPRD):
These are quality wines produced from grapes grown in specific regions. They are
subdivided into two categories:
(a) Vins d'appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC): This labeling guarantees:
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7. • area of production;
• grape varieties used;
• pruning and cultivation methods;
• maximum yield per hectare;
• minimum alcohol content;
• methods of vinification and preservation.
(b) Vins délimités de qualité superiéure (VDQS): VDQS wines are good but less
fine than the AOC wines. The labeling guarantees:
• area of production;
• grape varieties used;
• minimum alcohol content;
• methods of viticulture and vinification.
(ii) VlNS DE TABLE: This labeling category is also divided into two:
(a) Vins de pays (VP): It is medium quality local or country wine made from
recommended grapes grown in a certain area or village. They must have a minimum
alcohol content and come from the locality stated on the label.
(b) Vins de consommation courante (VCC): It is wine for everyday consumption and
sold by the glass, carafe or pichet in cafés and bars all over France. Actually French
in origin, these wines may also be blended with other EU wines of similar style. Non-
EU wines may not be blended.
REGIONS AND PRINICIPAL WINES
(i) BORDEAUX:
Bordeaux produces around ten percent of all the wines made in France and about half
of the country’s fine wines. Red, white and rosé is produced. The greatest are
the reds, but Sauternes is a superb sweet white.
The area of Bordeaux comprises the whole of Gironde department of south-western
France, except for a ribbon of sand dunes along the coast. Approximately, one-
eighth of the total land area of Gironde is under vines. The Garonne river runs
through the city of Bordeaux (the trade base for the wines produced in this
area) before merging with Dordogne to form the river Gironde which meets the
Atlantic ocean at the Bay of Biscay. The finest Bordeaux vineyards are located
on the banks of these rivers.
Soil: The Bordeaux winefield has the right grounding for great wines – poor soil. It
predominantly comprises of gravel with clay or sand covering a sub-soil of lime.
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8. Climate: It has a mild and humid climate influenced by the rivers and the sea. Spring
frosts are a hazard.
Grapes: Varieties used for making red wines are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc,
Merlot, Malbec and Petit-Verdot. White wine grapes consist of Sémillon, Sauvignon
Blanc and Muscadelle.
THE WINES
The general appellation is Bordeaux i.e. a wine so described can come from anywhere
within the viticultural region of Bordeaux. Bordeaux Supérieur has a slightly higher
alcohol content.
Red Bordeaux (Claret)
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9. Médoc: This classic area produces red wines of extraordinary quality. It is divided into
the Haut Médoc and Bas Médoc. Real good wines come from Haut Médoc communes
(the southern part of Médoc district) of Pauillac, Margaux, Saint-Julien, Saint-Estephe,
Moulis and Listrac. The wines from all these small areas have their own distinctive
characteristics as the wines from different properties within these areas. The wines of
the northerly communes like Saint-Estephe and Pauillac are built bigger and have more
colour than those of Saint-Julien and Margaux, which are famous for their delicate style.
Bas Médoc produces wines of lesser fame but excellent quality.
Graves: The appellation covers 40 communes producing red and white wines but
aromatic reds are more outstanding, accounting for one-third of the area’s total
production. Château Haut-Brion is a distinguished red wine which strayed in 1855
Médoc classification. Other worthy red Graves are made at Châteaux La Mission-Haut-
Brion, Pape-Clément, Haut-Bailly, and Smith-Haut-Lafitte. Graves are usually lighter in
body than Médoc. They are inclined to mature early but have a good staying power.
Saint-Emillion: Its wines are rich and full-bodied, influenced by Merlot grape. The
wines are somewhere between classical Médoc and fine Burgundy in flavour. The two
famous Chateaux are Cheval-Blanc and Ausone.
Pomerol: These are full-bodied, well-rounded wines, with an attractive bouquet. A
leading property is Chateau Petrus – the most expensive red wine in the world.
Other areas: Other areas like Côte de Fronsac, Bourg and Blaye have attracted
interest in recent years due to escalating prices of wines from renowned districts. They
produce good sound wines for lunch-time drinking and are more robust and generous.
Given some time in bottle their flavour becomes less assertive.
Brands, blends & communes: Least expensive clarets are product of neither a single
vineyard nor a single year i.e. they are bends. For instance, Bordeaux rouge sold under
brand name or not, is a blend intended to be representative of an acceptable Bordeaux
wine. Those with district name will be intended to be representative of the wines of
those districts. Thus, more precise the label reference to origin, the more interesting the
wine should be.
White Bordeaux
Sauternes: It is a premier white wine of Bordeaux with remarkable finesse. Sauternes
is golden and lusciously honeyed – classic dessert wine. It is mainly made from the
Semillon grape and a small blend of Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle.
The grapes are left on the vines until the last possible moment. As they are shriveled by
the sun they are attacked by a fungus, la pourriture noble. This fungus is also called
botrytis cinerea. It takes off some of the water, and the dehydration concentrates the
sugar and glycerine in the grapes. In the most renowned chateaux the grapes are
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10. gathered on a selective basis daily (each visit being called a passage), taking only those
that have reached a satisfactory state of rot in the previous twenty-four hours. Wine
made from grapes not harvested before the bad weather, or made from grapes not
affected by Pourriture noble, are usually sold as Bordeaux Blanc Moelleux.
Sauternes was classified in 1855 and Chateau d’ Yquem headed the list as the first
great growth, followed by eleven first growths and twelve second. The famous names of
Sauternes, in addition to d’ Yquem include Chateau Guiraud, La Tour-Blanche,
Lafaurie-Peyraguey, Coutet, Climens, and Rieussec.
Cérons: This area lies between Sauternes and Graves. It produces dry and sweet
(never as sweet as Sauternes) white wines.
Premières Côtes de Bordeaux: It is the home of Cadillac, Loupiac and St-Croix-du-
Mont. These are sweet white wine zones producing full, creamy, luscious end-of-the-
meal wines.
Graves: The best of the white wines are dry, but does not have the clean exhilarating
finish of good white Burgundy. Château Haut-Brion and Château Olivier are notable
examples.
Entre-deux-Mers: These dry or medium dry white wines come from a triangle between
the rivers Garonne and Dordogne. They have no special distinction, but are agreeable
enough.
Graves de Vayres: This district has its own appellation. The white wines are more
generous in body, having a suave finish and are a cut above the average white
Bordeaux.
(ii) BURGUNDY:
Genuine Burgundy comes from a long stretch of winefields running from Dijon in the
north to Lyon in the south. It is known for its full red wine; however; it produces a variety
of styles including whites and reds.
Choosing dependable Burgundies has always been a problem for wine merchants and
customers. Standards being relative, it is important to know the grower or producer
rather than the name of the vineyard or its location. For instance, Clos de Vougeot has
some 80 different owners, each making a wine of slightly different quality and nuance
but all of them with the entitlement to sell their wine under the vineyard name. Also, due
to its northern location, the grapes do not ripen in poor years and sugar is added to the
must (chaptalisation) to counteract high acidity and low alcohol. All these factors
combine to make the choice of Burgundy wines more haphazard.
Soil: The soil varies between clay, limestone and granite.
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11. Climate: Burgundy has continental climate with very hot summers and very cold, hard
winters.
Grape varieties: Grape varieties for red wine include the classic Pinot Noir &
secondarily Gamay and white wine include the classic Chardonnay and secondarily
Aligoté.
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12. Red Burgundy
Earlier on, there was a marked difference between Burgundy and claret. Still, the
difference is considerable, but it is less emphatic as the character of Burgundy has
altered.
A combination of developments has brought about this change. Firstly, the use of
fertilizer has created juicier grapes. Secondly, there has been a change in the traditional
method of vinification. Unlike the méthode ancienne where the grapes were pressed
along with their stalks, now they are destalked before pressing. The result is that the
wine is less heavy in tannin and lighter on the palate when ready to be drunk. It also
requires a shorter maturing period. Thus, it is not the solid wine of earlier times but its
main characteristics are still fullness, fruitiness and warmth.
In Burgundy, unlike Bordeaux, single vineyards have an appellation of their own in
addition to the commune appellation i.e. the communes have a multiplicity of vineyards
entitled to give their wine the commune appellation, but the famous vineyards within the
commune will use their own appellation. Some link the name of commune’s most
famous vineyard with that of less important vineyard or commune. For instance, in
Gevrey-Chambertin, the village of Gevrey linked the name of famous vineyard to its own
name; while the vineyard of Mazis calls itself Mazis-Chambertin.
Côte d’ Or: Being the heartland of Burgundy, it has majority of renowned vineyards. It is
naturally divided into two parts: the northern part is called Côte de Nuits and the
southern part is called Côte de Beaune.
The red wines of Côte de Nuits are made from Pinot Noir grape and have exceptional
class, style and bouquet. Famous commune names include Fixin, Gevrey-Chambertin,
Morey-Saint-Denis (where the Clos de Tart lies), Chambolle-Musigny, Vougeot (with its
renowned Clos de Vougeot), Vosne-Romanee (the home of several outstanding reds
like Rornanée-Conti and La Tache) and the best-known commune of all, Nuits-Saint-
Georges.
The red wines of the Côte de Beaune are lighter in body than those of the Côte de
Nuits. Thus, they mature sooner. The famous communes are Aloxe-Corton, Pommard,
Volnay, Santenay, and Beaune itself. Beaune is the home of the Hospice (hospital),
which owns many vineyards. It is maintained by an annual auction of wines. The sale
attracts the buyers to Burgundy from all over the world and the prices realized are a
good barometer for pricing Burgundy wines in that year.
Côte Mâconnais: The red wine is light and quick to mature made from the Gamay
grape with a little Pinot Noir in the blend. It is usually sold as Mâcon Rouge or if it has
11% alcohol as Mâcon Supérieur.
Côte Chalonnaise: It produces light–red wines. Notable communes are Givry, Mercury
and Rully.
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13. Beaujolais: The red wines of this area are lightweight and fruity and are made to be
drunk young. It is served slightly chilled. The best are the commune wines, all located in
Haut Beaujolais like Saint-Amour, Fleurie, Chénas, Chiroubles, Moulin-à-Vent and
Juliénas. It is also simply sold as Beaujolais, which is a blend of the better wines from
various communes.
Beaujolais vin de l’ année is made to be consumed within a year more so in the spring
after it has been harvested. Beajolais vin de primeur also called as Nouveau is a light,
vivid, fresh, fruity wine made by macération carbonique. Once bottled, it is intended for
immediate consumption. Hence, it is traditionally released on the third Thursday in
November and should be drunk before Christmas or Easter at the latest.
Bourgogne Irancy: A light, red wine made from the Pinot Noir grape in the commune
of Irancy, south of Auxerre.
White Burgundy
Côte de Beaune: It produces finest white Burgundy. Famous communes include
Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet. Vineyards of Le Montrachet,
Chevalier-Montrachet, Bâtard-Montrachet, and Le Cailleret between these communes
have a place among the finest white wines in the world.
There are two other communes of world renown. The vineyard of Corton-Charlemagne
in Aloxe-Corton commune produces excellent white. Meursault makes magnificent white
wine, which is dry, round and voluptuous. Great vineyards of Meursault include Les
Perrières, Les Genevrières, Les Charmes and La Goutte d’ Or.
Chablis: It produces dry, almost steely, fresh white wine. There are four quality grades:
Petit Chablis is a lower quality wine. Chablis is of better quality and can be good in
vintage years. Chablis Grand Crus: Notable vineyard names are Blanchots, Les Clos,
Valmur, Grenouilles, Vaudésir, Les Preuses, and Bougros all classed as great growths.
Chablis Premier Crus: Chapelot and Fourchaume are included as first growths.
Côte Chalonnaise: The white wines have less strength of character than whites from
Côte de Beaune or Chablis. The best known communes are Mercurey, Montagny and
Givry.
Côte Mâconnais: The light, inexpensive, dry whites have a better reputation than the
reds. Mâcon Blanc and Mâcon Supérieur Blanc are ordinary white wines, but a notable
name is Pouilly-Fuissé. It is a dry, soft, full-flavoured, earthy wine made from
Chardonnay grape in the villages of Chaintré, Fuissé, Pouilly, Solutré and Vergisson.
Pouilly-Vinzelles and Pouilly Loché also make a similar style of wine. Good refreshing
whites are also made under the appellation Mâcon-Villages. For example: Mâcon Viré,
Mâcon Prissé, Mâcon Lugny, Mâcon Clessé. St-Véran is another stylish white wine
made using Chardonnay grape in vineyards that overlap Mâcon and Beaujolais.
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14. (iii) ALSACE:
Alsace is a totally uncomplicated area that produces fine quality dry white wines. The
vines grow on eastern slopes of the Vosges mountains, in a narrow strip from north to
south. These mountains shelter the vineyards and protect them from severe winds and
excessive rain; thus providing a microclimate. The river Ill runs lower down the slopes in
the north direction, passing through Strasbourg to join the river Rhine.
As Alsace belonged to Germany between 1870 and 1917, the wines have more affinity
to German wines as compared to French wines. They are sold in standard green flute
bottles of the same shape, but longer.
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15. Alsace whites
All Alsace AOC wines must by law be bottled in the departments of Haut-Rhin and Bas-
Rhin to prevent it from fraud and contravention. The wines, if not sold under brand
name, display the grape variety used prominently on the label. The village or vineyard
name is occasionally shown on the label i.e. Kaysersberg, Obernai, Wolxheim etc.
Grape varieties used in making of Alsace wines are Slyvaner, Reisling, Gewǜrztraminer,
Muscat and Pinot. Other varieties are used to make plain wines. Edelzwicker is a blend
of wines made solely from noble grape varieties. Zwicker is a blend of plain wines and
one or more of the noble grape varieties. Exceptional case: The Pinot Noir is used to
make a little red wine and also a rose known locally as Schillerwein or Clairet d’ Alsace.
Gewǜrztraminer: It is a pungent, spicy wine. In a hot year, it can have some
sweetness, but otherwise it is quite dry. A spatlese (wine made from late-gathered
grapes) is a little sweet.
Riesling: Best known of all grape varieties. It produces stylish, dry and fruity white
wine. Some spatlese is made.
Slyvaner: A plain dry wine which makes a good inexpensive aperitif.
Pinot Blanc and Pinot Gris: The first one is like Slyvaner with more style. The later is
also called as Tokay d’ Alsace and ranges from dry to slightly sweet. By no means, it is
like Tokay wine of Hungary.
Muscat d’ Alsace: A good, very dry wine with much fruitiness.
(iv) LOIRE
The river Loire runs from the Cévennes mountains in central France to its estuary at
Nantes on the Brittany coast. Loire produces a range of wine varieties – dry, medium,
sweet white wines, reds and rosés - more diverse than any other part of France on its
banks, low hillsides and also along its tributaries.
Important grape varieties for white wines are Muscadet, Sauvignon Blanc and Chenin
Blanc and for reds and rosés are the Cabernet Franc.
There are four main wine-producing regions:
• Pays Nantais
• Anjou-Saumur
• Touraine
• Central Vineyards
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16. Loire Reds
Reds are in abundance, but worthy qualities is a scarcity. In Touraine, lovely red wines
are made under four classifications: Touraine Rouge, Bourgueil, St-Nicholas-de-
Bourgueil and Chinon. They range from light to firm, with Touraine and Chinon being
lightest. They benefit if served slightly chilled.
Loire Whites
Here, many wines offer exceptionally good value for money by today’s standards. Loire
white wine regions are as follows:
Anjou-Saumur: Anjou makes some excellent white wines using Chenin Blanc grape.
The best whites coming from Savenniéres are dry, crisp with good body. Saumur
produces good whites, dry with a slightly sweet after-taste. Coteaux du Layon is
renowned for its sweet white wines that are made from Botrytis-affected Chenin Blanc
grapes. Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux are the best appellations for these rich,
perfumed honeyed wines.
Pays Nantais: It is the home of Muscadet – a popular French wine. It is light, dry, fresh
and meant to be drunk extremely young as an aperitif or as an accompaniment to
shellfish. The best appellation is Muscadet de Sèvre et Maine. Its best style is
Muscadet-sur-lie.
Gros Plant du Pays Nantais is a local wine high in acidity made from the Folle Blanche
grape.
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17. Touraine: Here, Vouvray made from Chenin Blanc grape is the most famous
appellation. It is silky dry, medium sweet or sweet white wine. Mount Louis produces
dry to sweet, still white wine again from the same grape.
Central Vineyards: It is so called because they are located in the centre of France.
Here the white wines are made from Sauvignon Blanc grape. Pouilly Fumé is a crisp,
fruity, steely white wine with a characteristic hint of gun-smoke. Pouilly-sur-Loire is
another wine made from Chasselas grape. Sancerre is also very popular, dry, fragrant
and flinty white wine with distinctively pungent aroma of goose-berries. Quincy, Reuilly
and Menetou-Salon are other good white wines.
(v) RHÔNE
The Côtes du Rhône extends from Lyon in the north to Avignon in the south with a gap
of 40 km in between where the vine is not cultivated. The best-known are reds, but
there are some meritorious whites and France’s best known rosé - Tavel.
The northern vineyards enjoy a continental climate of warm summers and fairly mild
winters while the southern vineyards get hot, dry summers and cool winters. All
vineyards are subjected to the mistral - the fierce wind which blows down from the Alps.
Cypress trees are grown as windbreakers along its path.
Rhône Reds
Rhône reds are called ‘the poor man’s Burgundy’, because of their massive character.
They are unsubtle, less refined and less delicate wines.
Côte Rôtie: The wine is robust, strong and has a wonderful bouquet and tannic, heady
flavour that makes it one of the finest among Rhône reds. It is made from a minimum
80% Syrah and a maximum of 20% white Viognier grapes.
Hermitage: This is a dark, full-flavoured and full-bodied red wine made from Syrah
grape. It needs ageing and can continue to improve in bottle for years.
Crozes-Hermitage: This is less fine, more robust red wine than Hermitage made from
the same Syrah grape.
Saint-Joseph: The reds are lighter in body, and have more poise and subtlety. It is
made on the west side of the Rhône across the river from Hermitage.
Cornas: A deep, dark red wine from the Syrah grape. In youth it tastes harsh and
unfinished, but as it ages it develops a wionderful bouquet and mouth-filling flavours.
Châteauneuf-du-Pape: Best-known name among Côtes du Rhône wines, it is made
from thirteen different grape varieties. It is rich, full-bodied red wine. The wine has a
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18. minimum alcoholic strength of 12.5%. Selection should be based by producer as the
wine is not consistent.
Gigondas: A generous, powerful, robust red wine that always improves with additional
ageing. It is a near neighbour of Châteauneuf-du-Pape.
Rhône Whites
Many of the red wine producing areas also make whites including Châteauneuf-du-
Pape, Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage etc. However, with two exceptions of Château-
Grillet and Hermitage they are unremarkable.
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19. Château-Grillet: It is the smallest AOC vineyard in France covering only two hectares.
The wine is full, dry and pale gold in colour made from the Viognier grape.
Condrieu: This light, golden wine made from the Viognier grapes has a distinctive
fragrance and an intense flavour of apricots.
Hermitage: The wine is dry, delicate, has a good bouquet, fruity flavour and is made
froma combination of Marsanne and Roussanne grapes. The best-known name is
Chante-Alouette.
(vi) LESSER WINES OF FRANCE
The great wine-producing areas are not the beginning and the end of wines. Many other
departments and regions also make good, agreeable wines.
Red wines
Cahors: It is a town in the Lot department along the river Lot – a tributary of Garonne. It
is extremely dark in both, the colour and flavour and hence called as “black wine of
Cahors”.
Jura: Here, soft and sometimes sweet agreeable reds are made around the town of
Arbois.
Languedoc and Rousillon: This area is situated on the west of the mouth of Rhone
and is called as Midi. It is a traditional supplier of vin ordinaire.
Provence: Pleasant red wines come from Bandol district. Cotes de Provence is an
another wine.
White wines
Bergerac: Sweet white wine of Monbazillac is very famous. It is an are on the river
Dordogne.
Jura: It is known for two wines: vins jaunes (yellow wines) and vins de paille (straw
wines).
Gaillac: Both dry and sweet wines are produced in this district shouth-east of Cahors.
They are full, pleasant wines, the sweet having a hint of bitterness in the after-taste.
Languedoc and Rousillion: It is known for its dry and sweet wines.
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20. 2. GERMANY
Germany produces an abundance of light, fruit-flavoured, low alcohol and low priced
table wines. It makes superb whites, but has no reds of special merit.
Germany faces innumerable difficulties viz: vineyards situated in the most northerly
regions, difficult terrain, stern climate, lack of sunshine, danger of springtime frosts etc.
This difficulty and awkwardness makes grape growing hazardous, labour-intensive and
expensive. Yet, it produces a great diversity of wines with wonderful range of flavours
within each style.
Around 50 grape varieties including the hybrids are cultivated to withstand these stern
climatic conditions. Even then, they do not have a monopoly to produce good, drinkable
wine. Chaptalisation called in German language as anreicherung, is a common
phenomenon to improve (verbesserung) the alcohol content of a wine. Sometimes,
Sǚssreserve – a sweet, unfermented must is judiciously added to the wine before
bottling to make it agreeable. But unfortunately, wines so treated are not considered as
quality wines.
The Grapes: 87% out of the total 1,00,000 hectares land under vine in Germany grow
only white grapes. The three noble grapes are:
• Reisling: classic grape accounting for 21% of the crop and producing all great
white and sparkling German wines.
• Silvaner: Accounts for 8% of the crop. It makes soft, gentle, flowery wines.
• Muller-Thurgau: Accounts for 24% of the total crop and is a cross between
Riesling and Silvaner.
Other varieties of white grapes cultivated are Scheurebe (Silvaner x Riesling),
Gewurztraminer (Spicy Traminer), Rulander (Pinot Gris), Elbing etc.
QUALITY CONTROL
Stringent German wine laws control the production of wines under two major categories:
(i) TAFELWEIN (TABLE WINE): This category is sub-divided into two:
(a) Deutscher Tafelwein: Table wine made from a blend of wines from Germany.
Also, a simple variety is made which is a blend of wines from Germany and other
EU countries. A minimum alcohol content is specified.
(b) Deutscher Landwein: It is similar to French Vin de Pays and superior to
Deutscher Tafelwein. It has a slightly higher alcohol content which is specified.
The wine is trocken (dry) or halbtrocken (medium-dry) and is produced in any
one of 17 designated landwein areas.
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21. (ii) QUALITASWEIN (QUALITY WINE): This category is sub-divided into two:
(a) Qualitaswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA): These are quality wines of
medium price range (includes Liebfraumilch) from one of the 13 designated
regions (Anbaugebieten). It must carry an Amtliche Priifungsnummer (control
number). Thus, the wines are made from authorized vine stocks, has a minimum
must weight, are not blended with wines coming from other regions and are
subjected to chemical and sensory evaluation. However, these wines can be
alcoholically improved by Chaptalisation.
(b) Qualitaswein mit Pradikat: These are quality wines with distinction and special
characteristics. Sugar is not added to them. Pradikat describes how ripe the
grape was when it was harvested - generally the riper the grape, sweeter the
wine. There are six categories:
• Kabinett: made from grapes harvested at the normal time, usually
October, but in a perfect state of ripeness. It denotes most straightforward
of quality wines.
• Spatlese: made from grapes harvested late – not earlier than 7 days after
the start of harvest.
• Auslese: made from selected sugar-enriched bunches of ripe grapes.
• Beerenauslese: made from selected ripe grapes affected by noble rot -
edelfaule
• Eiswein: Also known as ice-wines, these are made from ripe grapes left
on the vine to be picked and pressed (under floodlights during night-time
when frozen i.e. around -8°C) to get an amber-coloured, rich,
concentrated syrup. The resulting wine is luscious with a good level of
acidity.
• Trockenbeeranauslese: made from selected single shrivelled grapes
heavily affected by noble rot. These wines are ultimate in quality and are
very expensive.
REGIONS AND PRINICIPAL WINES
There are eleven defined ‘regions of production’:
(i) Ahr
(ii) Baden
(iii) Franken (Franconia)
(iv) Hissiche Bergstrasse
(v) Mittelrhein
(vi) Mosel-Saar-Ruver
(vii) Nahe
(viii) Rheingau (Rhine)
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22. (ix) Rheinhessen
(x) Rheinpfalz
(xi) Wurttemberg.
Each region (anbaugebiete) has several defined districts (bereiche), each district a
variety of parishes (germeinde), each parish a collection of vineyards (grosslagen), and
each collection of vineyard will have a single vineyard (einzellagen).
Red Wines
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23. Their productions are low, are not reputed and hence can be disposed of. They are
light, both in terms of alcohol and flavour and hence sometimes mistaken for rosè.
Assmannshausen, from the Rhine is best known.
White wines
Germany is well known or its whites. It is available in dry (trocken), medium-dry
(halbtrocken), medium sweet (iebling) and sweet (suss). Moselle – white wine from the
Mosel-Saar-Ruver region – is fresh and flowery. It comes in tall slender green bottle.
Hock –white wine from Rheingau region - is fuller and earthier. It comes is tall slender
brown bottles. Franconian Steinwein is generally bottled in Bocksbeutel – a flask
shaped vessel usually made of green glass.
The grape variety is displayed on the label of a German white wine bottle over and
above the region, village, and vineyard names. It identifies the style of wine inside the
bottle. For instance: Reising – the kind of Germany, Silvaner, Muller-Thurgau,
Scheurebe, Elbing etc.
3. ITALY
Italy is the largest producer of wine by producing around one-fifth of the world’s total
production. It is also the largest exporter of wine and has reds of considerable merit but
whites to please a serious wine-drinker are scarce
All the regions stretching from Trentino-Alto Adige to Sicily make wine. For long, Italian
wines were considered to be carelessly made and inconsistent in style and quality. But,
after the introduction of strict wine laws, the scenario has changed and the world is
keeping more faith in its wines. However, as with all wines, it is best to follow a
producer’s name or a brand.
QUALITY CONTROL
Wines are classified in the following gradations in the ascending order:
(i) Vino da Tavola (VT): Unclassified, ordinary table wine.
(ii) Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT): Equivalent to German Landwein or French
Vin de Pays, these wines are superior to the above and come from a defined area,
grape, place as mentioned on the label.
(iii) Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC): Equivalent to French AOC, these
are quality wines from an approved area. Grape varieties, cultivation, vinification
methods, maximum yield per hectare are all specified.
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24. (iv) Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG): This category
guarantees authenticity of origin, controls the grape variety used and has more
stringent restrictions on yield, alcohol content, vinification and ageing. These wines
are officially tasted and approved by panel of experts.
PRINCIPAL GRAPES
For red wines, the main grapes are: Anglianico, Nebbiola, Lagrein, Dolcetto,
Sangiovese, Barbera, Lambrusco, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Schiava.
For white wines, the grapes used are: Trebbiano, Malvasia, Moscato, Pinot Grigio,
Verdicchio, Muller-Thurgau, Vernacia, Traminer, Rheinriesling.
THE WINES
Wines of Italy are sometimes named after the variety of vine used (e.g. Barbera,
Vernacia etc), sometimes after the district (e.g. Chianti, Valpolicella etc), sometimes
after the combination of grape and didstrict (e.g. Barbera d’ Asti etc) and in many cases
after stories or legends (e.g. Est! Est! Est!, Lagrima Christi etc).They are usually higher
in alcohol than most other European wines as they receive abundant sunshine.
Red Wines
Chianti: Coming from Tuscany, it is Italy’s most famous wine. It is light, quaffable,
heady wine meant to be drunk extremely young, while it is still fresh. Invented by
Barone Bettino Ricasoli, It is traditionally exported in traditional Tuscan flask with a
wickered basket. Chianti is made by four different grape species, and a second
fermentation is induced by the addition of grapes at the end of first. Chianti has seven
sub-districts including Classico, Colli Aretini, Colli Senesi, Colline Pisane, Colli
Fiorentini, Montalbano and Rufina. Classico is the heartland or historic center of the
zone. Chiantis that are aged for a minimum of three years are called Riservas. Vecchio
is aged for a year.
Barolo: Coming from the village of Barola, Piedmont; it is made from Nebbiolo grape. It
is deep, dark-coloured, richly scented and needs a good decanting and airingbefore it is
drunk.
Barbaresco: It comes from Piedmont and is made from Nebbiolo. It is light in weight
and flavour than Barolo and is consumed fairly young.
Valpolicella: It comes from Venezia and is a light red with a good flowery bouquet. It
should be drunk extremely young. It should be drunk as soon as the bottle is opened.
Bardolino: Coming from Venezia, it is very light and subtle. It is sometimes mistaken to
be deep rosè and is appreciated slightly cooled.
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25. Barbera: Coming from Piedmont, it is made from Barbera grape. It has immense body
and great depth of flavour.
Gattinara: It is again a Piedmontese wine. It is lusty and smooth and not that
distinguished.
Lambrusco: Coming from Modena district, it can be dry or semi-dry. It is a semi-
sparkler and leaves a frizzante (prickly effect), on the tongue. It is made from
Lambrusco grape.
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26. White wines
Soave: It is the best-known white wine and comes from Venezia. It is dry, fresh, and
delicate and should be drunk extremely young.
Frascati: It comes from Alban hills close to Rome in Lazio. It is usually dry; but not as
dry as Soave. Amabile – a slightly sweet version is also available.
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27. Orvieto: Coming from Umbria, it is also available as secco or amabile. Secco is a
stylish wine, never bone-dry and Amabile is an interesting wine with a mildly sweet
taste.
Verdicchio: It comes in fancily shaped bottles with fanciful labels from Adriatic coast,
around Ancona in Marche. The wine is serious and is dry with pale colour.
Est! Est!! Est!!!: It comes from Montefiascone in Lazio. It is bright golden, well scented,
dry or semi-dry but does not stand to the extraordinariness of its name.
Cinque Terre: These are dry wines from the rocky vineyards overlooking the
Mediterranean in Liguria. They have an aromatic bouquet and good, rich flavour.
Cortese: It is light, dry, fragrant and rated the best of all white wines of Piedmont.
Lacrima Christi: It is dry, golden wine made on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius,
Campania. It is a wine that is more famous for its name than for the pleasure it gives.
POINTS TO PONDER____________________________
1. Explain the following terms: (a) Chaptalization [Nov-05 / Nov-04]
2. Explain the following wine laws and label terminology: (a) DOCG (b) AOC (c)
Kabinett (d) QMP (e) VDP (f) DOC (g) VDQS (h) Valencia [Nov-05 / April-05 / April-
04]
3. Differentiate between White wine and Red wine. [Nov-05]
4. Draw and label a French white wine bottle label. [Nov-05 / April-05]
5. Give two examples of grapes used in the production of Red wine & White wine.
[April-05]
6. Describe the manufacturing process of Red wine, along with a flow chart. [April-05]
7. Explain the following terms: (a) Edelfaule (b) Vigneron (c) Claret [Nov-04]
8. Explain the following wine appellation: (a) VCC (b) Kabinett (c) Conseja Regulado
(d) Qualitäswein bestimmter (e) Vino da Tavola (f) Deutscher Tafelwein (g)
Trockenbeerenauslese (g) Eiswein [Nov-04 / April-04]
9. With the help of a diagram, explain the reading of an Italian wine bottle label. [Nov-
04]
10. Name four wines each from Spain and Italy. [Nov-04]
11. Draw up a wine list for a speciality continental restaurant. This list must have 25
wines from countries in Europe and must be balanced in terms of taste (sweet/dry),
colour (red/white/rose), style (still/sparkling), and origin (different countries). The
country, colour and style must be written against each name. [April-04]
12. Explain the post fermentation processes involved in vinification until the wine is
ready for sale. [April-04]
13. With the help of a label, explain reading of a French red wine label. [April-04]
14. Differentiate between vinification of red, white and rose wines. [April-04]
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28. 15. The grapes are cut in their branches by a special pair of scissors called
_____________. [Nov-04]
16. The metal coils inserted into the must to maintain the temperature during
fermentation is called ________________. [Nov-04]
17. ________________ is added to must to check the rate of fermentation. [Nov-04]
18. Explain the wine districts of Portugal. [Nov-04]
19. Write short note on wines of Italy. [Nov-04]
20. Name four white wines from France. [Nov-04]
21. Write a short-note on wine producing districts of Spain and Portugal. [Nov-04]
*******************
**************
*********
*****
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29. 15. The grapes are cut in their branches by a special pair of scissors called
_____________. [Nov-04]
16. The metal coils inserted into the must to maintain the temperature during
fermentation is called ________________. [Nov-04]
17. ________________ is added to must to check the rate of fermentation. [Nov-04]
18. Explain the wine districts of Portugal. [Nov-04]
19. Write short note on wines of Italy. [Nov-04]
20. Name four white wines from France. [Nov-04]
21. Write a short-note on wine producing districts of Spain and Portugal. [Nov-04]
*******************
**************
*********
*****
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