1. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 1
23 HEPATIC RESECTION
Clifford S. Cho, M.D., James Park, M.D., and Yuman Fong, M.D., F.A.C.S.
Liver resections were first described centuries ago, but until the most readily apparent visual landmark on the anterior liver) but
latter half of the 20th century, the majority of such resections were follows a line projected through a plane (the principal plane, or
performed for management of either injuries or infections. Today, Cantlie’s line) that runs posterosuperiorly from the medial margin
these procedures are performed not only for treatment of acute of the gallbladder to the left side of the vena cava.
emergencies (e.g., traumatic injuries or abscesses) but also as The venous drainage of the liver consists of multiple small veins
potentially curative therapy for a variety of benign and malignant draining directly from the back of the right hemiliver and the cau-
hepatic lesions.1-5 date lobe to the vena cava, along with three major hepatic veins.
The first planned anatomic resection of a lobe of a liver is cred- These major hepatic veins occupy three planes, known as portal
ited to Lortat-Jacob, who in 1952 performed a right lobectomy as scissurae.The three scissurae divide the liver into the four sections,
treatment for metastatic colon cancer.6 It was not until the 1980s, each of which is supplied by a portal pedicle; further branching of
however, that major hepatectomies became commonplace. Since the pedicles subdivides the sections into their constituent segments.
then, the safety of these operations has improved dramatically, and The right hepatic vein passes between the right anterior section
as safety has improved, the indications for hepatic resection have (segments 5 and 8) and the right posterior section (segments 6 and
become better refined as well. Currently, resection of as much as 7) in the right scissura.This vein empties directly into the vena cava
85% of the functional liver parenchyma is being performed at near the atriocaval junction. The middle hepatic vein passes
numerous centers with an operative mortality of less than 2%.The between the right anterior section and the left medial section (seg-
duration of hospitalization is typically less than 2 weeks, and ment 4, sometimes subdivided into segments 4a and 4b) in the
almost all individuals regain normal hepatic function.7 central, or principal, scissura, which represents the division
In this chapter, we focus on the technical aspects of hepatic between the right hemiliver and the left.The left hepatic vein runs
resection, emphasizing efficiency and safety and taking into in the left scissura between segments 2 and 3 (which together make
account recent developments, current controversies, and special up the left lateral section). In most persons, the left and middle
operative considerations (e.g., the cirrhotic patient and repeat liver hepatic veins join to form a common trunk before entering the vena
resection). Detailed discussions of the indications for hepatic cava. Occasionally, a large inferior right hepatic vein is present that
resection are available elsewhere.8-10 may provide adequate drainage of the right hemiliver after resec-
tion of the left even when all three major hepatic veins are ligated.13
The portal vein and the hepatic artery divide into left and right
Hepatic Anatomy branches below the hilum of the liver. Unlike the major hepatic
Familiarity with the surgical anatomy of the liver is essential for veins, which run between segments, the portal venous and hepat-
safe performance of a partial hepatectomy.11 In 1998, as a ic arterial branches, along with the hepatic ducts, typically run
response to the confusion created by the various anatomic nomen- centrally within segments [see Figure 1]. On the right side, the
clatures applied to the liver, the International Hepato-Pancreato- hepatic artery and the portal vein enter the liver substance almost
Biliary Association (IHPBA) appointed a committee that was immediately after branching. The short course of the right-side
charged with deriving a universal terminology for hepatic anatomy extrahepatic vessels and the variable anatomy of the biliary tree
and hepatic resections. In 2000, the recommendations of this make these vessels vulnerable to damage during dissection.14 In
committee were accepted at the IHPBA’s biannual meeting in contrast, the left branch of the portal vein and the left hepatic duct
Brisbane. Accordingly, this system for naming the anatomic divi- take a long extrahepatic course after branching beneath segment
sions of the liver and the corresponding resections has come to be 4. When these vessels reach the base of the umbilical fissure, they
known as the Brisbane 2000 terminology.12 are joined by the left hepatic artery to form a triad, which then
In the Brisbane 2000 system, the anatomy of the liver may be enters the substance of the left hemiliver at this point. It must be
thought of in terms of first-order, second-order, and third-order emphasized that proximal to the base of the umbilical fissure, the
divisions, all of which are based on the underlying vascular and bil- left-side structures are not a triad. A consequence of the long
iary anatomy rather than on surface features [see Figure 1]. At the extrahepatic course of the left-side structures is that for tumors
first level, the liver is divided into two hemilivers (right and left). that involve the hilum (e.g., Klatskin tumors), when a choice exists
At the second level, it is divided into four sections (right posterior, between an extended right hepatectomy and an extended left
right anterior, left medial, and left lateral). At the third level, it is hepatectomy [see Operative Technique, below], most surgeons
divided into nine segments, each of which is a discrete anatomic choose the former because the greater ease of dissection on the left
unit that possesses its own nutrient blood supply and venous and side facilitates preservation of the left-side structures. Knowledge
biliary drainage. of the relative anatomic courses of the portal veins, the hepatic
The right hemiliver consists of segments 5 through 8 and is arteries, and the hepatic ducts is the basis of the classical extrahep-
nourished by the right hepatic artery and the right portal vein; the atic dissection for control of hepatic inflow [see Operative
left hemiliver consists of segments 2 through 4 and is nourished by Technique, Right Hepatectomy, Step 6 (Extrahepatic Dissection
the left hepatic artery and the left portal vein. (The caudate lobe, and Ligation), below].
a portion of the liver that is separate from the two hemilivers, con- The fibrous capsule surrounding the liver substance was
sists of segments 1 and 9.) The anatomic division between the described by Glisson in 1654.15 It was Couinaud,16 however, who
right hemiliver and the left is not at the falciform ligament (the demonstrated that this fibrous capsule extends to envelop the por-

2. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 2
Right Hemiliver (Right Liver) Left Hemiliver (Left Liver)
Inferior Vena Cava Middle Hepatic Vein
Right Hepatic Vein
Left Hepatic Vein
2
8
1, 9
7
3
4
Falciform
Ligament
5
Portal Vein
6
Common
Hepatic Artery
Common
Bile Duct
Right Posterior Right Anterior Left Medial Left Lateral
Section Section Section Section
Figure 1 The liver is separated into nine anatomic segments, each with an independent
nutrient blood supply and venous and biliary drainage. Appreciation of this segmental
anatomy is the basis of anatomic resection of the liver.
tal triads as they pass into the liver substance. Thus, within the thin-slice (1 to 2 mm) images captured by current spiral (helical)
liver, the portal vein, the hepatic artery, and the hepatic duct run- CT scanners can be reconstructed to provide angiographic pic-
ning to each segment of the liver lie within a substantial sheath. tures whose level of detail rivals that of direct angiograms [see
This dense sheath allows rapid control of inflow vessels to specif- Figure 2]. Triple-phase scans (including a noncontrast phase, an
ic anatomic units within the liver and permits en masse ligation of arterial phase, and a venous phase) are recommended: these yield
these vascular structures in a maneuver known as pedicle ligation the best definition and characterization of intrahepatic lesions. For
[see Operative Technique, Right Hepatectomy, Step 6— example, some vascular tumors become isodense with liver
Alternative (Intrahepatic Pedicle Ligation), below].17 parenchyma after contrast injection. By first obtaining noncon-
trast scans and then obtaining contrast scans at two different
times after contrast injection, the examiner stands a better chance
Preoperative Evaluation of visualizing such tumors.
Cross-sectional imaging modalities such as computed tomog- For small tumors, a CT variant known as CT portography is
raphy, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasonography play an recommended. In this technique, contrast material is injected
important role in enhancing the safety and efficacy of hepatic through the superior mesenteric artery, and images are obtained
resection. These modalities, along with biologic scanning tech- during the portal venous phase. The normal liver receives the
niques such as positron emission tomography (PET), are also majority of its nutrient blood from the portal vein and is therefore
invaluable for staging malignancies so as to improve patient selec- contrast-enhanced in this phase.Tumors, on the other hand, usu-
tion and thereby optimize long-term surgical outcome.3 ally derive their nutrient blood from the hepatic artery and there-
At a minimum, all candidates for hepatic resection should fore appear as exaggerated perfusion defects. CT portography is
undergo either CT or MRI.These imaging tests not only identify the most sensitive test available for identifying small hepatic
the number and size of any mass lesions within the liver but also tumors.18
delineate the relations of the lesions to the major vasculature— MRI may also be valuable for characterizing lesions and defin-
data that are crucial for deciding whether to operate and which ing them vis-à-vis the vasculature. It is particularly helpful in diag-
operative approach to follow. nosing benign lesions such as hemangiomas, focal nodular hyper-
Use of contrast enhancement during CT scanning is vital for plasia, and adenomas.Whenever any of these benign lesions is sus-
accurate definition of the vascular anatomy. In fact, data from pected, MRI is usually indicated. With regard to surgical plan-

3. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 3
ning, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is useful for iden- pelled by more recent data.26-28 Advanced chronologic age is not a
tifying the major hepatic veins and clarifying their relations to any complete contraindication to hepatectomy.
tumor masses.19 Anemia and coagulopathy, if present, are corrected. All patients
Over the past decade, biologic scanning, in the form of 18F-flu- are now encouraged to donate two units of autologous blood
orodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET), has before a major hepatectomy. As an alternative, hemodilution,
emerged as an invaluable technique for preoperative staging of whereby a portion of the patient’s blood volume is withdrawn
patients with hepatic malignancies. In patients with metastases to intraoperatively and reinfused immediately after the completion of
the liver who are being considered for hepatic resection, FDG- the hepatectomy, may be considered.
PET allows better determination of candidacy for operative man- Appropriate single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis is administered
agement, thereby both reducing the incidence of nontherapeutic [see 1:2 Prevention of Postoperative Infection].
laparotomy20 and improving long-term survival in cases where
ANESTHESIA
resection is indicated.21 The role of FDG-PET in the workup of
patients with primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is less Decisions regarding anesthesia should take into account the
clear, in that many tumors cannot be distinguished from the sur- possibility of baseline hepatic dysfunction, as well as the postoper-
rounding liver through assessment of glucose metabolism alone. ative hepatic functional deficits resulting from resection of a major
Imaging recommendations may be summed up as follows. A portion of the hepatic parenchyma.
triple-phase CT should be obtained for most patients under con- The most important consideration, however, is the possibility of
sideration for hepatic resection. If diagnostic doubt remains after major intraoperative hemorrhage. Suitable monitoring and suffi-
CT, particularly if the differential diagnosis includes an asympto- cient vascular access to permit rapid transfusion should be in
matic benign tumor, MRI should be performed. If questions place. At some centers, fluid resuscitation and blood transfusion
remain after CT as to the extent of hepatic venous or major biliary are begun early in the course of resection to increase intravascular
involvement, MRI or duplex ultrasonography should be consid- volume as a buffer against sudden blood loss. At Memorial Sloan-
ered.22 If small tumors are encountered, CT portography should Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), we favor the opposite
be performed. Duplex ultrasonography, by demonstrating the vas- approach, whereby a low central venous pressure is maintained
cular hilar structures, the hepatic veins, and the inferior vena cava, during resection. The rationale for our preference is that general-
renders angiography unnecessary in many cases.19,23 For patients ly, most of the blood lost during hepatic resection comes from the
with liver metastases from a primary colorectal cancer,4 breast major hepatic veins or the vena cava.29,30 If central venous pressure
cancer, or melanoma, an FDG-PET scan should be performed is kept below 5 mm Hg, there is less bleeding from the hepatic
before hepatic resection. Direct hepatic angiography is rarely venous radicles during dissection. Reduction of intrahepatic
required, and inferior vena cavography is almost never needed. venous pressure can be facilitated by performing the dissection
with the patient in a 15° Trendelenburg position, which increases
venous return to the heart and enhances cardiac output. Central
Operative Planning venous pressure is maintained at the desired level through a com-
bination of anesthesia and early intraoperative fluid restriction.
PREPARATION
The minimal acceptable intraoperative urine output is 25 ml/hr.
In general, preparation for hepatic resection is much the same The need for intraoperative blood transfusion can be minimized
as that for other major abdominal procedures. All patients who are by accepting hematocrits lower than the common target figure of
older than 65 years or have a history of cardiopulmonary disease 30%: 24% in patients without antecedent cardiac disease and
undergo a full cardiopulmonary assessment. It was once common- 29% in patients with cardiac disease. If blood loss is estimated to
ly believed that patients 70 years of age or older were poor candi- reach or exceed 20% of total volume or the patient becomes
dates for major liver resection,24,25 but this notion has been dis- hemodynamically unstable, transfusion is indicated.29,30
a b
Figure 2 (a) The arterial anatomy of the celiac axis is reconstructed from thin-slice CT
images. (b) The hepatic venous anatomy is similarly reconstructed, with the tumor superim-
posed on the vascular reconstruction.

4. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 4
PATIENT POSITIONING over wedge resections, wedge resections were associated with a
The patient should be supine: to date we have not found a lat- 16% rate of positive margins, compared with a 2% rate for
eral position to be necessary even for the largest of tumors. anatomic resections.32
Electrocardiographic leads should be kept clear of the right chest There are two oncologic settings where nonanatomic resections
wall and the presternal area in case a thoracoabdominal incision is are favored. In patients with HCC, viral hepatitis and cirrhosis are
necessitated by the position of a tumor or by intraoperative hem- often complicating factors. Cirrhotic patients tolerate resection of
orrhage. Preparation and draping should therefore also allow for more than two segments of functional parenchyma poorly. For
exposure of the lower chest and the entire upper abdomen down these patients, the smallest resection that will achieve complete
past the umbilicus. A crossbar or a similar device that holds self- tumor excision is favored, even if it is a wedge resection. For man-
retaining retractors should be used to elevate the costal margin. agement of metastatic neuroendocrine tumors, in which resec-
Some surgeons prefer ring-based self-retaining retractors. In our tions are merely debulking procedures designed to alleviate symp-
experience, although these retractors are adequate for most resec- toms, nonanatomic resections are accepted because cure is highly
tions, the rings tend to restrict lateral access, thereby potentially unlikely.
hindering posterior dissection, particularly of the vena cava. Hepatic resections for benign hepatic tumors are usually per-
formed for one of three reasons: (1) to relieve symptoms (e.g.,
ANATOMIC VERSUS NONANATOMIC RESECTION pain or early satiety), (2) because the diagnosis is uncertain, or
The key decision in planning a hepatectomy is whether the (3) to prevent malignant transformation. A goal of such resec-
resection should be anatomic or nonanatomic. For treatment of tions should be to spare as much normal parenchyma as possi-
malignant disease, anatomic resection is usually favored because ble. Consequently, lesions such as hemangiomas, adenomas,
the long-term outcome is better. Anatomic resections permit exci- complex cysts, and focal nodular hyperplasia are often excised by
sion of parenchymal areas distal to the index tumors, where there means of enucleation or another nonanatomic resection with
is a high incidence of vascular micrometastases. In addition, they limited margins.
are significantly less likely to have positive margins than
nonanatomic resections are. In a large series of hepatectomies for Operative Technique
metastatic colorectal cancer, wedge or nonanatomic resections
were associated with a 19% rate of positive margins.31 In one Theoretically, any hepatic segment can be resected in isolation.
examination of the increasing preference for anatomic resections For practical purposes, however, there are six major types of
anatomic resection. Until comparatively recently, most authors
have followed the commonly used terminology of Goldsmith and
Woodburne in referring to these procedures.33 Some authors have
a Right Hepatectomy b Left Hepatectomy preferred other systems of nomenclature, based on the anatomic
descriptions of Couinaud16 or Bismuth.34 In this chapter, howev-
4
8 2 er, we use the Brisbane 2000 terminology for hepatic resections
7 1, 9 [see Figure 3].
3 The essential principles of all anatomic hepatectomies are the
5
4
same: (1) control of inflow vessels, (2) control of outflow vessels,
6 Cantlie's and (3) parenchymal transection.To illustrate these principles, we
Line
begin by outlining the steps in a right hepatectomy [see Figure 3a]
in some detail, describing both extrahepatic vascular dissection
c Right Trisectionectomy
and ligation and the alternative approach to inflow control, intra-
(Extended Right Hepatectomy) d Left Lateral Sectionectomy
hepatic pedicle ligation. Left hepatectomy [see Figure 3b] and other
common anatomic resections [see Figures 3c, d, e, f] share a num-
ber of steps with right hepatectomy; accordingly, we discuss them
in somewhat less detail. Further detail on these procedures is avail-
able in other sources.35,36
RIGHT HEPATECTOMY
e Left Trisectionectomy
Step 1: Laparoscopic Inspection
(Extended Left Hepatectomy) f Right Posterior Sectionectomy Experience from MSKCC37,38 and other centers39,40 indicates
that laparoscopy allows detection of unresectable disease and pre-
vents the morbidity associated with a nontherapeutic laparotomy.
We generally perform laparoscopy immediately before laparotomy
during the same period of anesthesia. The laparoscopic port sites
are placed in the upper abdomen along the line of the intended
incision [see Step 2, below]. The first two ports are usually 10 mm
ports placed in the right subcostal area along the midclavicular line
Figure 3 Shown are schematic illustrations of standard hepatic and along the anterior axillary line.These ports allow inspection of
resections, with the shaded areas representing the resected por- the abdomen and of the entire liver, including the dome and seg-
tions: (a) right hepatectomy, (b) left hepatectomy, (c) right trisec- ment 7.The port along the right anterior axillary line is particular-
tionectomy (extended right hepatectomy), (d) left lateral sec- ly suitable for laparoscopic ultrasound devices. If additional ports
tionectomy, (e) left trisectionectomy (extended left hepatectomy), are necessary, a left subcostal midclavicular port is usually the best
and (f) right posterior sectionectomy. choice.

5. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 5
Winslow to permit identification of the portal vein and palpation
of the portocaval lymph nodes.The hilar lymph nodes are palpat-
ed, and any suspicious nodes are removed for frozen-section
E
examination. The entire abdomen is inspected for evidence of
extrahepatic tumor if the operation is being done to treat cancer.
Step 4: Mobilization of Liver
D Once the decision is made to proceed with hepatic resection, the
liver is fully mobilized by detaching all ligamentous attachments on
the side to be resected. (Some surgeons defer completion of mobi-
F
lization to a later stage in the procedure.) In particular, the supra-
hepatic inferior vena cava and the hepatic veins above the liver are
dissected to facilitate the subsequent approach to the hepatic veins
[see Step 7, below]. Once the liver is mobilized, further palpation is
B C done to detect any small lesions that may have been obscured ini-
A tially. This additional palpation is particularly important on the
right side because before mobilization, the posterior parts of the
liver cannot be effectively palpated, and intraoperative ultrasonog-
raphy may fail to detect small lesions in this area.41
If, in the course of mobilization, tumor is found to be attached
to the diaphragm, the affected area of the diaphragm may be
excised and subsequently repaired.
Figure 4 Right hepatectomy. A right subcostal incision (A) with a
midline extension to the xiphoid (D) is the most common choice; Step 5: Identification of Arterial Anomalies
an extension to the left subcostal area (C) is sometimes added to Any hepatic arterial anomalies present should be identified
provide further operative exposure. We prefer a long midline inci- before resection is begun. With good preoperative imaging, the
sion from the xiphoid (D) to a point approximately 2 to 3 cm
arterial anatomy is usually defined with sufficient exactitude
above the umbilicus (B) along with a rightward extension (A)
because this incision provides superb exposure of both the right
before laparotomy. It is also possible to gain a clear picture of the
side and the left without the wound complications of a trifurcated arterial anatomy intraoperatively by means of simple maneuvers
incision. The chest can be entered through either a median ster- that do not involve major dissection.
notomy (E) or an anterolateral right thoracoabdominal incision The lesser omentum should be examined to determine whether
(F). there is a vessel coursing through its middle to the base of the
umbilical fissure, and the hepatoduodenal ligament should be pal-
pated with an index finger within the foramen of Winslow to see
Step 2: Incision whether there is an artery in the gastropancreatic fold on its medi-
For the majority of hepatic resections, most surgeons use a al aspect. The usual bifurcation of the hepatic arteries occurs low
bilateral subcostal incision extended vertically to the xiphisternum and medially in the hepatoduodenal ligament, and the left hepatic
artery normally travels on the medial aspect of the ligament to
[see Figure 4]. Our own preference, however, is to use an upper
reach the base of the umbilical fissure. Thus, if an artery is palpa-
midline incision extending to a point approximately 2 cm above
ble in the medial upper portion of the hepatoduodenal ligament, it
the umbilicus, with a rightward extension from that point to a
is the main left hepatic artery. Any vessel seen in the lesser omen-
point in the midaxillary line halfway between the lowest rib and
tum must therefore be an accessory left artery. If no pulse is found
the iliac crest [see Figure 4]. We find that this incision provides
in the medial upper portion of the hepatoduodenal ligament, the
superb access for either right- or left-side resection, without the vessel in the lesser omentum must be a replaced left hepatic artery.
wound complications often encountered with trifurcated incisions The right hepatic artery usually travels transversely behind the
(e.g., ascitic leakage and incisional hernia). On rare occasions common bile duct (CBD) to reach the base of the cystic plate. A
(e.g., in the resection of large, rigid posterior tumors of the right vertically traveling artery on the lateral hepatoduodenal ligament
hemiliver), a right thoracoabdominal incision may be required. In must therefore be either a replaced or an accessory right hepatic
a series of nearly 2,000 resections at MSKCC, however, a thora- artery, probably arising from the superior mesenteric artery.
coabdominal incision proved necessary in only 3% of patients; the
most common indication was repeat liver resection after previous Step 6 (Extrahepatic Dissection and Ligation): Control of
right hepatectomy [see Repeat Hepatic Resection, below]. Inflow Vessels
Step 3: Abdominal Exploration and Intraoperative The classic approach to extrahepatic control of the inflow ves-
sels in a right hepatectomy involves extrahepatic dissection and
Ultrasonography
ligation [see Figure 5].The cystic duct and the cystic artery are lig-
The liver is palpated bimanually. Intraoperative ultrasonogra- ated and divided. The gallbladder may be either removed or left
phy is systematically performed to identify all possible lesions and attached to the right hemiliver, according to the surgeon’s prefer-
their relations to the major vascular structures. This modality is ence. The usual practice is to ligate first the right hepatic duct,
capable of identifying small lesions that preoperative imaging then the right hepatic artery, and finally the right portal vein,
studies and palpation of the liver may miss.41 The lesser omentum working from anterior to posterior. Our preference, however, is to
is incised to allow palpation of the caudate lobe and inspection of work from posterior to anterior, as follows.
the celiac region for nodal metastases. A finger is passed from the The sheath of the porta hepatis is opened laterally. Dissection is
lesser sac inferior to the caudate lobe through the foramen of then performed in the plane between the CBD and the portal

6. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 6
a b
c
Figure 5 Right hepatectomy. For control of the inflow vessels of the right hemiliver, the liver is retracted
cephalad to allow exposure of the porta hepatis. (a) The gallbladder is resected to allow access to the bile duct
and hepatic vessels. (b) The right hepatic duct is ligated to allow access to the hepatic artery and the portal
vein. (c) After the right hepatic artery is divided, the right portal vein is controlled and divided. Alternatively,
the vessels may be approached from a posterolateral direction and the portal vein and hepatic artery may be
divided first, with the hepatic duct left intact until the parenchymal transection.
vein. To facilitate this dissection, the CBD is elevated by applying main right portal vein is ligated in a patient who exhibits this
forward traction to the ligated cystic duct. The portal vein is then anatomic variant, the portion of the liver remaining after resection
followed cephalad until its bifurcation into the left and right por- will lack any portal flow.There is usually a small portal branch that
tal veins is visible. In a small percentage of patients, the left portal passes from the main right portal vein to the caudate process.
vein arises from the right anterior branch of the portal vein. If the Ligation of this branch untethers another 1 to 2 cm of the right
Glisson's Sheath
Figure 6 Right hepatectomy. Glisson’s sheath is a
Sheath cut away vascular and biliary pedicle that contains the portal
from this point triad. If this sheath is not violated, the entire pedi-
cle can be suture-ligated or staple-ligated with con-
fidence and safety.

7. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 7
4
5 3
C Figure 7 Right hepatectomy. Depicted are
E sites where hepatotomies can be made to per-
B mit isolation of various vascular pedicles.
Incisions at sites A and B allow isolation of
D the right main portal pedicle. Incisions at
F sites A and D allow isolation of the right pos-
A
terior portal pedicle. Incisions at sites B and
6 2
D allow isolation of the right anterior pedicle.
Incisions at sites C and E allow isolation of
1 the left main portal pedicle; if the caudate
lobe is to be removed, incisions are made at
sites C and F.
portal vein, thereby allowing safer dissection and ligation. The incisions must be fairly substantial and reasonably deep. Care
right portal vein is usually clamped with vascular clamps, divided, must be taken to avoid the terminal branches of the middle hepat-
and oversewn with nonabsorbable sutures. Once this is done, the ic vein, which are the most common source of significant bleed-
right hepatic artery is visible behind the CBD and can easily be ing. By means of either finger dissection or the passage of a large
secured and ligated with nonabsorbable sutures. Because of the curved clamp, a tape is then placed around the right main sheath
multitude of biliary anatomic variations, we usually leave the right [see Figure 8]. This tape can be pulled medially to provide better
hepatic duct intact until parenchymal dissection [see Step 8, below] exposure of the intrahepatic right pedicle and to retract the left bil-
is begun, when this structure can be secured higher within the iary tree and portal vein away from the area to be clamped and
hepatic parenchyma and divided with greater safety. divided. Clamps are then applied, the right pedicle is divided, and
the stumps are suture-ligated.
Staple ligation Vascular staplers may be used for stapling In practice, for right hepatectomies, we prefer to isolate the
the right or the left portal vein during extrahepatic vascular dissec- right anterior and posterior pedicles separately [see Figure 8] and
tion42,43; however, suture ligation of the extrahepatic portal veins is ligate them individually. This measure ensures that the left-side
such a straightforward technical exercise that staplers add little structures cannot be injured. Any minor bleeding from a hepato-
except cost. tomy usually ceases spontaneously or else stops when Surgicel is
placed into the wound.
Step 6—Alternative (Intrahepatic Pedicle Ligation): Control of
Inflow Vessels Staple ligation The use of staplers is now well established
The observations of Glisson and Couinaud (see above) that the for liver resections,42-47 and we find that staple ligation greatly
nutrient vessels to the liver are contained within a thick connec- increases the speed with which intrahepatic portal pedicle liga-
tive tissue capsule [see Figure 6] were the basis for the initial pro- tions can be performed.To control the intrahepatic portal pedicles
posal by Launois and Jamieson that intrahepatic vascular pedicle for a right hepatectomy, incisions are made at hepatotomy sites A
ligation could serve as an alternative to extrahepatic dissection and and B [see Figure 7]. Ultrasonography directed from the inferior
ligation for controlling vascular inflow to the liver.17 This alterna- aspect of the liver helps determine the depth at which the right
tive technique has the advantages of being rapid and of being pedicle lies, which is usually 1 to 2 cm from the inferior surface.
unlikely to cause injury to the vasculature or the biliary drainage The right main pedicle is then secured either digitally or with a
of the contralateral liver. Given adequate intrahepatic definition curved blunt clamp (e.g., a renal pedicle clamp), and an umbilical
and control of the portal triads supplying the area of the liver to tape is placed around it [see Figure 9a].The hilar plate in the back
be resected, one can readily isolate the various major pedicles by of segment 4 is lowered via an incision at hepatotomy site C [see
using simple combinations of hepatotomies at specific sites on the Figure 7] to ensure that the left-side vascular and biliary structures
inferior surface of the liver [see Figure 7]. are mobilized well away from the area of staple ligation. A trans-
The right hemiliver is completely mobilized from the retroperi- verse anastomosis (TA) vascular stapler is applied to the right
toneum.The most inferior small hepatic veins are ligated, and the main pedicle while firm countertraction is being applied to the
inferior right hemiliver is mobilized off the vena cava. Incisions are umbilical tape to pull the hilum to the left [see Figure 9a].The sta-
then made in the liver capsule at hepatotomy sites A and B [see pler is fired, and the pedicle is divided [see Figure 9b].
Figure 7]. The first incision is made though the caudate lobe. The
full thickness of the caudate lobe is divided with a combination of Troubleshooting There are several important guiding prin-
diathermy, crushing, and ligation. The second incision is made ciples that should be followed in deciding on and performing
almost vertically in the medial part of the gallbladder bed. Both intrahepatic pedicle ligation.The most important principle is that

8. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 8
Right Main Sheath Left Main Sheath right hepatectomy. Application of the Pringle maneuver decreases
bleeding during hepatotomy and isolation of the pedicle. Finally,
the lowest hepatic veins behind the liver should be dissected before
any attempt is made to isolate the right-side portal pedicles: incis-
ing the caudate lobe without dividing the small hepatic veins
8
5 draining this portion of the liver to the vena cava can lead to sig-
nificant hemorrhage.
7
Step 7: Control of Outflow Vessels
Control of the outflow vasculature begins with division of the
6
hepatic veins passing from the posterior aspect of the right
hemiliver directly to the vena cava. After the right hemiliver is
completely mobilized off the retroperitoneum by dividing the right
triangular ligament, it is carefully dissected off the vena cava.
Dissection proceeds upward from the inferior border of the liver
Lesser Omentum until the right hepatic vein is exposed. Complete mobilization of
Portal Vein
the right hemiliver is particularly critical for tumors close to the
vena cava. The right hepatic vein is then isolated, cross-clamped,
Caudate Inferior
Process Vena Cava divided, and oversewn [see Figure 10]. Unless the tumor or lesion
involves the middle hepatic vein close to its junction with the vena
Figure 8 Right hepatectomy. Depicted is isolation of the main right
portal pedicle. The pedicle is controlled with a vascular tape and cava, the middle hepatic vein usually is not controlled extrahepat-
retracted from within the liver substance. This tape can be used for ically for right-side resections and is easily secured during paren-
countertraction when a vascular clamp or stapler is applied. The chymal transection.
main right portal pedicle has anterior and posterior branches. The If there is a large tumor residing at the dome of the liver, gain-
right anterior pedicle consists of pedicles to segments 5 and 8. The ing control of the hepatic veins and the vena cava may prove very
right posterior pedicle usually consists of only the segment 6 pedicle difficult. If so, one should not hesitate to extend the incision to the
but may also give rise to the segment 7 pedicle.
chest by means of a right thoracoabdominal extension. The mor-
bidity of a thoracoabdominal incision is preferable to the poten-
in patients undergoing operation for cancer, an intrahepatic pedi- tially catastrophic hemorrhage that is sometimes encountered
cle approach should not be used when a tumor is within 2 cm of when the right hepatic vein is torn during mobilization of a rigid
the hepatic hilum. In such cases, extrahepatic dissection should be right hemiliver containing a large tumor.
performed to avoid violation of the tumor margin.
From a technical standpoint, removal of the gallbladder greatly Staple ligation Staple ligation has proved useful for outflow
facilitates isolation and control of right-side vascular pedicles in a control during hepatectomy. When the tumor is in proximity to
a b
Figure 9 Right hepatectomy. Shown is staple ligation of the right portal pedicle. (a) After the liver is
incised across the caudate lobe and along the gallbladder bed, the right main pedicle is isolated and held
with an umbilical tape. Countertraction is placed on the umbilical tape while a TA vascular stapler is
placed across the pedicle, allowing the left hepatic duct and the left vascular structures to be retracted
away from the line of stapling. (b) After the stapler is fired, the pedicle is clamped and divided.

9. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 9
nant is well documented. Even in patients with cirrhosis, the warm
ischemia produced by continuous application of the Pringle
maneuver is well tolerated for as long as 1 hour.49 Our practice is
to apply the Pringle maneuver intermittently for periods of 10
minutes, with 2 to 5 minutes of perfusion between applications to
allow decompression of the gut.
Parenchymal division is then begun along the line demarcated
by the devascularization of the right hemiliver.The line of transec-
tion along the principal plane is marked with the electrocautery
and then cut with scissors. Stay sutures of 0 chromic catgut are
placed on either side of the plane of transection and used for trac-
tion, separation, and elevation as dissection proceeds.
Many special instruments have been proposed for use in
parenchymal transection, including electrocauteries, ultrasonic
dissectors, and water-jet dissectors. We find that for the majority
of hepatic resections, blunt clamp dissection is the most rapid
method and is quite safe. In essence, a large Kelly clamp is used
to crush the liver parenchyma [see Figure 12]. The relatively soft
liver substance dissects away, leaving behind the vascular and bil-
iary structures, which are then ligated. With this technique, the
principal plane of the liver can usually be transected in less than
30 minutes.
Vena Cava In cirrhotic patients, the clamp-crushing technique may not
work as well because of the firmness of the liver substance: the ves-
sels often tear before the parenchyma does. Accordingly, in cir-
rhotic patients, ultrasonic dissectors that coagulate while transect-
Figure 10 Right hepatectomy. Once the small perforating vessels
ing the parenchyma may be a better choice. Water-jet dissectors
to the vena cava have been ligated, further dissection cephalad may be useful in defining the major intrahepatic vascular pedicles
leads to the right hepatic vein. This vessel is controlled with vascu- or the junction of the hepatic vein and the vena cava, particularly
lar clamps and divided. if tumor is in close proximity.
After the specimen is removed, the raw surface of the hepatic
remnant is carefully examined for hemostasis and biliary leakage.
the hepatic vein–vena cava junction, extrahepatic control of the Any oozing from the raw surface may be controlled with the argon
hepatic veins is essential for excision of the tumor with clear mar-
gins, and it limits blood loss during parenchymal transection.48
Ligating the hepatic veins, particularly with a large and rigid
tumor in the vicinity, can be a technically demanding and danger-
ous exercise.Tearing the hepatic vein or the vena cava during this
maneuver is the most common cause of major intraoperative
hemorrhage.36 The endoscopic gastrointestinal anastomosis
(GIA) stapler is well suited for ligation of the major hepatic veins,
in that it has a low profile and is capable of simultaneously sealing
both the hepatic vein stump on the vena cava side and the one on
the specimen side.
For staple ligation of the right hepatic vein, the right hemiliver
is mobilized off the vena cava. Any large accessory right hepatic
vein encountered can be staple-ligated, as can the tongue of liver
tissue that often passes from the right hemiliver behind the vena
cava to the caudate lobe. The right hepatic vein is then identified
and isolated. It is the practice of some authors to introduce the
stapler from the top of the liver downward,43 but we find that in
most patients, the liver is sufficiently high in the surgical wound to
render this angle of introduction technically impracticable. Right
Accordingly, we introduce the stapler parallel to the vena cava and Lobe
Diaphragm
direct it from below upward [see Figure 11].To ensure that the sta- Vena Cava
pler does not misfire, care should be taken to confirm that no vas-
Figure 11 Right hepatectomy. As an alternative to clamping and
cular clips are near the site where the stapler is applied.
division, the right hepatic vein may be staple-ligated. Once the
Step 8: Parenchymal Transection small perforating tributaries from the right hemiliver to the vena
cava have been divided, the right hepatic vein is isolated and ligat-
Inflow to the left hemiliver is temporarily interrupted by clamp- ed with an endoscopic GIA vascular stapler. The safest method for
ing the hepatoduodenal ligament (the Pringle maneuver) [see 7:6 introducing this stapler is to retract the liver cephalad and to the
Injuries to the Liver, Biliary Tract, Spleen, and Diaphragm].The safe- left while advancing the stapler cephalad in the direction of the
ty of temporary occlusion of the vessels supplying the hepatic rem- vena cava.

10. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 10
Figure 12 Right hepatectomy. The parenchyma
can be quickly and safely transected by means of
the clamp-crushing technique. Large vessels and
biliary radicles are visualized and ligated or
clipped. This is usually done in tandem with
inflow occlusion (i.e., the Pringle maneuver).
Alternatively, the parenchyma can be bluntly
dissected away by means of the finger-fracture
technique.
beam coagulator. Biliary leaks should be controlled with clipping Step 6—Alternative (Intrahepatic Pedicle Ligation): Control of
or suture ligation. The retroperitoneal surfaces should also be Inflow Vessels
examined carefully for hemostasis, and the argon beam coagulator If the hepatectomy is being done to treat benign disease or to
should be used where necessary. remove a malignancy that is remote from the base of the umbilical
Step 9: Closure and Drainage fissure, we highly recommend performing stapler-assisted pedicle
ligation in preference to extrahepatic dissection and ligation.
The abdominal wall is closed in one or two layers with contin- The left portal pedicle is identified at the base of the umbilical
uous absorbable monofilament sutures. The skin is closed with fissure. The hilar plate is lowered through an incision at hepatoto-
staples or with subcuticular sutures. Drains are unnecessary in my site C [see Figure 7], and a second incision is made in the back
most routine cases50; sometimes, in fact, they may exert harmful of segment 2 at hepatotomy site E [see Figure 7], thereby allowing
effects by leading to ascending infection or fluid management isolation of the left portal pedicle with minimal risk of injury to the
problems if ascites develops. There are four clinical situations in
which we routinely place a drain: (1) clear biliary leakage, (2) an
infected operative field, (3) a thoracoabdominal incision, and (4)
biliary reconstruction. In the case of the thoracoabdominal inci-
sion, a drain is placed to ensure that biliary leakage does not devel-
op into a fistula into the chest.
LEFT HEPATECTOMY
Steps 1 through 5 E D
Left hepatectomy involves removal of segments 2, 3, and 4, and
sometimes 1 and 9 as well.The first five steps of the procedure are
much the same as those of a right hepatectomy.
F C
Step 6 (Extrahepatic Dissection and Ligation): Control of B
Inflow Vessels
Extrahepatic control of vascular inflow vessels can be achieved
in essentially the same fashion as in a right-side resection. Our
preference is to start the dissection at the base of the umbilical fis- A
sure. The left hepatic artery is divided first. The left branch of the
portal vein is then easily identified at the base of the umbilical fis-
Figure 13 Left hepatectomy. Ligation of vascular pedicles at spe-
sure. The point at which the left portal vein is to be divided
cific sites in the left hemiliver interrupts inflow to specific areas.
depends on the extent of the planned parenchymal resection [see Ligation at A interrupts inflow to the entire left hemiliver, as well
Figure 13]: if the caudate lobe is to be preserved, the left portal vein as the caudate lobe. Ligation at B interrupts blood flow to the left
is ligated just distal to its caudate branch (line B); if the caudate liver while sparing the caudate lobe. Ligation at C devascularizes
lobe is to be removed, the left portal vein is ligated proximal to the segment 2, and ligation at D devascularizes segment 3. Ligation at
origins of the portal venous branches to this structure (line A). E and F devascularizes segment 4.

11. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 11
hilum. If the caudate lobe is to be removed as well, incisions should
be made at hepatotomy sites C and F [see Figure 7] to allow isola-
tion of the main left portal pedicle proximal to the vessels nourish-
ing the caudate.The portal pedicle is isolated and secured with an
umbilical tape.There is some risk that in the course of securing the
left portal pedicle, the middle hepatic vein, which lies immediately
lateral to the left portal pedicle, may be injured. To minimize this
risk, firm downward traction is applied to the umbilical tape, and
a TA-30 vascular stapler is placed across the left portal pedicle [see
Figure 14].The pedicle is then stapled and divided.
Step 7: Control of Outflow Vessels
The left hemiliver is retracted to the patient’s right, and the
entire lesser omentum is divided. The ligamentum venosum is
identified between the caudate lobe and the back of segment 2
and is then divided near its attachment to the left hepatic vein; this
measure facilitates identification and dissection of the left and
middle hepatic veins anterior to the inferior vena cava. The left
and middle hepatic veins are isolated in preparation for division.
Control of the left hepatic vein is quickly and safely accom-
plished with staple ligation. In approximately 60% of patients, the
left and middle hepatic veins join to form a single trunk before
entering the vena cava. In a left hepatectomy, the middle hepatic
vein is often left intact; accordingly, if this is the surgeon’s intent,
it is vital to protect the middle hepatic vein while ligating the left.
Figure 14 Left hepatectomy. After hepatotomies in segment 4 After the left hepatic vein is identified, an endoscopic GIA-30 vas-
and in the back of segment 2, the left portal pedicle is isolated, cular stapler is directed from above downward [see Figure 15] to
stapled, and divided. ligate this vessel. The liver is retracted to the right to permit visu-
alization of the junction of the left and middle hepatic veins. If lig-
ation of the middle hepatic vein is desired as well, as is the case
when there is tumor in proximity to the vessel, this can be accom-
plished with a stapler directed along the same path used for left
hepatic vein ligation.
Steps 8 and 9
Parenchymal transection and closure are accomplished in
much the same manner in a left hepatectomy as in a right hepatec-
tomy (see above).
OTHER ANATOMIC RESECTIONS
In the ensuing review of the other major anatomic resections,
we focus primarily on the major points in which they differ from
right and left hepatectomy. More detailed discussions of these
operations are available in specialty texts on liver resection.35,36
Right Trisectionectomy (Extended Right Hepatectomy)
A right trisectionectomy (extended right hepatectomy) involves
removal of the right hemiliver along with segment 4—that is, all
liver tissue to the right of the falciform ligament [see Figure 3c].
The initial steps of this operation are the same as those of a right
hepatectomy, up through division of the right inflow vessels and
the right hepatic vein.
The next step is devascularization of segment 4. The umbilical
fissure is dissected to permit identification of the vascular pedicles
to segments 2, 3, and 4, which lie within this fissure [see Figure 13].
Ligamentum Teres Vena Cava In most cases, the lower part of the umbilical fissure is concealed
Caudate Lobe by a bridge of liver tissue fusing segments 2 and 3 to segment 4.
Figure 15 Left hepatectomy. Staple ligation of the left hepatic After this tissue bridge is divided with diathermy, the ligamentum
vein. After the left hemiliver is completely mobilized through divi- teres is retracted caudally to reveal the vascular pedicles from the
sion of the left triangular ligament and the lesser omentum, the umbilical fissure to segment 4 (lines E and F [see Figure 13]). We
left hepatic vein is isolated and ligated with an endoscopic GIA generally suture-ligate these pedicles before dividing them.
vascular stapler. The best angle for introducing the stapler is from The liver tissue is then transected immediately to the right of
the xiphoid posteriorly and caudad. the falciform ligament, from the anterior surface back toward

12. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 12
the divided right hepatic vein. The middle hepatic vein is gener- The liver is fully mobilized by dividing not only the left triangu-
ally left intact until it is encountered in the upper part of the dis- lar ligament but also the ligaments on the right.This step is essen-
section, at which point it is controlled and either suture- or tial for identifying the correct plane of parenchymal dissection and
staple-ligated. for ensuring safe dissection along the right hepatic vein.
The initial dissection is the same as for a left hepatectomy. The
Left Lateral Sectionectomy liver is turned to the right side and the portal triad approached.
A left lateral sectionectomy involves removal of only segments 2 The inflow vessels to the left hemiliver are ligated, and the left
and 3—that is, all liver tissue to the left of the falciform ligament hepatic vein and the subdiaphragmatic inferior vena cava are dis-
[see Figure 3d]. These segments are mobilized by dividing the left sected free. The left and middle hepatic veins are controlled and
falciform and triangular ligaments. As this is done, care must be ligated in the extrahepatic portions of their courses.52 The left
taken not to injure the left hepatic and phrenic veins, which lie on hemiliver is thereby freed, and dissection on the right hemiliver is
the medial portion of the left triangular ligament. greatly facilitated.
The falciform ligament is retracted caudally, and the bridge of Next, the plane of transection within the right hemiliver is
liver tissue between segment 4 and segments 2 and 3 is divided defined. This plane is horizontal and lies lateral to the gallbladder
with diathermy. Dissection is then performed within the umbilical fossa and just anterior to the main right hepatic venous trunk in
fissure to the left of the main triad. The vascular pedicles to seg- the right scissura, halfway between the right anterior pedicle and
ments 2 and 3 usually are then readily dissected and controlled the right posterior pedicle. The plane can be approximated by
(lines C and D [see Figure 13]). Control of these pedicles within drawing a line from just anterior to the right hepatic vein at its
the umbilical fissure is particularly important for tumor clearance insertion into the vena cava to a point immediately behind the fis-
if tumor is in proximity to the umbilical fissure: if the condition is sure of Gans. This line can be accurately defined by clamping the
benign or if tumor is remote from the umbilical fissure, the liver portal pedicle to the right anterior section of the liver.52 If the
may be split anteroposteriorly just to the left of the ligamentum tumor is remote from the junction of the right anterior and poste-
teres and the falciform ligament, and the vascular pedicles may be rior portal pedicles, the anterior pedicle is controlled as outlined
identified and ligated as they are encountered in the course of earlier [see Right Hepatectomy, Step 6—Alternative (Intrahepatic
parenchymal transection. Pedicle Ligation), above]. A vascular clamp is placed on the pedi-
Once the inflow vessels have been ligated, the left hepatic vein cle and the line of demarcation on the liver surface inspected
is identified and then divided either before parenchymal transec- before the pedicle is divided. If segment 7 appears to be ischemic
tion or as the vessel is encountered near the completion of as well, further dissection must be done to identify and protect the
parenchymal transection. If there is tumor near the dome, it is par- origins of the vessels supplying segment 7.
ticularly important for tumor clearance that the left hepatic vein be Parenchymal dissection is then carried out from below upward,
controlled and ligated early and outside the liver. with bleeding controlled by means of low central venous pressure
anesthesia and intermittent application of the Pringle maneuver. If
Left Trisectionectomy (Extended Left Hepatectomy) the caudate lobe is to be removed as part of the total resection, the
A left trisectionectomy (extended left hepatectomy) involves veins draining the caudate must be controlled before parenchymal
resection of segments 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, and sometimes 1 and 9 as transection.
well [see Figure 3e]. In essence, it is a left hepatectomy combined
with a right anterior sectionectomy; it may or may not include Segment-Oriented Resection
excision of the caudate lobe. This complex resection is usually Each segment of the liver can be resected independently. In
undertaken to excise large tumors that occupy the left hemiliver addition, resections involving only the right posterior section (seg-
and cross the principal scissura into the right anterior section. ments 6 and 7) [see Figure 3f] or the right anterior section (seg-
In this procedure, it is essential to preserve the right hepatic ments 5 and 8) are not uncommon. Extensive and excellent
vein, which constitutes the sole venous drainage of the hepatic descriptions of so-called segment-oriented hepatic resection are
remnant. Usually, however, parenchymal transection must be per- available elsewhere.53,54
formed along the course of this vein; thus, the major potential dan-
ger in the operation is injury to the vessel, which could lead to
hemorrhage or hepatic failure from venous congestion of the Postoperative Care
hepatic remnant. In addition, because the blood supply to seg- I.V. fluids administered postoperatively should include phos-
ment 7 often arises from the right anterior portal pedicle or from phorus for support of liver regeneration. For large-volume hepat-
the junction of the right anterior and posterior pedicles [see Figure ic resections, electrolyte levels, blood count, and prothrombin
8], there is a risk that the operation may result in devascularization time (PT) are checked after the operation and then daily for 3 to
of a large portion of the hepatic remnant. Finally, because of the 4 days. Packed red blood cells are administered if the hemoglo-
great variability of the biliary anatomy and the extensive intrahep- bin level falls to 8 mg/dl or lower, and fresh frozen plasma is
atic dissection required in this procedure, there is a significant risk given if the PT is longer than 17 seconds. Postoperative pain
of biliary complications.51 For all of these reasons, left trisectionec- control is best achieved with patient-controlled analgesia (PCA).
tomies are rarely performed outside major centers.52 Because of the decreased clearance of liver-metabolized drugs
In the planning of a left trisectionectomy, particularly close atten- after a major hepatectomy, selection and dosing of pain medica-
tion must be paid to preoperative imaging investigations so that the tions should be adjusted accordingly. An oral diet can be
right-side intrahepatic vessels and biliary structures can be accurate- resumed as early as postoperative day 3 unless a biliary-enteric
ly delineated.Thin-slice CT or MRI images in the form of arterial, anastomosis was performed.
portal venous, and hepatic venous reconstructions [see Figure 2] are Peripheral edema is common after major hepatic resections and
quite helpful in this regard. For large tumors encroaching on the may be treated with spironolactone. If an unexplained fever occurs
hepatic hilum or on the junction of the right anterior and posterior or the bilirubin level rises when other hepatic function parameters
pedicles, direct angiography may still be necessary. are normal, an intra-abdominal bile collection may be present, and

13. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 13
a CT scan should be obtained. Percutaneous drain placement manipulation of the tumor has the theoretical advantage of pre-
usually brings about resolution of such collections after a few days; venting vascular dissemination of cancer cells caused by compres-
reoperation is rarely necessary. sion of the tumor. For these reasons, some authors proposed an
anterior approach whereby the liver parenchyma is transected
from the anterior surface to reach the vena cava, with ligation of
Special Considerations the inflow and outflow vasculature carried out before mobilization
of the right hemiliver.60 This approach is now widely followed for
TOTAL VASCULAR ISOLATION FOR CONTROL OF BLEEDING
resection of HCC.
For control of bleeding during liver parenchymal transection, a Subsequently, other authors proposed a modification of this
technique known as total vascular isolation can be used as an alter- technique whereby dissection is performed along the anterior sur-
native to the Pringle maneuver. In this technique, the liver is isolat- face of the vena cava and a tape passed in this plane to lift the liver
ed by controlling the inferior vena cava (both above and below the and thereby facilitate transection of the parenchyma and ligation
liver), the portal vein, and the hepatic artery.This approach is based of the vasculature [see Figure 16].61 The first step in this so-called
on techniques developed for liver transplantation and on the obser- hanging maneuver is to dissect the space between the right and
vation that the liver is capable of tolerating total normothermic middle hepatic veins downward for approximately 2 cm. Next,
ischemia for as long as 1 hour.55 Its primary advantage is that while dissection is performed between the vena cava and the caudate
the liver is isolated, little or no bleeding occurs. It does, however, lobe on the left side of the inferior right hepatic vein. A clamp is
have disadvantages as well. In some patients, temporary occlusion then passed along this plane in the notch between the right and
of the inferior vena cava causes hemodynamic instability as a con- middle hepatic veins, and an umbilical tape is passed for suspen-
sequence of reduced cardiac output coupled with increased sys- sion of the liver.Transection of the parenchyma is performed in an
temic vascular resistance.56 Cardiac failure with marked hypoten- anterior-to-posterior direction until the vena cava is reached. The
sion, cardiac arrhythmia, and even cardiac arrest may ensue. In right side of the vena cava is then dissected, and the right hepatic
addition, when hepatic perfusion is restored, the sudden return of vein and the inferior hepatic veins are ligated.The triangular liga-
stagnant potassium-rich blood to the systemic circulation can ment and the retroperitoneal attachments are transected, and the
aggravate the situation. For these reasons and because bleeding is specimen is removed.
generally well controlled with low central venous pressure anesthe-
THE CIRRHOTIC PATIENT
sia, we believe that total vascular isolation is useful only in rare
cases. The clinical data published to date support this view. A Cirrhotic patients, by definition, have reduced hepatic function-
prospective study from 1996 found that total vascular isolation had al capacity and reserve. Accordingly, these patients are at higher
no major advantages over the approach described earlier [see risk from hepatectomy and require careful assessment of liver
Operative Technique, Right Hepatectomy, Step 8, above] and was function, appropriate selection for surgery and choice of opera-
actually associated with greater blood loss.48 tion, and greater attention to perioperative care.
The one setting where we believe that total vascular isolation
may have a significant role to play is in the surgical management Operative Planning
of hepatic tumors, particularly very large tumors that compromise Selection of patients Hepatic failure is the major cause of
the vena cava or the hepatic veins. To extend the duration of vas- hospital death and long-term morbidity after hepatic resection in
cular isolation in this setting, a venovenous bypass that vents the cirrhotic patients.62-66 Consequently, determination of a cirrhotic
splanchnic blood into the systemic circulation may be used.57 To patient’s candidacy for hepatectomy is based on preoperative
further minimize parenchymal injury during vascular isolation, assessment of baseline liver function.
the liver may be perfused with cold organ preservation solutions. A variety of tests have been proposed for assessment of hepatic
For extensive vascular invasion that necessitates major vena caval reserve, including measurement of clearance of various dyes and
or hepatic venous reconstruction, some authors have suggested metabolic substrates (e.g., indocyanine green67,68 and aminopy-
that the liver can be removed during venovenous bypass and rine62). Measurement of the urea-nitrogen synthesis rate has also
resection and reconstruction performed extracorporeally.58 been suggested as a way of predicting outcome after resection.65
Although there are clinical situations that call for venovenous bypass Another functional test involves administering lidocaine and mea-
and ex vivo resection, in practice, these techniques are very rarely nec- suring levels of monethylglycinexylidide (a metabolite of lidocaine
essary: short-length vena caval resection and reconstruction can be that is generated mostly through the cytochrome P-450 enzyme
performed quite safely without resort to them. In fact, involvement system in the liver) as a gauge of liver function.69 Measurement of
of the retrohepatic vena cava at a level below the major hepatic the hepatic portal venous pressure gradient via invasive radiologic
veins can generally be treated with simple excision of the affected techniques has been found to predict postoperative hepatic fail-
segment without replacement,59 particularly if complete obstruc- ure.70 Assessment of portal venous hemodynamics by means of
tion at this level has already led to established collateral circulation. noninvasive Doppler ultrasonography has also been found to pre-
dict outcome after hepatectomy.71
HANGING MANEUVER IN MAJOR HEPATECTOMY
Currently, none of these functional tests are routinely done at
The classic technique for a right hepatectomy (see above) most major liver resection centers. In practice, the Child-Pugh
involves complete mobilization of the right hemiliver before vascu- score [see 5:3 Jaundice] is the most commonly employed clinical
lar control and parenchymal transection. In cases where the tumor tool for selection of surgical candidates. A Child-Pugh score high-
has invaded the retroperitoneum or diaphragm, however, such er than 8 is generally accepted as a contraindication to major
mobilization may be difficult. Moreover, in cases where the tumor hepatic resection.64,66,72-75
is a large, soft, vascular one such as HCC, the earlier mobilization
of the right hemiliver may increase the risk of tumor rupture. Choice of procedure The appropriate extent of resection for
Finally, division of the vascular inflow and outflow vessels before cirrhotic patients may be quite different from that for noncirrhotic

14. © 2007 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice
5 GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AND ABDOMEN 23 Hepatic Resection — 14
Figure 16 Illustrated is clamp dissection in prepa-
a ration for the hanging maneuver. (a) A long vascu-
lar clamp is passed between the vena cava and the
caudate lobe. This clamp is directed at the notch
between the right and middle hepatic veins, which
has been dissected from above. (b) An umbilical
tape is then passed to suspend the plane of
parenchymal transection.
b
patients. In cirrhotic patients, the majority of hepatectomies are struct the right hepatic vein for the purpose of preserving venous
performed to eradicate HCC.5 A prime consideration in such outflow in segments 5 and 6 after resection of segments 7 and 8.
resections is the margin needed to ensure tumor clearance. Most
clinicians aim for a tumor-free margin of 1 cm. A 1989 study, how- Operative Technique
ever, found that in cirrhotic patients with HCC, as long as the Hepatic resection in cirrhotic patients is associated with certain
tumor margin was microscopically clear of cancer, the exact size of specific technical difficulties that substantially increase the com-
the margin was not correlated with the incidence of recurrence.76 plexity of the operation. The liver parenchyma is hard, which
In fact, the acceptance of limited margins, coupled with the accep- makes retraction of the liver difficult. In addition, anatomic land-
tance of nonanatomic resections aimed at preserving as much func- marks are distorted and difficult to find as a consequence of fibro-
tional parenchyma as possible, is the single change in technical sis and atrophy-hypertrophy. Finally, portal hypertension and tis-
practice that is most responsible for the great improvements in the sue friability contribute to increased blood loss during mobiliza-
safety of hepatic resection observed worldwide in cirrhotic patients. tion and parenchymal transection.
The guiding principle for hepatectomy in cirrhotic patients is
that limited resections should be favored, with as much function- Exposure and mobilization Trifurcated incisions and tho-
al parenchyma spared as possible. In general, even for patients racoabdominal incisions should be avoided in cirrhotic patients
with well-compensated Child’s grade A cirrhosis, we try to limit because of the potential for ascitic leakage externally or into the
resections to less than two segments of functional liver. Patients chest. The increased firmness of the cirrhotic liver and the conse-
with large tumors are more likely to tolerate a major resection quent difficulty of retraction can lead to significant blood loss from
because little functional parenchyma must be removed along with retroperitoneal or phrenic collateral vessels during mobilization.
the tumor. Major hepatic resections involving removal of at least To prevent such bleeding, it may be preferable to use an anterior
one hemiliver are now reported to carry an operative mortality of approach in which the liver parenchyma is split within the princi-
less than 10% in cirrhotic patients.77,78 Such procedures are usu- pal scissura down to the anterior surface of the vena cava before
ally performed in cirrhotic patients who have large tumors replac- the right hemiliver is mobilized off the retroperitoneum.60 The
ing most of one hemiliver, acceptable liver function, and no atro- right hemiliver is then mobilized in a medial-to-lateral direction,
phy of the uninvolved hemiliver. Small tumors are often more dif- and the right hepatic vein is secured during mobilization of the
ficult to manage. For patients with small, deeply placed tumors right hemiliver off the vena cava.
whose resection would necessitate removal of a large amount of
functional parenchyma, an ablative alternative or even transplan- Inflow control At one time, it was widely doubted whether
tation might be more suitable. the Pringle maneuver was safe in cirrhotic patients. Subsequently,
In an attempt to preserve as much functional liver as possible, however, many studies verified that this maneuver can be per-
many surgeons resort to more technically challenging operations. formed for extended periods in cirrhotic patients without increas-
Most will perform multiple limited resections in order to avoid per- ing either morbidity or mortality.81-86 Nevertheless, it is advisable
forming a full hemihepatectomy.79,80 Some go so far as to recon- to employ the Pringle maneuver sparingly in this population so as