2.  The atmosphere is a thin layer of
gases held close to Earth by gravity.
 The atmosphere is thinner at the
poles, thicker at the equator.
 Two major components is N2 78%
and O2 21%
 Atmospheric Pressure –measure of
the mass per unit are of air.
 Pressure increases as the density of
air increases.
 There is a higher density in the air we
breathe at sea level than the air we
inhale on top of the world’s largest
mountain.
 Ozone protects us from about 95%
UV radiation

3.  Air pollution– presence of chemicals
in the atmosphere where the
concentration is high enough to affect
climate and harm organisms.
 Primary pollutants – emitted directly
into the troposphere in a harmful form.
(carbon monoxide)
 Secondary pollutants – when primary
pollutants react with the components of
air.
 Majority of pollutants come from
natural sources, dust particles, organic
chemicals, forest fires, volcanic
eruptions, and sea spray
 Pollutants from human activity such as
burning oil, gasoline, and natural gas
are the ones that cause more harm
into the troposphere.
 Outdoor pollutants examples:
 carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, lead

4.  Photochemical Smog – when nitrogen
oxides and organic hydrocarbon
compounds chemically react under the
influence of UV radiation to produce a
mixture of many primary and secondary
pollutants.
 Factors that increase outdoor pollution:
• Urban buildings, hills, mountains, high
temperatures.
 Factors that help reduce outdoor
pollution:
• Rain and Snow – cleanse the air of
pollutants
• Salty sea spray from the oceans- wash
out particles from air that flows from
land onto the oceans.
• Wind- sweep pollutants away, dilute
them by bringing in new fresh air.

5. Temperature Inversion – layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer
of less dense, warm air. (traps the pollutants near the ground and it
becomes more dangerous)
Acid Deposition – also known as acid rain, falling of acids and
compounds from the atmosphere into the earth’s surface. (Sulfur/
nitrogen main culprits.)
Acid deposition can deplete the
nutrients from plants and also
damage and weaken the plants.
On humans, it can produce lung
cancer, corrosion, haze, and also
kills fish.

6.  Indoor air pollution is a much
greater threat to human health
than outdoor air pollution.
 So dangerous due to
accumulation, concentration
and lack of detection
 Four most dangerous indoor
air pollutants are:
 Cigarette smoke,
formaldehyde, radioactive
radon-222 gas, and ultra fine
particles.
 New building are more
commonly “sick” than the old
ones because of reduced air
exchange and chemicals
released from new carpeting
and furniture.

7.  Prolonged smoking and
breathing air pollutants can
lead to respiratory disorders
like asthma, lung cancer, and
chronic bronchitis.
 Mechanisms that protect us
from some air pollution. (hairs
filter out large particles, sticky
mucus captures smaller
particles and dissolves some
gaseous pollutants.
 Each year, approximately 3
million people (average 8,200
per day) die prematurely from
air pollution (mostly indoor
pollution in developing
countries)

8.  Clean Air Act (1970) in the U.S has reduced
outdoor pollution from six major pollutants by
setting emission standards.
 Preventions from indoor air pollution:
- covering ceiling tiles and lining the AC ducts
to prevent release of mineral fibers
- Ban smoking or limit it to well-ventilated
areas
- Prevent radon infiltration
- Use office machines in well-ventilated areas
- Use less polluting substitutes for harmful
cleaning agents, paints, and other products.
 Solutions for Outdoor:
 Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel
use.
- Rely more on lower-polluting natural gas.
- Rely more on renewable energy (solar
cells, wind)

9. Temperature and climate have been changing
throughout the earth’s history.
Geologic records and atmospheric
measurements provide a wealth of information
Climate – determined about past atmospheric temperatures and
mostly by its average climate
temperature and
average precipitation.
Scientists from the U.S. National Academy
of Sciences and the American Geophysical
Union have also evaluated possible future
climate changes.

10.  Global Warming – temperature
increases in the troposphere, which
in turn can cause climate change.
 Global Climate Change – a
broader term that refers to changes
in any aspects of the earth’s
climate, including temperature,
precipitation, and storm intensity.
 The greenhouse effect warms the
earth’s lower troposphere and
surface.
 ** The two major greenhouse gases
are water vapor and carbon dioxide.
 Humans have contributed to the
increased level of carbon dioxide
 Albedo – reflectivity of different
parts of the earth’s surface.
 Colored surfaces of ice and snow
help cool the earth reflecting the
incoming sunlight back into space.

11. Coupled global circulation models – global climate models that are applied to the
atmosphere to project the effects of increases in greenhouse gases on average
global temperature.
The largest burden of the harmful effects
A decrease in high- of moderate global warming will fall on
elevation snow packs could people and economies in poorer tropical
lead to a sharp decline in and subtropical nations.
agricultural productivity in
heavily irrigated areas.

12. Disagreement on whether the world Solutions:
should respond to the threat of climate
change. •Soil sequestration – plants such as
switch grass are used to remove carbon
•The economic costs of reducing dioxide from the air and store it in the soil.
greenhouse gas emissions are higher than
the economic benefits
•Reduce the release of carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide from soil.
•Developed countries, developing •Remove carbon dioxide from
countries, or both should take responsibility smokestacks and pump it deep
for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. underground into unminable coal seams
and abandoned oil fields.
•Actions to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions should be voluntary or required
as a result of national laws and an
international treaty

13. Kyoto Protocol – requires 39 developed countries to cut emissions of
CO2, CH4, and N2O, to an average of about 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2012.
A growing number of major global
companies, such as Alcoa, DuPont, IBM,
Toyota, BP Amoco, and Shell, have
established targets to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions by 10-65%
from 1990 levels by 2010.

14.  Chlorofluorocarbon – an organic
compound that is made up of
chlorine, fluorine, and carbon,
produced as a volatile derivative of
methane and ethane.
 F. Sherwood Rowland and Mario
Molina proposed inc. CFC
hypothesis
 Measurements indicate that CFCs
and other ODCs are the primary
culprits of ozone depletion.
 Widespread use of a number of
useful and long lived chemicals has
reduced ozone levels in the
stratosphere.
 Polar Vortex – a huge swirling
mass of very cold air that is isolated
from the rest of the atmosphere

15. In 1987, 36 nations got together in Montreal Protocol – the goal was
Montreal, Canada to develop a to cut emissions of CFCs into the
treaty that could end with the atmosphere by about 35%
CFCs emissions. between 1989 and 2000.
After hearing that no changed were made in the atmosphere and that the
ozone was getting thinner and thinner, 93 countries got together in London and
came up with another treaty.
Copenhagen Protocol – an
amendment which accelerated the
phasing out of key ozone-depleting
chemicals.

16. FRQ 2007 #3

17. FRQ Solution
 A. Class of Compounds
 Halocarbons/Halons
 Fire retardant
 Soil fumigant/pesticide
 Solvent
 Foam Blowing Insulation
 CFC’s
 Coolants/refrigerants/AC/refrigerator
 Aerosol
** Needs to describe 1 class of compounds and
describe 2 major uses

18. FRQ Solution [cont.]
 D. Effects of Ground Level Ozone
 Respitory Irritant
 Decreased photosynthesis due to
 C. Consequences
 Increase in UV (specifically UVB) reaching Earth’s
surface. Effects:
 Skin Cancer
 Disruption of food chains
 B. Description
 CFCs are broken down by UV radiation resulting in
the release of atoms– chlorine/bromine/flourine
 Halogens break the O3 into O+ O2

19. 1998 APES Multiple Choice
Samples

20. Other Multiple Choice Samples
A
E
D