Mt lasut 2007-dissertation-ait-th

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN THE CITY OF
MANADO, NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA
by
Markus Talintukan Lasut
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of Doctor of Technical Science in
Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management
Examination Committee: Prof. Ganesh Shivakoti (Chairperson)
Dr. Thammarat Koottatep
Dr. Wenresti G. Gallardo
Dr. Kou Ikejima (External Expert)
External Examiner: Dr. Hans Åke Granmo
Department of Marine Ecology, Kristineberg
Marine Research Station, Göteborg University,
450 34 Fiskebäckskil,
Sweden
Nationality: Indonesian
Previous Degree: Engineer in Fisheries (Aquatic Resources
Management), Sam Ratulangi University,
Manado, Indonesia
Master of Science, Århus University,
Århus, Denmark
Scholarship Donor: Denmark – AIT Fellowship
Asian Institute of Technology
School of Environment, Resources and Development
Thailand
December 2007

ii
Acknowledgements
This is a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Technical Science in Integrated Tropical Coastal Zone Management (ITCZM)
Program, Asian Institute Technology (AIT). This study was supported by the Danish
International Development Agency (DANIDA), Denmark, through the AIT, Thailand.
Therefore, I extend my gratitude to both institutions.
I am indebted to my present academic advisor, Prof. G. Shivakoti, as the chairperson of my
Study Program Committee and Ass. Prof. Dr. K. Ikejima, as former academic advisor and
former chairperson of my Study Program Committee, who provide helps and advices
during my study, helped to construct my research topic, and helped in preparing my paper
for publication.
I wish to thank Ass. Prof. Dr. Thammarat Koottatep, Ass. Prof. Dr. Wenresti G. Gallardo,
and Ass. Prof. Dr. K. Ikejima (External Experts) as members of my Study Program
Committee, who gave comments, corrections, and advises for my dissertation manuscript.
Thank you Ass. Prof. Dr. Åke Granmo from Gothenburg University, Sweden, who
provided himself as the External Examiner of my dissertation, reviewed my dissertation
manuscript and gave comments and corrections on it.
I am indebted to Ass. Prof. Dr. Kathe R. Jensen, as my first academic advisor, who kindly
gave help during my study, helps to get points of views about my research topic, help in the
preparation of my proposal and dissertation manuscripts, and helped in preparing my paper
for publication.
I would like to thank Ass. Prof. Dr. Ole Pedersen, as a former member my Study Program
Committee, who gave advise during my study.
My special thanks to Prof. (Emeritus) C. Kwei Lin, who was involved in the first period of
my study, as well as Ass. Prof. Dr. A. Yakupitiyage and Ass. Prof. Dr. Yang Yi, who
provided help during my study.
Thanks to Mrs. Lucia Sukanenya and Mrs. Upa Katchasuwanmanee at the ITCZM-AIT
Program Secretariat that always provided help for administrative purposes.
Thanks to the Dean of Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Sam Ratulangi University,
which gave support and accommodated me during my non-residential period of study.
Thanks to the Center for Environment and Natural Resources (PPLH-SDA), Sam Ratulangi
University, and WWF-Manado, which provided secondary data for my dissertation.
I thank John J. Soucy, MAT, English Language Consultant & Programmer, who edited the
English.
Parts of this dissertation are published in:
1. Lasut, M. T., Jensen, K. R., Arai, T. & Miyazaki, N. 2005. An assessment of water
quality along the rivers loading into the Manado Bay, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Coastal Marine Science 29(2): 124–132.
2. Lasut, M. T., Jensen, K. R., Shivakoti, G. 2007. Analysis of constraints and potentials
for wastewater management in the coastal city of Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Journal of Environmental Management, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.011.

iii
Abstract
Wastewater management in the coastal city of Manado is a matter of great importance to
prevent and mitigate pollution of the coastal environment by contaminated wastewater.
Prior to formulating a wastewater management plan for the city, a survey of the current
wastewater management system of the city was carried out. This survey focused on the
community’s environmental knowledge and attitude towards wastewater problems, the
condition and capacity of existing wastewater treatment systems and wastewater
infrastructure and facilities. Also, the water quality of selected rivers was studied by
determining certain indicators. The natural characteristics, socio-economic, and
institutional arrangement of the city were also studied. Besides, a comprehensive review of
the literature of the impacts of human activities on the coastal area with emphasis on
wastewater discharge and urban wastewater management system was also done. Based on
the information obtained, constraints and potentials of those aspects were analyzed and
strategic actions were formulated for recommendation.
To collect primary data, two main research methods were applied: (1) field observation and
(2) questionnaire interview (individual and household) surveys. Two study sites (district
level), Molas and Wenang, were selected and 145 and 139 individuals and 300 and 304
households respectively were interviewed. Secondary data and information was gathered
from the administration of Manado City (city level) as the study area. In addition, three
rivers (Bailang, Maasing, and Tondano) within the city were observed for water quality
status.
The results showed that the status of the community’s environmental knowledge and
attitude were potentials for management, but the community’s participation was
insufficient. The overall status of the wastewater disposal and treatment systems was in
good condition and of adequate capacity, but there were also systems in poor and very poor
condition and of inadequate capacity, as well as the wastewater infrastructure and facilities
at the house level. Moreover, the three observed rivers showed indicator values exceeding
international as well as national levels for pollution. In addition, the natural settings, socio-
economics, and institutional arrangements pose a challenge for management.
The main conclusions of the study were that constraints are formed by: (1) natural settings,
which influence land use changes, (2) the rapid increase of population, (3) the frequency of
low-income households, (4) the poor condition and capacity of wastewater disposal and
treatment systems, (5) the institutional arrangement of the city government, and (6) the
lack or inadequacy of city level regulations and policies. Potentials include (1) the city’s
religion and ethnicity, (2) good environmental awareness of the community, (3)
government institutions at provincial and national levels, and (4) the establishment of
policy measures in Agenda 21 at provincial and national levels.
Therefore, four strategic actions are recommended to be included in the plan with
appropriate modifications for implementation, such as (1) providing and/or improving on-
site wastewater treatment systems and sanitation facilities, (2) improving the local city
government’s institutional arrangements, (3) improving the community’s participation, and
(4) establishing regulations and enforcement.

iv
Table of Contents
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
Title page i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures viii
Acronyms ix
Glossary xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Wastewater problem in the city of Manado 3
1.3 Rationale of the study 6
1.4 Objectives of the study 6
1.5 Scope of the study 6
2 Literature Review 7
2.1 Definitions and characteristics 7
2.2 Wastewater in coastal and marine areas 9
2.3 Coastal environmental management in Indonesia 14
2.4 Major coastal planning & management techniques 15
3 General Research Methodology 23
3.1 Research approach 23
3.2 Research framework 24
3.3 Research design 26
3.4 Data gathering procedure 29
4 Existing Situation and Condition of Manado City 31
4.1 Natural characteristics 31
4.2 Classification of the city 39
4.3 Socio-economic aspects 40
4.4 Government institutional arrangement 44
4.5 Policies, strategies, and actions 45
5 Community’s Environmental Knowledge and Attitude 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Research methodology 47
5.3 Results and discussion 50
6 Condition and Capacity of Household Wastewater Treatment
Systems
58
6.1 Introduction 58

v
7 Water Quality Assessment 65
7.1 Introduction 65
8 Constraints and Potential Aspects and Their Implications 80
8.1 Introduction 80
8.2 Wastewater discharge-related aspect (WRA) 80
8.3 Governmental/administrative-related aspect (GRA) 82
8.4 Community-related aspect (CRA) 83
8.5 Financial aspect 83
9 Suitable Option of Wastewater Management 85
9.1 Objectives and considerations 85
9.2 Strategic actions of wastewater management: a
recommendation
86
10 Conclusions and Recommendations 90
10.1 Conclusions 90
10.2 Recommendations 91
References 93
Appendices 102
Annexes 108

vi
List of Tables
NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Variation in domestic wastewater composition 9
2.2 Constituents of wastewater and their impacts on the marine environment 10
2.3 Some legal tools for controlling coastal and marine pollution and
degradation in Indonesia
16
2.4 Characteristic of collaborative and community-based management 19
3.1 Selection of the two specific study sites 27
3.2 Calculated and applied sample size 28
3.3a Distribution of sample size in Molas District 29
3.3b Distribution of sample size in Wenang Districts 29
4.1 Total area of Manado based on land slope condition 31
4.2 Land use classification of the Manado Area in 1999 36
4.3 Rivers and predominant land use a long the rivers’ watershed 38
4.4 Population and density of Manado in 2003 42
4.5 The result of household surveys on socio-economic parameters 44
4.6 Number of tourists visiting the Bunaken National Marine Park (BNMP)
in 2001-2006
45
5.1 Degree of knowledge (DK) of community (at household basis) about
general environmental issues and issues related to wastewater
51
5.2 Degree of concern (DC) of community (at personal basis) about general
environmental conditions and impacts (Topic 1)
52
5.3 Degree of concern (DC) of community (at personal basis) about
environmental conditions and impacts related to wastewater discharge
(Topic 2)
53
5.4 Community’s (household basis) preference regarding problem solving
of environmental issues, including wastewater problems
54
5.5 Community’s preference (personal basis) on problem solving of
environmental issue, including wastewater
55
6.1a Distribution of sample size in Molas District (SS 1) used in wastewater
treatment system (septic tank) capacity evaluation
59
6.1b Distribution of sample size in Wenang District (SS 2) used in
wastewater treatment system (septic tank) capacity evaluation
59
6.2 Criteria for condition and capacity of wastewater treatment system
(septic tank) and wastewater infrastructures and facilities (sewer system)
used in this present study
61
6.3 Condition, capacity, and presence of residential wastewater treatment
system (septic-tank) and wastewater infrastructures and facilities (sewer
system).
62
6.4 Pearson’s correlation coefficient (PC) by using the Bivariate
Correlations procedure
64
7.1 Characterization and environmental condition (salinity, temperature,
and conductivity) of sampling stations during dry (September-October
2002) and wet (January-March 2003) seasons
68
7.2 Concentration of Total coliform (TC), and Escherichia coli (EC) during
dry (September-October 2002) and wet (January-March 2003) seasons
75

vii
7.3 Water quality status of the river of Bailang (SB), Maasing (SM), and
Tondano (ST)
77
8.1 The slum areas in 3 districts of Manado City in 1999 81
8.2 Cases of diseases in Manado City in 2002 82

viii
List of Figures
NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 The area of Manado City with five divided districts 2
1.2 The schematic process of the planning and implementation in integrated
coastal management (ICM)
3
1.3 The schematic diagram of existing situation related to problems,
pressures and impacts of wastewater discharge in the coastal area in
Manado
5
2.1 Municipal wastewater components 8
3.1 Scheme of research approach 23
3.2 Conceptual framework of the study on wastewater management in the
city of Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia
25
3.3 Schematic construction of the Study Area and Study Sites 28
4.1 The area of Manado City 32
4.2 Topographic condition of Manado City 33
4.3 Slope gradient of Manado area 34
4.4 Hydrological condition of Manado City 35
4.5 Tondano Watershed with Manado City area 37
4.6 Average annual rainfall (1991-2000) and temperature (1994-2000) 39
4.7 Bunaken National Marine Park (BNMP) 40
4.8 Administrative of Manado with 9 districts 41
5.1 Participation of NGOs in integrated coastal zone management activities 57
7.1 Map of Indonesia, North Sulawesi Province, Manado City, Study area,
and sampling stations
66
7.2 BOD5 values for 3 rivers in Manado City, SB (a), SM (b), and ST (c)
during dry and wet seasons. Stations are shown on Fig. 7.1
70
7.3 NO3
-
values for 3 rivers in Manado City, SB (a), SM (b), and ST (c)
72
7.4 PO4
3-
values for 3 rivers in Manado City, SB (a), SM (b), and ST (c)
74
7.5 Concentration of Hg-tot in water (a) and sediment (b) of ST during dry
and wet seasons. Stations are shown on Fig. 7.1
76
7.6 Concentration of Hg-tot in water and sediment of ST during dry (a) and
wet (b) seasons. Stations are shown on Fig. 7.1
78
7.7 Concentration of Hg-tot accumulated in the marine bivalve Soletellina
sp. at the mouth of the river ST
79

ix
Acronyms
ASEAN-MWQC : ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria
ASL : Above Sea Level
AV : Aggregated Values
BNMP : Bunaken National Marine Park
BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand
CAA : City Arrangement Agency
CAM : Coastal Area Management
CBD : Central Business District
CBOs : Community-Based Organizations
CE : Cumulative Effects
CEO : Community Empowerment Organizations
CMB : Cleaning Management Board
COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand
CRA : Community-Related Aspect
DC : Degree of Concern
DK : Degree of Knowledge
DO : Dissolved Oxygen
DWF : Dry-Weather Flow
EA : Environmental Assessment
EC : Effluent Charges
EC : Eschericia coli
EEZ : Economic Exclusive Zone
EHA : Environmental Health Agency
EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
EMB : Environmental Management Board
ENCORE : Enrichment of Nutrients on a Coral Reef Experiment
ES : Effluent Standards
FC : Faecal Coliform
GIS : Geographical Information System
GPS : Global Positioning System
GRA : Governmental/administrative-Related Aspect
ICM : Integrated Coastal Management
IGR : Indonesian Government Regulation
IL : Indonesian Law
INS : Indonesian National Standard
LGR : Local Government Regulation
MB : Manado Bay
MC : Manado City
MFA : Marine and Fisheries Agency
MoE : Ministry of Environment
MoF : Ministry of Forestry
MPN : Most Probable Number
MR : Minahasa Regency
N : Nitrogen
NAEIM : National Agency for Environmental Impact Management
NGOs : Non-Government Organizations
OSDS : On-site Sewage Disposal System

x
P : Phosphorous
PAEICB : Provincial Agency of Environmental Impact Control Board
PC : Pearson’s correlation Coefficient
POPs : Persistent Organic Pollutants
PS : Public Sector
PWA : Public Works Agency
RWQS : Receiving Water Quality Standards
SA : Study Area
SP : Strength of Preference
SS : Study Sites
TC : Total Coliform
TDS : Total Dissolved Solids
TSS : Total Suspended Solids
UM : Urban Management
WQC-GRRI : Water Quality Criteria of Government Regulation of Republic of
Indonesia
WRA : Wastewater discharge-Related Aspect
WWF : Wet-Weather Flow
ASEAN-MWQC : ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria
ASL : Above Sea Level
AV : Aggregated Values
BNMP : Bunaken National Marine Park
BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand
CAA : City Arrangement Agency
CAM : Coastal Area Management
CBD : Central Business District
CBOs : Community-Based Organizations

xi
Glossary
Agenda 21. The forty-chapter action plan emanating from the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) that provides guidelines to
nations on a wide range of matters related to environment and development
Anthropogenic. Referring to pollutants and other forms of impacts on natural
environments that occur because of, or influenced by, human activities
Aquaculture. The farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and
aquatic plants
Biodiversity. Variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability among
individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and variety of ecosystems
(ecological diversity)
Coast. The geographical area between terrestrial and marine environments
Coastal area. See ‘Coastal zone’
Coastal zone. The area at the interface between land and sea, where the sea influences the
land and vice versa. Coastal zone boundaries vary depending on bio-geographical
conditions, the mix of uses and problems present, and the legal system. Also, it is
defined as Coastal area
Coliform. A type of bacteria that resides in the human intestine whose presence in water is
used to indicate whether the water may be contaminated with disease organisms
Dissolved oxygen (DO). Oxygen gas molecules (O2) dissolved in water
Domestic sewage. The liquid wastes from housing
Ecosystem. A natural entity (or a system) with distinct structures and relationships that
interlink biotic communities (of plants and animals) to each other and link them to
their abiotic environment
Ecotourism. Tourism focusing on environmental and cultural resources and usually based
on a conservation theme
Environmental Impact Assessment. A process whereby a detailed prediction is made of the
effects of a proposed development project on the environment and natural resources.
Estuary. Broadest portion of a river or stream near its outlet that is influenced by the
marine water body into which it flows
Eutrophication. Physical, chemical and biological changes that take place after a lake, an
estuary, or a slow-flowing stream receives inputs of plant nutrients-mostly nitrates
and phosphates-from natural erosion and runoff from the surrounding land basin
Exclusive Economic Zone. The maritime zone beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea but
not exceeding 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the territorial sea is
measured
Global. Relating to or including the whole earth; or complete or comprehensive
Hazard assessment. The process of examining evidence linking a particular hazard to its
harmful effects
Heavy metals. Any of the high atomic weight metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and
zinc
Human settlements. An integrative concept that comprises (a) physical components of
shelter and infrastructure and (b) services to which the physical elements provide
support, that is, community services such as education, health, culture, welfare,
recreation and nutrition
Institutions. The rules that operate in a society

xii
Integrated coastal management (ICM). A continuous and dynamic process by which
decisions are made for the sustainable use, development, and protection of coastal
and marine areas and resources
Land reclamation. A type of coastal construction activity aimed at gaining land from the
sea
Mariculture. The farming of marine finfish, molluscs, crustaceans, and seaweed
Mitigation. The prevention, elimination, reduction, or control of a project’s negative
environmental effects by avoiding or minimising the effects
Natural resources. Any portion of the environment, such as air, water, soil, botanical and
zoological resources and minerals
PAHs. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
PCBs. Group of 209 different toxic, oily, synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds
that can be biologically amplified in food chains and webs
Pathogen. An organism that produces diseases
Peri-urban areas. Areas are characterized by a mixture of land uses associated with a
range of urban and rural livelihoods
Pollutant. A particular chemical or form of energy that can adversely affect the health,
activities, or survival of humans or other living organism
Pollution. An undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristic of
air, water, soil, or food that can adversely affect the health, activities or survival of
humans or other living organism
Precautionary principle. The principle that preventive or remedial action should be taken,
on the basis of the best available scientific evidence, to avoid making policy
decisions that have irreversible adverse effects on the environment
Risk assessment. A technique to quantify risks
Risk management. The task of regulators, involving reviewing the risk data and making
regulatory, decisions based on the evidence
Stakeholder. Individuals and groups of individuals (including government and non-
governmental institutions, traditional communities, universities, research institutions,
development agencies, banks and donors) with an interest or claim (whether stated or
implied) that has the potential of being affected by or affecting a given project and its
objectives
Sustainable development. A development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
Tropical Area. It refers to low-latitude climate that is characterised by consistently warm
and humid conditions
Upland. A term describing land areas sufficiently inland from the shoreline to have limited
interaction with the sea
Wastes. Useless or discarded material, as ashes, garbage, sewage, etc or matter excreted
from the body, as faeces or urine
Watershed. The total land area that drains directly or indirectly into a particular stream or
river

1
Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter presents the general background of the present study and discusses
wastewater problems in the city of Manado. The rationale of the study and research
objectives are presented, and the expected contribution of the study is also provided.
1.1 Background
Wastewater discharge, especially wastewater containing harmful contaminants, is of great
concern due to its impact on the environment of coastal and terrestrial areas. In the coastal
area it may cause the degradation and destruction of the coastal environment and resources,
while degradation of environmental quality may occur in the terrestrial areas. This issue
has often been addressed partially on an ad hoc basis as it became apparent, for example:
the implementations of a policy to regulate COD (chemical oxygen demand) of industrial
effluents in 1979 in order to improve the environmental quality of Tokyo Bay due to
organic pollution (Kawabe, 1998) and the occurrence of environmental degradation on the
marine coastal area of Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, due to wastewater discharge from the
Jakarta City (Williams et al., 2000; Nur et al., 2001). In both cases, apparently, the
measures were partially taken and the other aspects (for instance, sources of wastewater
and community participation) were not taken into account. Moreover, the measures were
taken in a short period of time. The result was that the wastewater discharge was not
comprehensively solved, and the impact of wastewater may still continue in Tokyo Bay
(MoE-GoJ, 2004) and in Jakarta Bay (Nur et al. 2001).
In recent years, management measures to solve environmental problems due to wastewater
discharge in coastal areas have been emphasized with a more holistic approach and for
long-term solutions. In this regard integrated coastal management (ICM) has recently been
applied as a problem solving approach in many countries. For example, coastal area
management (CAM) in Singapore (Chia, 1992), ‘Beneficial Uses’ in Hong Kong (Wu et
al., 1998), and by implementing legislation and several acts in the context of ICM for the
coastal area of Mumbai Metropolitan Region (Murthy et al., 2001). As wastewater
discharge in the coastal area is predicted to be an increasing problem in the future, it is
considered to be one of the major future challenges of ICM (Hale and Olsen, 2003).
In addressing wastewater problems in Indonesia, such management measures have not
been fully applied in cities within the country, in particular where there is still occurring
environmental degradation due to wastewater impact. In addition, the ICM approach has
not yet been fully adopted as an alternative to solve the environmental problems due to
wastewater discharge in coastal cities within the country, though it has been proposed to be
included in the ICM (Nur et al., 2001). For example, the coastal city of Manado (Fig. 1.1),
like other coastal cities in Indonesia, is a medium-sized city which is formed along the
waterfront of Manado Bay, and is facing various environmental problems due to
wastewater discharge. Wastewater is discharging into the bay through rivers and canals
which cross through the city. It is a matter of fact that the bay is used for fisheries and
tourism. Since measures are needed to overcome the problems, a wastewater management
plan, alternatively using the ICM approach, is needed to prevent and mitigate further
wastewater impact.

2
Figure1.1TheareaofManadoCitywithfivedivideddistricts(Molas,Mapanget,Wenang,Sario,Malalayang)
2

3
The need to manage the coastal city of Manado in relation to wastewater discharge is a
matter of great importance. However, it should be planned and designed comprehensively
prior to implementation. Hence, the present study is focused on the wastewater
management of the city by formulating strategic actions prior to designing a management
plan in order to improve the wastewater management of the city. In formulating such
actions, an important first step is that the status of various aspects associated with the
wastewater discharge issues should be identified, described, analyzed and understood
comprehensively. In this regard, research, encompassing problem identification, analysis
and evaluation, was conducted prior to the formulation. In addition, the ICM approach is
used as a basic concept approach in designing this study (Fig. 1.2).
1.2 Wastewater Problem in the City of Manado
In Indonesia, many policies, strategies and actions of environmental management related to
wastewaters have been formulated at regional (provincial) and national levels in Agenda
21 of North Sulawesi Province (Bapedal-Sulut, 2003) and Agenda 21 of Indonesia
(KMNLH, 1996a), respectively. However, at the city level of Manado City, such measures
are apparently not available, whereas in fact, wastewater discharge is predicted to increase
as the coastal and coast-related inland areas of Manado are being developed for various
PLANNING
Figure 1.2 The schematic process of the planning and implementation in integrated
coastal management (ICM) (Adopted from NOAA, 1995).
Problem
Identification
Research
Analysis Designing
IMPLEMEN-
TATION
Installation
Operation &
Maintenance
Monitoring
Enforcement
Financing
Desired product
& Services
Evaluation
Present study

4
economic activities. At present, the opportunity to establish such management is more
realistic since the Indonesian Law (IL) No. 22 of 1999, concerning autonomy and
decentralization, has been implemented since early January 2000. The IL states that a city-
or a regency-level of government has its own authority to manage the resources found in
their areas including protection and conservation measures.
Based on a preliminary observation of the wastewater problem in the city of Manado, there
are two main factors acting as driving forces, which may cause the destruction of the
coastal ecosystem habitat and the reduction of coastal resources of Manado Bay. They are:
increasing population, and development activity (Fig. 1.3).
The rapid increase of population in the city of Manado is stimulating the increase of
housing settlements and other related infrastructures and facilities. This causes an increase
of wastewater-point sources, and may increase the quality and quantity of wastewater
discharge from the city. In the end, this situation may have an impact on the environment
of the terrestrial and coastal marine areas of the city.
The development of economic activities, particularly in the tourism and trade sectors, is
increasing in the city. Both sectors, together with education, have been selected by the
Manado City’s Council as the ‘sectors of priority’ for development. Many policies are
being established and acted upon to accommodate such priorities, especially for economic
activities (small- and large-scale). For example, there are plans for the coastal area of
Manado to be a centre of business, the so-called ‘central business district’ (CBD). Related
to this, various commercial buildings (tourist facilities, shops/malls, cottages, and hotels),
transportation (marinas, ports, harbors) and infrastructures are being developed in order to
support this development. In contrast, those economic activities will threaten the
environment of the terrestrial and coastal areas of the city by increasing wastes and
wastewater discharges.
With regards to wastewater management in the city of Manado, several issues have been
identified that are grouped into the community-related aspect (CRA), the wastewater-
related aspect (WRA), and the government/administrative-related aspect (GRA). Those
issues encompass community participation, physical and technical aspects, environmental
conditions related to discharge wastewater, and policy and program related to wastewater
management. The following are descriptions of the issues:
1. At the city-level of Manado, there are no cases where the community has taken an
initiative to prevent and mitigate wastewater problems. On the contrary, they are the
source of discharged wastewater. This may be due to a lack of environmental
awareness in the community. Therefore, the community’s environmental knowledge
and attitude in relation to the wastewater issue are still in question.
2. Household activities that produce wastewater increase as the population increases. This
is predicted to have a negative impact on the coastal and marine environment. To
prevent and mitigate the impact, adequate physical measures (wastewater treatments,
infrastructures and facilities) at household level should be introduced. In order to
formulate measures related to this issue, the status of wastewater treatment and
facilities at the household level are still in question.
3. Most enterprises and households can freely discharge their wastewater including
pollutant-containing wastewater into the coastal environment through sewers, drainage,
and river systems. The impact of the discharge to the river systems is still unknown.

5
4. Measures for management and planning (policy, program, etc.) related to wastewater
issues have not been established at the city-level of Manado and the institutional
structure of the government, seemingly, is not adequate to support the management of
this. Therefore, suitable options for wastewater management system and strategic
actions to prevent and/or mitigate wastewater impact should be formulated, and
government’s institutional structure should be evaluated.
5. The socio-economic status of the city’s residents is unknown; though, low personal
incomes for most people are known throughout the country. Hence, the socio-economic
status for the city of Manado should be evaluated.
Figure 1.3 The schematic diagram of the existing situation related to problems,
pressures and impacts of wastewater discharge in the coastal area in
Manado
Rapid population
increase
Increasing
economic growth
Human
activities
Human
settlement
Increasing large-& small-
scale commercial
enterprises
Tourism &
commercial
buildings
Population
Harbor, port
infrastructures
Destruction of coastal ecosystem
habitats & reduction of coastal
resources of Manado Bay
Development
Policy
Increasing wastes
& wastewater
discharge

6
1.3 Rationale of the Study
Wastewater discharge in the city of Manado should be managed in order to prevent and
mitigate its impact on the environment of the terrestrial and the coastal and marine
ecosystems of Manado Bay. In such management, various aspects should be taken into
account and understood comprehensively as the city has its own characteristics. Therefore,
a management plan should be designed based on the city’s characteristics. Prior to the
designing, the status of various aspects related to wastewater discharge should be
described, evaluated, and analyzed, and primary strategic actions should be formulated.
1.4 Objective of the Study
The overall goal of the research is to study the current wastewater management system,
identify constraints and potentials of wastewater-related aspects, and formulate strategic
actions prior to designing a wastewater management plan, and to improve the management
for mitigation and protection measures to address wastewater discharge in the coastal area
of Manado City. In order to achieve this goal, several specific topics were studied, which
have the following objectives:
1. To describe and assess existing aspects (natural settings and population, socio-
economic aspects, present government institutional structure) related to wastewater
management in the city;
2. To evaluate and assess the community’s environmental knowledge and attitude related
to wastewater problems in the city;
3. To evaluate and assess the wastewater treatment system (septic tank) and wastewater
infrastructures and facilities (sewer system) at households level;
4. To evaluate and assess the water quality of rivers, as wastewater receivers, which cross
the city;
5. To analyze the constraint and potential aspects for wastewater management in the city;
6. To formulate strategic actions as a recommendation to improve wastewater
management in the city.
1.5 Scope of the Study
This study is limited to domestic wastewater from household activities and urban runoff,
while other wastewater sources (for instance, from industrial activity) was not included, as
such activity was none in the city of Manado. Besides, the data for domestic wastewater
were collected at a house unit/household level in which a household is consisted more than
two individuals (parents and their children); and for urban runoff, water samples for
analysis were collected at river systems.
The study covered the city of Manado, especially at two selected districts Molas and
Wenang. The secondary data about districts of Molas and Wenang used in this study were
mostly up to 2001 and from 2003 (when the number of districts had changed from 5 to 9).
There are several parameters for assessment of water quality. Due to time limitation,
budget constraints and limited laboratory equipments and facilities, this study measured
BOD5, NO3
-
, PO4
-3
, Eschericia coli and total coliform, and mercury only for environmental
parameters.

7
Chapter 2
Literature Review
This chapter presents the results of a comprehensive literature review on the impacts of
human activities to the coastal area with emphasis on wastewater discharge and urban
wastewater management systems. It discusses the basic definitions of coastal area and
wastewater including their characteristics, impacts of wastewater in the coastal areas, and
some coastal planning and management measures related to wastewater.
2.1 Definition and Characteristic
2.1.1 Coastal area
‘Coastal zone’ or ‘coastal area’? Some authors use one or the other of these terms in order
to discuss the dynamics of coastal systems. Clark (1992), Hoozemans et al., (1995), and
Cicin-Sain & Knecht (1998), use ‘coastal zone’; while Chia (1992), Scialabba (1998), and
Kay & Alder (1999) use ‘coastal area’; but Brown (1997) did not mention the terms at all
when she discussed integrated coastal management. None of them discussed the use of this
unstable term, except that Kay & Alder (1999) briefly stated that ‘zone’ and ‘area’ have
little distinction in common English. However, they suggest that ‘zone’ could be implied to
mean a planning zone, and they use ‘area’ or simply ‘at the coast’ or ‘on the coast’, except
when they quote from original sources which use the term ‘coastal zone’. In the present
review the terms are used in the way that Kay & Alder (1999) used them, without any
consideration to quotations, i.e. ‘coastal area’ will be used except when referring to
planning zones.
Coastal areas are defined in many ways by different authors depending on the purpose of
the description and their professional background, while there is no internationally
accepted definition (ADB, 1991; Hoozemans et al., 1995). The purposes could be oriented
towards academic interest for planning and management, and governments for
administration, etc. Some definitions from various sources provided are: an interaction
between terrestrial and marine components (ADB, 1991); the gradual transitional region
forming the boundary between the land and ocean (Kay & Alder, 1999). Ketchum (1972)
cf Kay & Alder (1999) defined this area as the band of dry land and adjacent ocean space
(water and submerged land) in which terrestrial processes and land uses directly affect
oceanic processes and uses, and vice versa. However, the 200 nautical miles limit from
land over which coastal nations exert sovereignty [Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ)] is an
international legal definition for the coastal zone (Brown, 1997; Cicin-Sain & Knecht,
1998; Kullenberg, 1999).
The coastal area is characterized by three elements, i.e., 1) it contains both land and ocean
components; 2) it has land and ocean boundaries that are determined by the degree of
influence of the land on the ocean and the ocean on the land; 3) and it is not of uniform
width, depth, or height. After the geographical boundaries are used to define the coastal
area, all components found inside the area can be characterized. Such specific
characteristics have been discussed in detail by ADB (1991), Chia (1992), Hoozemans et
al. (1995), Brown (1997) and Scialabba (1998). In addition, urban (city) waterfront is also
included (Vallega, 2001).

8
2.1.2 Wastewater
Wastewater is sewage, storm-water and water that have been used for various purposes
within a community. Most communities generate wastewater from both residential and
non-residential sources (Anonymous, 2001a). It contains a mixture of liquid wastes, which
consist of domestic wastewater, urban runoff, and effluents from commercial and industrial
activities (Fig. 2.1). The non-residential component is generated from a variety of sources,
such as offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms,
manufacturers, and other commercial, industrial, and institutional entities (Anonymous,
2001a & b). Storm-water is a non-residential source; it carries trash and other pollutants
from streets, as well as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields (Anonymous, 2001b
& c).
There are two types of domestic wastewater, i.e., (1) black-water, or wastewater from
toilets; (2) and grey-water, which is wastewater from all sources except toilets. Both
contain pollutants and disease-causing agents (Anonymous, 2001a). The proportions of
liquid and solid parts are about 99.9 and 0.1%, respectively, and the solid part consists of
70% organic (especially protein, carbohydrate, and fat) and 30% in-organic materials (sand
particles, salts, and metals) (Kusnoputranto, 1997). Composition of the materials (TDS,
TSS, N, P), BOD, COD and coliform bacteria in the domestic wastewater are shown in
Table 2.1. The usual BOD values for domestic wastewater range between 100 and 500
mg/l. The number of coliform in domestic wastewater is about 1.9 x 107
per 100ml (Ortiz-
Hernandez & Saenz-Morales 1999).
Faecal coliform (FC) together with total coliform (TC) is used as indicators for human-
generated microbial pollution (Ortiz-Hernandez & Saenz-Morales, 1999; Dionisio, et al.
2000). According to Vandermeulen (1998), FC contamination could be used to assess
human pathogens, biotoxins and diseases in the marine environment. The FC is used as an
indicator of the level of sewage treatment of coastal communities, bacterial counts in
shellfish growing areas and marine bathing beaches, and to decide about closure of
shellfish growing areas.
Household
activity, hotels,
etc.
Industrial
activity
Urban runoff
Black water (toilet)
Grey water
(kitchen, bathroom)
Pre-treated &
Untreated
Domestic
wastewater
Combined sewer
Municipal
wastewater
Separated sewer Stormwater drainage
Figure 2.1 Municipal wastewater components (modified from Anonymous, 2001b)

9
Concerning the black-water, such wastewater has specific characteristics. It is generated
from daily human activity and may cause diseases in humans. Pathogenic micro-
organisms, especially bacteria, may be found in this wastewater (Reed et al,. 1995;
Kusnoputranto, 1997). Feachem et al. (1983 cf Kusnoputranto 1997) reported that
Klebsiella pneumonia and K. rhinoscleromatis are characteristically found in black-water.
Previously, Bacillus coli (the former name of Escherichia coli) were isolated by Escherich
in 1885 from choleric faeces (Kusnoputranto, 1997).
Table 2.1 Variation in Domestic Wastewater Composition (Veenstra et al., 1997)
Parameter
Specific
production
(per capita/day)
Concentration
(Based on 60 and 250 liters of water
consumption per capita/day) (mg/l)
Total dissolved solids (TDS) 100–150 g 400–2,500
Total suspended solids (TSS) 40–80 g 160–1,350
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 30–60 g 120–1,000
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 70–150 g 280–2,500
Nitrogen (Kjeldahl-N) 8–12 g 30–200
Total phosphorous (P) 1–3 g 4–50
Faecal coliform 108
–109
104
–106
/100 ml
2.2 Wastewater in Coastal and Marine Areas
2.2.1 Status of wastewater
Wastewater entering coastal and marine environments (environment of coastal and marine
areas have significant relationships in this regard) carry all components ranging from
organic to inorganic, from degradable to un-degradable, and from less to highly toxic, etc.
Those components may come from urban and rural areas, and all sites inland (up- and low-
land). Because of this, wastewater is considered as an important source of contamination in
coastal areas (Ortiz-Hernandez & Saenz-Morales, 1999; Dyer et al., 2003; Ukwe et al.,
2003).
Wastewater is not a pollutant per se (NOAA, 1995). The wastewater discharged into the
environment can be categorized as a pollutant if it destroys the living and non-living
constituents in the environment, or reduces the productivity of the environment or
dislocates the normal uses of the environment. A pollutant can be defined as a matter and
energy discharge into an environment which destroys the living and non-living constituents
in the environment and causes harm to humans (Ouano, 1988; Miller, 1996). Tebbutt
(1992) considered two types of pollutants, namely (1) conservative, i.e. materials that are
not affected by natural processes; and (2) non-conservative, i.e. materials that can be
degraded by natural processes, including most organics, some in-organics and many micro-
organisms.
2.2.2 Wastewater impact from an ecological aspect
Wastewater is mostly water by weight. Other materials make up only a small portion, but
can be present in large enough quantities to endanger public health and the environment
(Anonymous 2001a, b & c). And, since anything can be flushed out in a toilet, drain, or

10
sewer, many potential pollutants can be found in the wastewater that can cause disease or
have detrimental environmental effects. Such wastewater should be of the most concern to
communities.
Various impacts are caused by wastewater discharge to coastal water (Table 2.2). It may
influence dissolved oxygen, dissolved inorganic and organic carbon, and the conductivity
of receiving waters (Daniel, et al. 2002). For example, in Chetumal Bay, Quintana Roo,
Mexico, the BOD of coastal water reached 32.26 mg/l (mean value) and ranged from
22.61-38.96 mg/l due to wastewater discharge. Standard BOD5 for coastal waters is less
than 10 mg/l (Clark, 1996) and usual BOD values for domestic wastewater range between
100 and 500 mg/l. The mean dissolved oxygen (DO) was 2.63 mg/l, with a range from
0.47-3.73 mg/l at the mouth of the discharge. The most important source of water pollution
in that area was attributable to wastewater discharges (Ortiz-Hernandez & Saenz-Morales,
1999; Dyer et al., 2003; Ukwe et al., 2003).
Table 2.2 Constituents of Wastewater and Their Impacts on the Marine Environment
(Windom, 1992)
Type of Constituent Impact
Solids High levels of suspended solids may cause excessive turbidity and
shading of sea grasses and result in sedimentation, which is potentially
damaging to benthic habitats and can cause anaerobic conditions at the
sea bottom. Fine particles may be associated with toxic organics, metals,
and pathogens that adhere to these solids.
Organic matter Biological degradation of organic matter requires oxygen and can deplete
available dissolved oxygen. The strength of wastewater is commonly
expressed in terms of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) parameter.
High BOD levels in natural waters can cause hypoxia and anoxia,
especially in shallow and enclosed aquatic systems, resulting in fish death
and anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic conditions subsequently result in the
release of bad odors from the formation of hydrogen sulphide.
Nutrients Nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorous, increase primary production
rates (of oxygen and algal biomass); adverse levels cause nuisance algal
blooms (including toxic algal blooms), dieback of corals and sea grasses,
and eutrophication that can lead to hypoxia and anoxia, suffocating living
resources (fish). Massive die-off of algal matter will result in additional
organic matter.
Pathogens Pathogens can cause human illness and possible death. Exposure to
pathogens via contact with contaminated water or consumption of
contaminated shellfish can result in infection and disease.
Toxic organic
chemicals
(Persistent organic
pollutants, or POPs)
Many toxic materials are suspected carcinogens and mutagens. These
materials can concentrate in shellfish and fish tissue, putting humans at
risk through consumption. Bioaccumulation affects fish and wildlife at
higher levels of the food chain.
Metals Metals in specific forms can be toxic to various marine organisms and
humans; shellfish are especially vulnerable in areas with highly
contaminated sediment.
Fats, oil, and grease Fats, oil, and grease float on the surface of seawater, interfere with natural
aeration, are possibly toxic to aquatic life, destroy coastal vegetation,
reduce recreational use of water and beaches, and threaten waterfowl.

11
Tourism activity in coastal areas should also be considered as a source of wastewater.
Existence of this activity is associated with several types of impacts, such as
environmental, economic and socio-cultural, positive or negative, direct or indirect,
immediate or cumulative, short-term or long-term (Wong, 1998). It has been found that
such activity is a main cause of a decline in local water quality (Saenger, 1989 cf Clark,
1992). Sewage discharge resulting from tourism activity, particularly if poorly sited or
inadequately treated, is the most common source of adverse effects on the biota. For
example, in the Caribbean region, less than 10 % of the sewage generated is treated and
bacterial levels regularly exceed international standards for recreational contact waters,
typically 200 MPN (Most Probable Number) coliform (Clark, 1992). Another study
reported that an on-site sewage disposal system (OSDS), for example septic tank, in
recreational and tourist areas caused the infection of human enteric pathogen
(Cryptosporodium, Giardia and enteroviruses) in Sarasota Bay (Lipp et al., 2001) and Gulf
of Guinea (Ukwe et al., 2003).
The relationship between the consumption of polluted fish and human health has become
more firmly established. Filter-feeding molluscan shellfish concentrate bacteria and viruses
such as hepatitis, typhoid, dysentery and cholera, present in untreated discharges of human
sewage, along with other particulate materials. The consumption of contaminated shellfish
may cause enteric infections, and the transmission of infectious hepatitis through the
consumption of raw, sewage-contaminated shellfish is well documented. Dysentery is
thought to have been transmitted by the consumption of cockles in Malaysia, and
epidemics of typhoid and hepatitis are linked to the consumption of the shellfish
contaminated by sewage in Vietnam. Because the decomposition of sewage contaminants
competes for oxygen with finfish larvae and shellfish, this may lead to economic losses by
reducing the fish production. In the Philippines, for example, the production of mussel and
oyster beds in Manila Bay as well as brackish water fishponds north of Manila is thought
to be reduced as a result of sewage discharge (Ruddle, 1982).
Generally, the effect of urban development and anthropogenic activities (industry,
settlement, agriculture, etc.) cause substantial physical changes in coastal waterways
through the hardening and reclamation of river banks, alteration of water flow, affected
coastal communities, and the diffuse and point-source discharge of pollutants (Ahn &
Choi, 1998; Rawlins et al., 1998; Tuncer et al., 1998; Virkanen, 1998; Inglis & Kross,
2000; Dyer et al., 2003; Mallin et al., 2007). However, research on the effect of
discharging municipal wastewater to benthic macrofauna and community structure in
Futian National Mangrove Reserve concluded that there was no significant effect on total
mean biomass and density (particularly of molluscs and crustaceans) (Yu et al., 1997).
Pollution of near shore waters adjacent to coastal cities has long been a problem due to the
discharge of wastewater. For example Jakarta, Indonesia, like many capital cities in
developing countries, has experienced a rapid population and industrial growth, which has
caused pollution (metals contamination) in Jakarta Bay (Williams et al., 2000; Nur et al.,
2001). This growth, however, has been at a cost, namely the degradation of the coastal
environment of Jakarta Bay and adjacent coral reefs (Kepulauan Seribu), primarily from
pollution (Kay & Alder 1999). Such land-based pollution is one of the causes of reef
degradation and decreased coral biodiversity in other marine coastal areas (Ambon, Jepara,
Karimun Jawa Islands, and South Sulawesi) in Indonesia (Edinger et al., 1998). In Hong
Kong, sewage and industrial pollution have resulted in a decrease in dissolved oxygen and
an increase in nutrients and Escherichia coli in many coastal areas (Wu et al., 1998). It is

12
also the cause of the occurrence of persistent organic contaminants (Connell et al. 1998),
and of heavy metal accumulation (Owen & Sandhu, 2000) in the marine areas.
Wastewater contains a large number of organic materials and the impact of such materials
in coastal water causes euthrophication. Euthrophication is the process of the enrichment
of water with plant nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus that results in the increase
of aquatic primary production and leads to visible algal blooms. Such euthrophication is
not characterized as an adverse effect on the ecosystem during the first stage, since it has
many positive aspects. The impact is the continuous and unlimited increase of the
concentration of plant nutrients that can have a negative environmental impact, such as the
reduction of oxygen concentration, the change of marine biodiversity, poor water quality,
turbidity and an increase of organic matter concentrations (Clark, 1996; Kitsiou & Karydis,
2001).
Nutrient enrichment in marine coastal areas, based on the ENCORE (Enrichment of
Nutrients on a Coral Reef Experiment) study, may also affect coral reproduction, induce
significant biotic responses on reef organisms, affect the calcification rate and linear
extension making coral more susceptible to breakage, reduce all coral larval settlements,
and affect other activities related to reef organisms (Koop et al., 2001).
The occurrence of pollutants in the ecosystem of coastal and marine areas and discharge
together with wastewater from urban areas may be influenced by many factors. Two of
these are characteristics of the pollutants and prevailing weather in that area. For instance,
pesticides and heavy metals may potentially contaminate soil and plants after being
discharged to a wastewater disposal site. In this case, the distribution of pesticides in the
soil and wastewater was influenced by the solubility of such pesticides so that the higher
the solubility the more is present in the water phase (Jiries et al., 2002). Besides,
contamination is also influenced by weather (wet or dry). McPherson et al., (2002)
investigated the difference in annual pollutant loads between two different weathers, dry
[dry-weather flow (DWF)] and wet [wet-weather flow (WWF)]. They indicated that the
WWF was the major non-point source of pollutants including trace metals in the Ballona
Creek watershed, California, while the DWF contribution is low. However, DWF loads
may still be adversely affecting near coastal ecosystems such as wetlands and small
estuaries. Buffleben et al. (2002) have also indicated that the WWF carries a significant
amount of hazardous metals into the Santa Monica Bay, California as the receiving water
area.
To understand more about the source, fate, behavior, and effect of chemicals and other
pollutants in the environment is an academic challenge. However, it is more that that; it
requires understanding of issues that affect and shape the use, regulation and control of
thousands of chemicals of commerce (Jones, 2007).
2.2.3 Mitigation of wastewater problems and management
Wastewater management is urgently needed in order to prevent and mitigate the
wastewater impacts (Engin & Demir, 2006) besides the establishment of pollution
monitoring programs (Zhang et al., 2006; Sheppard, 2007). From this point of view,
wastewater problem solving measures applied in a coastal area should be put into a more
integrated context than the on-site management. As so many different stakeholders, types,
sources and impacts of pollutants are involved, the wastewater aspect should be evaluated

13
and analyzed from an integrated point of view [taking all parts of the system, that is the
sewer system, wastewater treatment plant, and receiving waters into consideration
(Buffleben et al., 2002)]. In this case, communities (including private sectors) and
governments should combine their efforts and resources into an integrated management
measure (Shatkin, 2007). This could be an option to increase participation for conducting
wastewater management. However, institutional and political factors could be barriers to
implementing this issue option (Akbar et al., 2007).
A certain model of wastewater management system could be applied by a city, whether a
centralized or decentralized system. In former times, a centralized system was thought to
be easier to be planned and managed. But nowadays, based on some experiences, such a
system has deficiencies, in which it is particularly poor at reaching peri-urban areas and,
therefore, a decentralized system is adopted as appropriate for such areas (Parkinson and
Tayler, 2003). According to Parkinson and Tayler (2003), decentralized systems are more
compatible with decentralized approaches to urban management than centralized systems.
In a broad sense “… the implications of decentralization on wastewater management
systems relate to planning and decision-making, design of physical infrastructure, and
management arrangements for operations and maintenance” (Parkinson and Tayler,
2003).
A wastewater treatment system is a component of wastewater management; it is important
for sustainable wastewater management (Engin & Demir, 2006). Several techniques could
be applied; they can be from a direct wastewater treatment system (Reed et al., 1995;
Engin & Demir, 2006) to a reused wastewater system (Brown, 1997; Ye et al., 2001;
Morgan, 2004; Friedler et al., 2006).
Niemczynowicz suggested two possible scenarios for a wastewater treatment system
(Kärrman, 2001). Firstly, is the high technology option with continuation, development
and complementation of present technology. Secondly, are low-cost, low-energy solutions
based on the application of biological systems and the recycling of resources. The second
scenario will lead to a less vulnerable and more sustainable society, compared with the first
one. Based on Niemczynowicz’s action plan, another two scenarios can be suggested; first
is a centralized wastewater treatment system with off-site concentration and storage,
second is the decentralized wastewater treatment system with on-site concentration and
storage. However, the application of such systems has various implications (Bakir, 2001;
Roomratanapun, 2001; Tsagarakis et al., 2001; Al-Sa’ed and Mubarak, 2006).
The decentralized wastewater treatment system mainly focuses on an on-site wastewater
treatment and disposal system, in which the typical system for individual homes consists of
a septic tank and a gravity-operated, subsurface soil absorption system (Reed et al., 1995).
This system includes either fully high-tech technology or an in-community participation
system. The system provides a simple, low-cost and low maintenance method (Burkhard et
al., 2000; Parkinson and Tayler, 2003) and implies managing wastewater as close as is
practical to where it is generated and to where its potential beneficial reuse is located. This
comprises systems from the smallest single household system to a system with several
smaller subsystems for collection, treatment, and reuse for a small community (Bakir,
2001). This system has been applied worldwide in several countries, such as the Middle
East and North African countries (Bakir, 2001). However, for small Palestinian
communities, the system is unsustainable as it was not appropriate for the community (Al-
Sa’ed and Mubarak, 2006).

14
The centralized system is mostly associated with a large wastewater treatment plant to
provide services for large areas and generally requires large capital investment and
specialized operators (Burkhard et al., 2000). This system has been applied mostly in
developed countries; some of these are Greece (Tsagarakis et al., 2001), several other
Mediterranean countries (Massoud et al., 2003), Sweden (Kärrman, 2001), and Bangkok
(Roomratanapun, 2001).
The use of wastewater for agricultural production has been applied in Calcutta (Brown,
1997), Saudi Arabia (Abu-Rizaiza, 1999), Australia (Parameswaran, 1999) and Israel
(Friedler et al., 2006). However, this practice may cause contamination with Salmonella of
vegetables (lettuce, parsley, tomatoes, and pimento) as it irrigates with raw wastewater in
El Azzouzia, Marrakesh city, Morocco (Melloul et al., 2001).
Another wastewater treatment system is by using mangroves (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and
Kandelia candel) (Ye et al., 2001), particularly suitable for the treatment of wastewater
rich in nutrients. The system using mangroves is considered to be low-cost and effective
for pollutants from many sources, and especially efficient in the removal and beneficial
reuse of nutrients (Ye et al., 2001). Wastewater from households (human excreta) may be
reused into something useful in agriculture to enhance food production, with a minimal
risk of pollution of the environment and with a minimal threat to human health as well; this
concept has been developed by the Ecological Sanitation Program (Morgan, 2004).
2.3 Coastal Environmental Management in Indonesia
Indonesia’s archipelagic coastal and marine environment is one of the world’s richest areas
in coastal resources, with an 81,000 km long coastline and 5.8 million km2
of marine areas
(70% of its total area). The region’s long coastline contains highly productive coral reefs
(500 species of corals) and mangrove ecosystems (Anonymous, 1996a and b).
Many development activities are taking place in urban areas, as well as in the coastal area.
Such activities in the coastal area include investments, exploitation of non-renewable and
renewable resources. Although Indonesians get benefits from them, all the activities
together, with an ever-increasing population, are resulting in a rapid increase in the
quantity of wastes and wastewater (ATB, 2002), including pollutant-containing wastewater
in marine and coastal areas. This may lead, directly or indirectly, to the degradation of
marine and coastal resources due to impacts of pollution from various hazardous
substances contained in the wastes and wastewaters resulting from human activities, so-
called anthropogenic pollution.
In addressing such a situation, Indonesia has been seriously focusing its national policies,
strategies and actions on environmental management in a context of sustainable
development. Thus, the Indonesian Government has established regulations to control all
development and exploitation of its coastal resources. Previously, Braadbaart (1995)
suggested that to combat water pollution in particular, especially from industries, a
regulatory framework be set up in three phases: (1) allocate responsibility for
environmental policing along sectoral lines; (2) create a Board for the Control of
Environmental Impact (Bapedal); and (3) environmental impact analysis report evaluation
be embedded in an organizational setting replete with a good incentives policies. In
addition, the users, in their activities and targets, have to consider the sustainability of their

15
utilization of the resources and minimize the impacts on the environment.
Major Indonesian coastal and marine resources management issues include the degradation
of coral reefs (Anonymous, 1996a and b; ADB, 2000); the increase in phosphate, nitrate
and sediment loading of marine estuaries from upstream intensive paddy cultivation; the
conversion of intertidal zones to rice paddies; and the incursion of mechanized and
technologically sophisticated foreign fishing fleets (KMNLH, 1996 a and b).
Regarding sustainable development, Indonesia has developed Indonesia’s Agenda 21
(KMNLH, 1996a). Some action programs have been formulated to improve the quality of
the living environment for sustainable development for the future of the 21st
century (1998-
2020). There are seven priority programs, which have been discussed and proposed for
ocean and coastal areas (KMNLH, 1996a); they are:
• Integrated planning and resource development in coastal zones;
• Monitoring and protecting coastal and marine environments;
• Sustainable utilization of marine resources;
• Strengthening and empowering coastal communities;
• Sustainable development of small islands;
• Maintaining security of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ); and
• Managing the impacts of climate change and tidal waves.
As the priority programs of Agenda 21 are being implemented, coastal and marine
resources have been considered for an integrated management system, which involves
integration of policies from other concerned sectors. However, enforcement related to the
coastal and marine environmental quality standards has been limited because regulation
still needs to be implemented as a national legislation.
Indonesia has developed significant legislations (legal tools) for environmental standards
(Table 2.3), including those for the coastal zones and marine areas, which also include the
use of environmental impact assessment (EIA). The process of establishing coastal and
marine management reached an important milestone with the recognition of this
environment as a new sector in REPELITA (Five Year Development Plan) IV. The marine
sector is now officially a key element of Indonesia's present and future economic
development, and so the future coastal and marine strategy depends on today's decisions.
A program that has been implemented to protect and control the coastal environment is the
coastal and marine integrated conservation program (Pantai dan Laut Lestari Terpadu). The
program which was implemented in 1996 consists of three packages of working programs,
namely (1) cleaning of coastal tourism areas, (2) valuable harbors (harbor zones), and (3)
conservation (coral reef and mangrove zones).
2.4 Major Coastal Planning & Management Techniques
The absence of management measures that are indicated by the absence of adequate
policies, legislation, and public participation in addressing environmental issues may cause
further negative impact on the environment and health (Mrayyan and Hamdi, 2006).
Therefore, appropriate management measures and techniques should be identified.

16
Table 2.3 Some Legal Tools for Controlling Coastal and Marine Pollution and
Degradation in Indonesia
Year Number Concerning
1969 Convention International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage, 1969
1972 Convention Prevention Of Marine Pollution by Dumping from
ship and Aircraft, 1972.
1973 Convention International Convention For The Prevention of
Pollution from Ship
1974 GR (Government Regulation) No.
17
Concerning Controlling of Oil and Gas Exploration
and Exploitation in the Coastal Zone
1978 Protocol International Convention For the Prevention of
Pollution from Ship, 1973
1982 Act No. 4 Concerning Environmental Management
1982 Convention United Nations Conventions on the Law of the sea
1983 Act No. 5 Economic Exclusive Zone
1988 Decree of State Minister for
Population and Environment
Guideline for Environmental Quality Standard
Establishment
1990 Act No. 5 Conservation of Living Resources and Their
Ecosystems
1992 Act No. 21 Concerning Shipping
1992 Act No. 24 Spatial Planning
1993 GR No. 51 Environmental Impact Analysis (revision)
1994 GR No. 19 Management of Dangerous and Toxic Wastes
1995 Environmental Impact
Management Agency
(BAPEDAL) Decree of The State
Minister For The Environment
Number KEP-
51/MENLH/10/1995
Liquid waste Standards For Industrial Activities
1996 Decree of State Minister for
Environment Number 42
Environmental Quality Standard Liquid Waste for
Oil, Gas and Global Warming Activities.
1996 State Ministerial Decree:
Kep-42/MENLH/10/1996
Environmental Standard for Liquid Waste for The
Oil and Gas Activities and Global Warning :
October 1996
1999 GR No. 19 Marine Pollution and Degradation
With regards to coastal areas, Kay & Alder (1999) suggested three groups of major
approaches for coastal management and planning. They are (a) administrative, (b) social,
and (c) technical measures. Those approaches consist of applications, which are each
composed of some tools.
2.4.1 Administrative aspect
Many countries have adopted laws, decrees, and other regulatory acts to specify the
environmental requirements for development activities. In this sense, it is the role of the
government to ensure and promote environmental conservation, and therefore, on behalf of
society, to set standards for all industrial activities (including public-owned ones), to
establish an effective permit or licensing system, and to take measures to ensure that it is
adhered to (UNEP, 1992). The following tools are included in the administrative aspect:

17
• Policy and legislation
Policy and legislation can be powerful tools for managing the coast, where policy is a basis
for decision-making. Anderson et al. (1984, cf Kay & Alder, 1999) suggest a definition of
“policy” as a purposive course of action followed by appropriately dealing with a problem.
Examples of policies applied in coastal management are: coral reef conservation in
Honduras in which they focus on the policy for individual behavior inside the boundaries
of the reserve, such as the prohibition of anchoring (facilitated by a successful mooring
buoy program that had been previously accomplished), spearfishing, coral collection or
destruction, and others (Luttinger, 1997). Other examples are shown in Table 2.3. In 1979
the National Government of Japan concentrated on eliminating the organic contamination
problem by implementing a policy to regulate COD from industrial effluents, and added
nitrogen and phosphorus levels to the list of effluents to come under regulation in October
1993 (Kawabe, 1998).
“Legislation” or “law” is defined through a parliamentary or legislative process and the
outcome is often expressed as an ‘Act’ or ‘Law’. It can be defined as “the government of
the time’s response to community demands for government action or management of
particular issues, areas or activities” (Kay & Alder, 1999).
• Guidelines
The term of “guidelines” is used to describe a group of documents, which are less
prescriptive and or forceful than formal legislation, policies or regulations. It is also used
as guidance for decision makers to act upon.
• Regulation and enforcement
Regulation permits and licenses. Permits and licenses are written approvals from a
government to conduct specified activities in specified areas. The processes and
criteria for issuing permits are generally controlled by either policy directions or
regulations, or are specified in legislation (Kay & Alder, 1999). In addition, permits
can be used in some activities to assist in day-to-day coastal management activities.
Enforcement. Enforcement is a management tool used to effect compliance with acts,
regulations, permits, licenses, policies or plans with a legislative basis (Kay & Alder,
1999).
• Incentive instruments
The need for incentive instruments for managing marine resources and uses, criteria for
evaluating, and principles for instrument design is discussed by Greiner et al. (2000). The
authors further state that for a policy evaluation there are three criteria that are commonly
applied, namely economic efficiency, equity, and environmental implication.
Some principles related to incentives in terms of how they are designed, are user pays and
polluter pays; cost sharing; sense of community, ownership, and stewardship; adaptive
systems; and ecosystem approach (Greiner et al., 2000).

18
2.4.2 Social aspect
• Participation
Hildebrand (1997) stated that participation can only be achieved when power is shared.
This means that citizens, through community organizations, are, with a government,
making planning decisions that have meaningful consequences. Since a ‘bottom-up’
approach is adopted widely in integrated coastal zone management, participation in such
management activities has increased. This is because the traditional form of ‘public
consultation’ is no longer adequate (Hildebrand, 1997).
Who are the actors that will participate in coastal management and planning? Players are
the actors who participate in the program and initiatives. They are commonly called
‘stakeholders’ to stress that they have a stake in the future of the coast, either because they
live there, earn a living from the exploitation of coastal resources, or it is their job to
administer the rules and regulations controlling coastal use. Stakeholders also include
vicarious users who may never use or access the coast but still value it, and those who may
not reside on the coast but use it for recreation (Kay & Alder, 1999).
For a general system, the term ‘stakeholder’ might be those who affect, and/or are affected
by, the policies, decisions and actions of the system (Grimble & Chan, 1995). Thus, they
can be individuals, communities, social groups or institutions of any size, aggregation or
level in society; they include policy makers, planners and administrators in government
and other organizations, as well as commercial and subsistence groups (Grimble & Chan,
1995; Clark, 1996; Lee, 1998; Kay & Alder, 1999), coastal residents via community-based
organizations (CBOs) and local representative authorities; various economic sectors via
cooperatives, federations, and chambers of commerce; conservationists via NGOs; and the
state of government via its various public agencies (Jorge, 1997).
In regard to the community aspect as a part of an integrated perspective, collaborative and
community-based management are powerful tools of participation because they have the
potential to help and solve coastal problems at the local level. Both are capable of
modifying people’s activities at the source of the problem in a way which can help to meet
management objectives, and assist in integrating environmental and resource management
activities into people’s everyday lives: where a community makes some resource
management decisions that affect their activities (Kay & Alder, 1999).
It is implied that collaborative management has a number of common elements, including
all stakeholders. The stakeholders have a say in the management and sharing of
management responsibility which varies according to specific conditions but the
government assumes responsibility for the overall policy coordination; and socio-economic
and cultural objectives are an integral part of management (Kay & Alder, 1999).
Community-based management uses the "empowered people" concept which provides the
responsibility to manage resources. In this case, the community, together with the
government, business and other interested parties share an interest in co-managing
resources with some decision-making devolved to the community.
According to Hildebrand (1997), community-based coastal management represents a new
form of partnership between government and community-based organizations. In essence,

19
it is about ‘power sharing’ in the integrated planning and management of the coastal zone.
It may be initiated by communities themselves, by government agencies, or with the
assistance of non-government organizations (NGOs). However, it is rarely achieved, if the
government is reluctant to devolve power. Communities are often viewed as unqualified or
too unskilled to take on the responsibility for managing, or communities are reluctant to
take on the responsibility for decision-making.
• Capacity building
Crawford et al. (1993 cf Kay & Alder, 1999) give a definition for capacity building: it is a
term used to describe initiatives that aim to increase the capability of those charged with
managing the coast to make sound planning and management decisions. Since the term is
also used commonly by international organizations, there are two different kinds of
capacity building that focus on supporting and improving coastal management decisions,
namely ‘human capacity’ and ‘institutional capacity’. In the coastal management
perspective, the former focuses on individual decision makers and coastal managers, while
the latter is focused on business, governments, non-governmental groups and communities
(Crawford et al., 1993 cf Kay & Alder, 1999; Kay & Alder, 1999). The difference in terms
of component items set up for capacity-building program can be seen in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Characteristic of Collaborative and Community-based Management (Jentolft,
1989 cf Kay & Alder, 1999)
Characteristics Collaborative management Community-based management
Initiative Decentralize Local
Organization Formal Informal
Leadership Participant Mutual Adjustment
Control Decentralize Decentralize
Autonomy Some Yes
2.4.3 Technical aspect
Technical tools are used for practical approaches, including environmental assessment
(environmental impact assessment), risk and hazard assessment, quality criteria and
standards, and a potential wastewater treatment (wastewater-fed aquaculture) that are
commonly applied in coastal management and planning.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
One of the most powerful tools in minimizing impacts is a requirement to complete an
environmental impact assessment (EIA) (Brown, 1997) for various development activities.
Basically, an EIA aims to evaluate the effects of proposed developments and projects on
the environment (Hoozemans et al., 1995) by clearly evaluating the environmental
consequences of a proposed activity ‘before’ action is taken (Brown, 1997). In this
evaluation, the impacts of a single development activity can be estimated and so, they can
be prevented in advance.

20
EA, or EIA, has relevance and importance in all activities in coastal development
(Hambrey et al., 2000), and it is considered as a management tool rather than as an
administrative or regulatory process. In particular it may be used to (1) modify and
improve the content or design of a policy, plan or proposal; (2) ensure that resources are
used efficiently; (3) enhance the social aspects related to a proposal; (4) identify measures
for monitoring and managing impacts; and (5) facilitate informed decision making,
especially in relation to sustainability criteria. The essence of EIA is a prediction of the
future state of the environment, with and without the development activity (Carpenter &
Maragos, 1989). Thus, the EIA is conducted in order to predict the adverse consequences
of development on the environment.
In Indonesia EIA is compulsory for a development project that has a potential impact on
the environment, while it is not in Singapore (Chia, 1998). Since most development
projects proceed within a very short time frame, a detailed EIA is often impossible. It is not
uncommon that EIA is conducted only a few months before the commencement of work
and the development would proceed regardless of the conclusion of the impact assessment
(Wu et al., 1998).
In coastal waters, like other common development activities, EIA is considered to be a
vital tool for sound coral reef conservation to maintain an optimum ecosystem function.
Tomascik (1993) has developed a general guideline for such a measure.
In addition, there is another evaluation that is always conducted together with or as a
complement of EIA; it is ‘cumulative effects’ (CE) assessment. Vestal & Rieser (1995)
described the term of CE as the phenomenon of changes in the environment that result
from numerous, small-scale alterations. For example, alteration of critical habitats through
wetland loss, degradation of water quality from non-point source pollution, and change in
salinity of estuarine waters from water dispersion projects.
• Risk and Hazard Assessment
Risk and Hazard Assessment is considered as one of the control measures to prevent the
destruction of coastal areas due to the development of human-generated activities
(anthropogenic pressures). However, there are no activities, which have a zero risk. This
assessment is concerned with assessing the probability that certain events will take place
and assessing the potential adverse impact on people, property, or the environment that
these events may have. For example, failures of a chemical refinery on the coast causing
damage to the plant itself, and to surrounding residents and the environment through the
release of toxic chemicals into near-shore waters. Potential impacts on a coastal region by
severe storms are also included (Kay & Alder, 1999). The risk and hazard assessment, like
EIA, is always conducted as part of coastal planning and management before the activities
are carried out, so all the risks due to the activities are taken into account.
Conducting the risk and hazard assessment once it has been identified is called ‘risk
management’, and the method of managing risks is called the ‘risk management technique’
(Kay & Alder, 1999). Developing a risk management strategy involves a number of
distinct stages. According to Kay & Alder (1999), they are (1) scoping and investigation;
(2) analysis; (3) implementation (mitigation); and (4) monitoring.

21
• Quality Criteria and Standards
One of the management approaches to control pollution is an environmental management.
Environmental management is the art of conserving and improving the quality of the
environment by controlling the quality and quantity of waste-loads discharged into it
(Ouano, 1988). The environmental control standards are based on the concept of allocating
the Assimilative Capacity to the different users for free. The assimilative capacity could be
considered a resource owned by the people as represented by the government of the
pollution control agency.
Quality criteria and standards are one of the tools in environmental management. The
criteria and standards that are discussed here include receiving water quality standards,
effluent standards and effluent charges, and the precautionary principle.
Receiving Water Quality Standards (RWQS). RWQS vary from one country to another
depending on various social, economic, and technical factors. The most well researched
and discussed water quality standards are for drinking water, whereas the non-
consumptive water quality standards have greater variation especially those developed
for the coastal and marine environment. ‘Pollutant’ is usually defined as the quantity of
waste-loaded discharge to the environment, which will result in concentrations higher
than those allowed by the RWQS. Due to variations in the coastal and marine
environment standards, the same quantity of waste-load will have different meaning in
different countries (Ouano, 1988).
The RWQS is difficult to administer if there are two or more waste discharge sources
within the water body. Implementation of the receiving water quality standard calls for
extensive monitoring of the waste discharges, the mixing, dilution and purification in
the water body. The RWQS favor the waste discharges located upstream as they could
utilize completely the assimilative capacity of the water body. The waste discharged
down stream will be required to remove all waste-load completely, or relocate or close
down.
Environmental (Assimilative) Capacity. Environmental (Assimilative) Capacity can be
applied both in sea and freshwater and underlies the calculation of safe discharges of
sewage waste to the sea and rivers. The concept is that the environment (marine, river,
and lake) has the capacity to tolerate an input of man-made waste without suffering
significant damage. That level may be quite small for some wastes, and different areas
will have different capacities to dilute and disperse waste to harmless levels (Ouano,
1988; Clark, 1997).
Effluent Standards (ES) and Effluent Charges (EC). ES is derived by dividing the
assimilative capacity among the waste dischargers. The assimilative capacity is treated
as a common resource that the effluent standards distribute to the different users. One
of the main problems in the development of effluent standards is the tendency to
impose the RWQS as ES (Ouano, 1988). For example, the Philippines National
Pollution Control Commission implemented the RWQS as ES between 1978 and 1981.
As a result waste dischargers were automatically required to remove up to 99.99% of
the waste-load. While the effluent standard of 1981 tried to correct the problems related
to BOD, the concentration of the other constituents were practically copied from the
RWQS of 1978. Even today the required concentrations of copper, zinc, fluoride and

22
other metals are the same as that for ES which makes Philippines standards more
stringent than the WHO International Drinking Water Standard of 1972.
Some economists involved in environmental management suggested that the allocation
of the assimilative capacity would be more efficient if it is carried out using a free
market mechanism (Ouano, 1988). The pollution control technology used by the waste
generator will not be dictated by the standards but rather by the market forces such as
its competitors, demand, and the assimilative capacity available. The pollution control
agency monitors the allowable assimilative capacity and sells it to the highest bidder.
The winning bidder is allowed to discharge into the water body while the losing bidder
will have to store his waste (Ouano, 1988).
Precautionary Principle. The Precautionary Principle was proposed by Germany in 1986
(Clark, 1997) to prevent damaging effects of wastes entering the environment. Where
there are threats or serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific
certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent
environmental degradation. The application of the precautionary principle decision
should be guided by (a) careful evaluation to avoid, where practicable, serious or
irreversible damage to the environment, and (b) an assessment of the risk-weighted
consequences of various options (Brown, 1997). In addition, seeking to understand
effects of chemicals and pollutants in the environment, requires an understanding of
issues that affect and shape the use, regulation, and control of thousands of chemicals
of commerce (Jones, 2007).

23
Chapter 3
General Research Methodology
This chapter presents the general research methodology used in this study. The
methodology encompasses a research approach, a research framework, a research design,
and a data gathering procedure. Detailed research methodology is presented in each topic
of the study.
3.1 Research Approach
The present study has included a set of research activities, which principally deal with
existing available data and information (primary and secondary) obtained from various
sources. As a descriptive research method was used and the research topic was analyzed
according to some selected aspects, this research is called descriptive (Gay, 1975 cf Sevilla
et al., 1988) and analytical research.
This descriptive and analytical research used a survey research method (using interviews,
questionnaires, and observation techniques) for the collection of data and information with
sampling methods. The analytical research method included, for instance, the content
analysis method to collect data and information from published and un-published
documents, archives, etc. Residential and non-residential buildings, households or persons
were used as the basic sampling unit in some aspects of this study.
Social part
Physical part
Source of
wastewater
Sewer
system
Treatment
system
Receiving
waters (rivers,
marine coastal
area)
CommunityGovernment
Institution
Figure 3.1 Scheme of research approach

24
As mentioned before in Chapter 2, a wastewater system should be analyzed and evaluated
from an integrated point of view, taking into consideration all parts of the system, i.e.
sources of wastewater, sewer systems, wastewater treatment facilities and receiving waters.
These parts constitute the physical measure aspect. Being applied in a management
context, this physical measure was combined with various social parts (for example
community, government, institution) (Fig. 3.1). An integrated system was used as an
approach to develop the present research.
3.2 Research Framework
Three groups of data were considered as data sources in this study based on the
preliminary observation on wastewater problems in the city of Manado; they are 1) the
wastewater discharge-related aspect (WRA); 2) the community-related aspect (CRA); and
3) the governmental/administrative-related aspect (GRA). The WRA relates to wastewater
discharge, which comprises aspects from the wastewater-related activities at individual
houses (e.g. toilets, and septic tanks) to the entire sewer system including wastewater
infrastructures and facilities. Natural characteristics can be included in this aspect. The
CRA includes a community which is related (Pompeo, 1999; Hauger et al., 2002) to the
problem solving approach of wastewater discharge. It could be an individual person, a
household, and/or a group forming a community institution. The GRA relates to a
government/administrative institution, as it plays an important role in problem solving
measures for wastewater discharge.
From those groups of data, three selected aspects were studied, such as 1) the community’s
environmental knowledge and attitude, 2) wastewater treatment systems and wastewater
infrastructures and facilities, and 3) the water quality in the river system. Those are the
main aspects in this study. Three associated aspects were also selected; they are 1) the
natural settings, 2) the socio-economic aspects, and 3) institutional arrangement &
management measures (Fig. 3.2). All aspects (main and associated aspects) were
identified, evaluated, assessed, and analyzed prior to formulating strategic actions.
Following are the specifications of the main aspect:
1. Status of community’s environmental knowledge and attitude aspects. This study was
conducted to evaluate and analyze the community’s environmental knowledge and
attitude related to wastewater issues. Two indicators were evaluated, i.e.:
• Environmental knowledge: knowledge within a community related to general
environmental issues and specific environmental issues caused by wastewater.
• Environmental attitude: the attitude of the community related to general environmental
issues and environmental issues caused by wastewater. This indicator was assessed
through two components, such as 1) community concerns related to general
environmental issues and environmental issues caused by wastewater, and 2)
community preference concerning solutions of environmental problems related to
wastewater.

25
Figure 3.2 Conceptual framework of the study on wastewater management in the city of
Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Denote:
Aspect of
study
Process Provision
Status of water quality
(WRA)
Status of wastewater
treatment system & facilities
(WRA)
Status of community’s
environmental knowledge &
attitude (CRA)
STRATEGIC
ACTIONS
WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT PLAN
Constraints &
Potentials
• Natural
characteristics
(WRA)
• Socio-economic
aspect (CRA)
• Institutional
arrangement &
management (GRA)
Identification:
Descriptive:Identification, Descriptive,
Analytical & Evaluation:
Analytical & Formulation:
I
M
P
L
E
M
E
N
T
A
T
I
O
N
Wastewater issues
MAIN ASPECT: ASSOCIATED ASPECT:
(WRA): wastewater discharge-related aspect
(CRA): community-related aspect
(GRA): government/administrative-related aspect

26
2. Status of wastewater treatment system & facilities aspect. This study was conducted to
evaluate wastewater treatment systems at household levels. Two indicators were
evaluated, i.e.:
• Wastewater treatment system: the condition and capacity of the wastewater treatment
system (septic tanks) was evaluated. This is related to the ‘black water’ part of
wastewater.
• Wastewater infrastructure and facilities: the condition of the wastewater infrastructure
and facilities was evaluated, including systems for wastewater from kitchens,
bathrooms (‘grey water’).
In this study, the factor affecting the condition of the wastewater treatment system was
also evaluated. Socio-economic factors (monthly income, level of education, and house
status) and the community’s environmental knowledge were predicted to influence the
condition of the on-site wastewater treatment system (septic tank) in the city.
3. Status of water quality aspect. This study was conducted to measure and evaluate the
quality of discharged wastewater in the river system. The following indicators were
observed:
• Quality of wastewater: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), nitrogen (N) and phosphate
(total phosphorous), and an amount of fecal coliform.
• Pollutant-containing wastewater: the concentration of mercury (Hg). Mercury was
considered in this study because this pollutant is used widely in the upland area around
the city of Manado for amalgam gold mining in small-scale industries.
The following are the specifications of the associated aspect:
1. Natural characteristic aspect. The following are the components described:
• Topography: slope and elevation.
• Drainage: rivers, canals and other water-draining areas.
• Climate: precipitation and seasons, etc.
2. Socio-economic aspect. Socio-economic characteristics, population, employment, and
level of education were described in this study.
3. Institutional arrangement and management measure aspects. Besides the management
measures information, the following are the components described:
• Government: role and function, responsibility, and coordination (from local level to
national level);
• Policies, strategies, and actions related to wastewater management.
3.3 Research Design
A research protocol was designed for this study. The design considers ensuring that this
research can be repeated for monitoring and evaluation purposes or for comparison with
other cases.

27
3.3.1 Study areas
The study area covered the area under the administration of Manado City (Fig. 1.1, p. 3).
Two types of study areas were identified:
• Study Area (SA) I: this study area covered the city level (Manado City with all
districts).
• Study Area (SA) II: this study area covered the district level. Two districts were
selected as specific study sites (SS) because they met the following conditions:
1. The area is close (water-front) to the coastal area, so discharged wastewater can be
observed from upland to coastal areas.
2. The area is influenced by the Tondano Watershed. This criterion was used because
some parts of the Manado area are included in this watershed and most of the
wastewater is brought down to the coastal area through this watershed.
The two specific study sites (SS), which were selected, based on those conditions (Table
3.1) are:
• Study Site (SS) 1: Molas District. The area is a waterfront area within Manado Bay
(Fig. 1.1, p. 2). Approximately 5,988 households of this area are included in the
Tondano Watershed (JICA, 2000).
• Study Site (SS) 2: Wenang District. The area is a waterfront area within Manado Bay
(Fig. 1.1, p. 3). Approximately 15,377 households were included in the Tondano
Watershed (JIC,A 2000).
Figure 3.3 gives an overview of how the study areas (SA) and study sites (SS) are
interrelated.
Table 3.1 Selection of the Two Specific Study Sites
Condition Districts
Molas Mapanget Malalayang Wenang Sario
The area is close (water-front) to the
coastal area √ X √ √ √
The area is influenced by the
Tondano Watershed (No. of sub-
districts)
6 2 X 13 1
The area is influenced by the
Tondano Watershed (No. of
households)
5,988 1,194 X 15,377 3,937
√: yes, X: no
3.3.2 Sample and sampling design
Sample size was calculated by using a formula introduced by Slovin (1960, cf Sevilla et
al., 1988): n = N / (1 + N e2
); where n is sample size, N is population size, and e is a
preferred critical number. Below, descriptions of sample size and sampling design for each
study area and site are provided. Table 3.2 shows the calculated and applied sample size
for households, individuals/person, and houses used.

28
Each of the study sites (district level) is divided into several sub-districts. The applied
samples were distributed into the sub-districts in accordance with a stratified random
sampling method (Steel & Torrie, 1980). The sample size for each of the sub-districts is
presented in Table 3.3a & b.
Table 3.2 Calculated and Applied (*) Sample Size
Site Districts Number of Sample Size
House-
holds
Individuals/p
ersonals
Houses House-
holds
Individuals/
personals
Houses
1 Molas 29,025 113,443 15,498 395 /
300*
100 / 145* 390 / 300*
2 Wenang 21,337 89,424 15,848 393 /
304*
100 / 139* 390 / 304*
3.3.3 Questionnaire design
A questionnaire was used as one of the survey/observation instruments to collect primary
data. The questionnaire was developed by involving persons (Kumurur, pers. comm.; Polii,
pers. comm.) who are experts in this field.
3.3.4 Interview design
Interviews, as an instrument to collect primary data, were carried out in this research.
Some questions related to a selected topic were presented to persons in order to get
responses/answers indicating their knowledge about the topic. In order to get complete
answers there were no limitations on the question scope. For practical reasons, to simplify
Figure 3.3 Schematic construction of the Study Area and Study Sites
The Study Area
Study Area (SA) II:
Study Site (SS) 1:
Molas
Study Site (SS) 2:
Wenang
Study Area (SA) I:
Manado City
City level
District level

29
this method, the author organized a workshop1
and the key informants and community
officials from local government and community were invited as participants. During the
workshop, the participants were interviewed regarding their opinion about environmental
problems in general and problems related to wastewater.
Table 3.3a Distribution of Applied Sample Size in Molas District (n= number of samples)
No. Sub-district Sample Size
Households Individuals/personals Houses
(n=300) (n=145) (n=300)
1. Islam 22 15 22
2. Tuminting 33 13 33
3. Sumompo 30 16 30
4. Mahawu 32 14 32
5. Tumumpa Satu 31 19 31
6. Tumumpa Dua 27 20 27
7. Maasing 36 22 36
8. Bitung Karang ria 58 11 58
9. Sindulang Dua 31 15 31
Table 3.3b Distribution of Applied Sample Size in Wenang District (n= number of
samples)
No. Sub-district Sample Size
Households Individual/personals Houses
(n=304) (n=139) (n=304)
1. Istiqlal 24 15 24
2. Wenang Selatan 29 8 29
3. Mahakeret Timur 29 15 29
4. Teling Bawah 28 12 28
5. Komo Luar 26 9 26
6. Pinaesaan 20 15 20
7. Bumi Beringin 19 10 19
8. Mahakeret Barat 31 12 31
9. Wenang Utara 34 10 34
10. Lawangirung 35 15 35
11. Tikala Kumaraka 20 6 20
12. Calaca 9 12 9
3.4 Data Gathering Procedure
Two types of data were collected in this research, secondary and primary data. Primary
data were collected and obtained directly from the field as the primary source. Secondary
data were collected and obtained from other sources (for example charts, reports, statistics,
archives, experts, etc.). The main aspect of the study was considered as the primary data,
while the associated aspect was the secondary data.
1
The workshop was entitled ‘solid and wastewater management in the city of Manado’; it was conducted on
May 13, 2003 in collaboration with Sam Ratulangi University, the government of Manado City, and Natural
Resources Management organizations. 35 participants from the government and the community attended.

30
3.4.1 Secondary data collection
Available secondary data and information were collected from various sources. For the
collection of adequate and appropriate information, a number of organizations were
contacted and visited as sources of information. These included national universities (for
example Sam Ratulangi University, Manado); international universities (for example Asian
Institute of Technology, Thailand); provincial government agencies of North Sulawesi
Province; local government agencies (the city of Manado and the Minahasa Regency),
including executive and legislative parties; profit-organizations (private companies); non-
profit organizations (non-governmental organizations); and others. Information from
Internet sources was used as an additional and worldwide source of information.
3.4.2 Primary data collection
This research was conducted in two sequenced stages: Pre-Survey (Stage 1) and Main
Survey (Stage 2). The Pre-Survey was conducted as a reconnaissance survey in order to
adjust the research designed (for instance the study sites, sampling areas, representative
sampling), to conduct a pre-test for the questionnaire, and to request permission. The Main
Survey was conducted in order to gather data used to identify, analyze, and formulate
specific objectives in each of the studies.

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