Biotechnological strategies for the conservation of medicinal and ornamental climbers

Anwar Shahzad · Shiwali Sharma
Saeed A. Siddiqui Editors
Biotechnological
strategies for the
conservation of
medicinal and
ornamental climbers

Biotechnological strategies for the conservation
of medicinal and ornamental climbers

Anwar Shahzad • Shiwali Sharma
Saeed A. Siddiqui
Editors
Biotechnological strategies
for the conservation of
medicinal and ornamental
climbers

ISBN 978-3-319-19287-1 ISBN 978-3-319-19288-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19288-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015959029
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
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Editors
Anwar Shahzad
Plant Biotechnology Section
Department of Botany
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, UP, India
Saeed A. Siddiqui
Aligarh, UP, India
Shiwali Sharma
Aligarh, UP, India

Plants become climbers, in order, it may be
presumed, to reach the light, and to expose a
large surface of leaves to its action and to
that of the free air. This is affected by
climbers with wonderfully little expenditure
of organized matter, in comparison with
trees, which have to support a load of heavy
branches by a massive trunk.
– Darwin (1865)

vii
Preface
Climbers (lianas and vines) are one of the most interesting, but much-neglected,
groups of plants. They occur in all woody ecosystems of the world. High climbers
play an important ecological role in forest ecosystem dynamics and functioning,
exhibiting a wonderful example of economy of nature. It allows a plant to attain
maximum exposure to sunlight, water, and nutrients with minimum expense in veg-
etation support. Phylogenetically, climbers are found in over 125 families of flower-
ing plants as well as among several fern groups and even in one significant
gymnosperm genus, Gentum.
Though a climber is a straggling plant, it plays vital roles in horticulture, medi-
cine, and agriculture. Some climbing species are grown for ornamental purpose
also. The most commonly used medicinal climbers, viz., Abrus precatorious,
Aristolochia indica, Cissus quadriangulairs, Coccinia inidca, Gloriosa superba,
Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus, Tinospora cordifolia, Tylophora indica,
and Decalepis hamiltonii, play an important role to cure ailments related to skin,
cough, fever, headache, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma, dysentery, and poison bites.
Bougainvillea spp., Gloriosa superba, Ceropegia spp., Allamanda, Passiflora spp.,
etc. are some common ornamental climbers.
This book has been written in the vicinity of the books on climbing plant species.
As there is no recent book on climbers, the aim of this book is to gather up-to-date
information on recent trends of biotechnology and research in light of the surge in
the demand for climber-based medicine. The chapters are focused on eight different
themes. The book begins with a discussion on the evolution of a climbing habit and
their diversification in angiosperms, the second theme highlights the use of some
important climbers as medicine, while the rest of the themes (third to eighth)
describe biotechnological interventions for conservation and the qualitative and
quantitative improvement of climbers (both medicinal and ornamental). Authors
have tried to collect the protocols for in vitro propagation and synthetic seed pro-
duction of most of the studied climbers, including threatened and rare species.
During the past few decades, the development and use of molecular markers for the
detection and exploitation of DNA polymorphism is one of the most significant

viii
progresses in the ﬁeld of plant biotechnology and their genetic studies. This book
has a separate theme on “Molecular marker approaches: quality assessment and
authentication for medicinal value.” Chapters in this theme provide a general
account on various molecular markers and their applications in quality assessments
and improvement of medicinal and ornamental climbers.
During preparation of this book, we made our sincere efforts to provide good
scientiﬁc information on climbers. We hope the book will be useful for researchers
in academia, industry, and agriculture planning. We also hope that our earnest
endeavor will have a great reception by graduate students and teachers.
As editors, we would like to thank all the authors and coauthors for their timely
submissions and cooperation during the compilation of the book. We also gratefully
acknowledge permission from many authors and journals to include previously pub-
lished data. The editors deeply appreciate the time-to-time assistance provided by
the Springer book editorial team, especially by Mariska van der Stigchel, whose
enthusiastic guidance throughout the period of compilation helped us to complete
the task smoothly.
The task of completing this book could not have been accomplished without the
patience and understanding of our family members, dear friends, postdocs, and
research scientists. Finally, we sincerely acknowledge the blessings from the
Almighty God, who provided us the boost for completing this energetic task.
Aligarh, India Anwar Shahzad
6 April 2015 Shiwali Sharma
Saeed A. Siddiqui
Preface

ix
Contents
Part I Origin, Evolution and Diversiﬁcation of Climbers
1 Climbers: Evolution and Diversification in Angiosperm .................... 3
Shiwali Sharma and Anwar Shahzad
Part II Climbers as Medicine and Conservation Challenges
2 Biodiversity Conservation with Special Reference to Medicinal
Climbers: Present Scenario, Challenges, Strategies, and Policies...... 23
Shiwali Sharma and Rekha Arya
3 Medicinal Importance of Climbers Used in Unani
System of Medicine ................................................................................. 65
M.A. Kalam and Ghufran Ahmad
4 Climber Plants: Medicinal Importance and Conservation
Strategies.................................................................................................. 101
Muzamil Ali, Tasiu Isah, Dipti, and A. Mujib
Part III Plant Tissue Culture: A Rapid and Most Reliable
Approach for Plant Diversity Conservation
5 Plant Tissue Culture: Profile of Pioneers.............................................. 141
Anwar Shahzad, Vikas Yadav, and Zishan Ahmad
6 Micropropagation: A Boon for Conservation
of Valuable Vines and Lianas ................................................................. 163
Shiwali Sharma, Anwar Shahzad, Rakhshanda Akhtar,
and Anamica Upadhyay
7 Somatic Embryogenesis: A Valuable Strategy
for Phyto-Climbing Diversity Conservation......................................... 195
Anwar Shahzad, Shiwali Sharma, and Saeed A. Siddiqui

x
8 A Biotechnological Perspective Towards Improvement of Decalepis
hamiltonii: Potential Applications of Its Tubers and Bioactive
Compounds of Nutraceuticals for Value Addition ............................... 217
Matam Pradeep, Kamireddy Kiran, and Parvatam Giridhar
9 Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill:
Medicinal Uses, Propagation, and Replenishment............................... 239
Anwar Shahzad, Anamica Upadhyay, Shiwali Sharma,
and Taiba Saeed
10 In Vitro Strategies for the Conservation
of Some Medicinal and Horticultural Climbers................................... 259
T. Dennis Thomas and Yoichiro Hoshino
Part IV Synthetic Seed: A New Horizon for Conservation
and Transportation of Germplam
11 Advancement in Encapsulation Techniques
for Conservation of Climbers................................................................. 293
Arjumend Shaheen and Anwar Shahzad
Part V Metabolic Engineering and Synthetic Biology
for Bioactive Compounds and Their Improvement
12 Secondary Metabolite Enhancement in Medicinal
Climbers Through the Intervention of Abiotic
and Biotic Elicitors.................................................................................. 311
Anwar Shahzad and Rakhshanda Akhtar
Part VI Genetic Transformations: A Desired
Approach for Quality Improvement
13 Basic Principles Behind Genetic Transformation in Plants ................ 327
Taiba Saeed and Anwar Shahzad
14 Genetic Transformation for Quality Improvement
in Ornamental Climbers......................................................................... 351
Gaurav Singh, Mrinalini Srivastava, and Pratibha Misra
15 Advances in Molecular Approaches for the Integrative
Genetic Transformation of Highly Important Climbers ..................... 367
Taiba Saeed and Anwar Shahzad
Part VII Molecular Marker Approaches: Quality Assessment
and Authentication for Medicinal Value
16 Molecular Markers and Their Application
in Plant Biotechnology............................................................................ 389
Shahina Parveen, Anwar Shahzad, and Vikas Yadav
Contents

xi
17 Application of Molecular Markers in Medicinal Climbers................. 415
Shahina Parveen and Anwar Shahzad
Part VIII Selective Protocols for In Vitro Propagation
and Secondary Metabolite Production
18 Selective Protocols for In Vitro Propagation and Secondary
Metabolite Production............................................................................ 429
Y.K. Bansal and A.J. Bharati
19 In Vitro Protocols for Ornamental Climbers........................................ 449
Arjumend Shaheen and Anwar Shahzad
20 Contribution of Biotechnological Tools in the Enhancement
of Secondary Metabolites in Selected Medicinal Climbers................. 465
Mrinalini Srivastava, Gaurav Singh, and Pratibha Misra
Index................................................................................................................. 487
Contents

xiii
Contributors
Ghufran Ahmad Department of Ilmul Advia, Ajmal Khan Tibbiya College,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligrah, UP, India
Zishan Ahmad Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, UP, India
RakhshandaAkhtar Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany,Aligarh
MuzamilAli Cellular Differentiation and Molecular Genetics Section, Department
of Botany, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
Rekha Arya Department of Botany, Tikaram Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Aligarh, UP,
India
Y.K. Bansal Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Department of Bioscience, R.D.
University, Jabalpur, MP, India
A.J. Bharati Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Department of Bioscience, R.D.
University, Jabalpur, MP, India
Dipti Cellular Differentiation and Molecular Genetics Section, Department of
Botany, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
Parvatam Giridhar Plant Cell Biotechnology Department, CSIR-Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India
Academy of Scientiﬁc and Innovative Research, Mysore, India
Yoichiro Hoshino Field Science Centre for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido
University, Kitaku, Sapporo, Japan
Tasiu Isah Cellular Differentiation and Molecular Genetics Section, Department
of Botany, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India

xiv
M.A. Kalam Regional Research Institute of Unani Medicine, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India
Kamireddy Kiran Plant Cell Biotechnology Department, CSIR-Central Food
Academy of Scientiﬁc and Innovative Research, Mysore, India
Pratibha Misra CSIR – National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India
A. Mujib Cellular Differentiation and Molecular Genetics Section, Department of
Botany, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
Shahina Parveen Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Matam Pradeep Plant Cell Biotechnology Department, CSIR-Central Food
Taiba Saeed Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, UP, India
Arjumend Shaheen Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Anwar Shahzad Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Shiwali Sharma Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Saeed A. Siddiqui Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Gaurav Singh CSIR – National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India
Mrinalini Srivastava CSIR – National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow,
India
T. Dennis Thomas Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, St. Thomas
College, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Anamica Upadhyay Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh
Vikas Yadav Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, UP, India
Contributors

Part I
Origin, Evolution and
Diversiﬁcation of Climbers

3© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
A. Shahzad et al. (eds.), Biotechnological strategies for the conservation
of medicinal and ornamental climbers, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19288-8_1
Chapter 1
Climbers: Evolution and Diversiﬁcation
in Angiosperm
Shiwali Sharma and Anwar Shahzad
Abstract Climbers are the perfect example of the economy of nature by using
maximum utilization of sunlight, water, and nutrients in minimum expanse of veg-
etation support. During food scarcity, they serve as the best food source for various
animals. Climbers are also the best source of medicine, vegetable, and fruit. They
cover a broad range of light through both supported (climbing) and unsupported
(creeping) individuals. Due to their broad ecological niche (ranging from forest
ﬂoor to the forest canopy), they provide a greater exposure to different pollinators
that favor the ecological specialization. Climbers show a key innovation in angio-
sperm evolution because of species richness as compared to the non-climbing sister
group. Climbers are found among ancestral groups of dicotyledons (such as the
Piperales and Austrobaileyales) and monocotyledons (e.g., Dioscoreaceae,
Arecaceae, and Araceae). Their phylogenetic breadth from rosids to asterids
strongly supports multiple origins of the climbing habit within the angiosperms.
Prior to the angiosperms’ evolution, variations among climbers pose the hypothesis
that climbers of the past had an important role in tropical forests, at least in the
Paleozoic era. In contrast, small contribution of climbers to Mesozoic ecosystems
might be due to few detailed morphological and anatomical studies capable of iden-
tifying fossil lianas, as well as because of inhospitable conditions for growth and
fossilization.
Keywords Circumnutation • Creepers • Liana • Tendril • Vine
S. Sharma (*) • A. Shahzad
Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, UP 202 002, India
e-mail: sharmashiwali@rediffmail.com

4
1.1 Introduction
Darwin (1865) might be the first who documented his observation toward the move-
ments of tendrils and stems of some cucurbitaceous climbers in an essay. Later on,
he studied such movements in other climbers also. Although climbers are one of the
important plant groups, unfortunately they are the least studied among all the plant
forms till now. These neglected climbers contribute largely to the charms of our
landscapes by the manner in which they climb over trees, hedgerows, or rocks.
Early morphologists like Dutta (1689) referred the climbers as “weak stemmed
plants.” Climbers germinate on the soil then grow upward by anchoring or adhering
to other plants or any neighboring object by means of some special organs of attach-
ment (Jongkind and Hawthorne 2005; Swaine et al. 2005).
Climbers are found among one third of the plant families (Gentry 1991). They
play a significant role in functioning and balancing of forest ecosystem. Evolution
of climbers has boosted plant diversification by affecting forest trees in their demog-
raphy and ecophysiology (Stevens 1987; Perez-Salicrup and Barker 2000; Gianoli
2004). They have a very high canopy-stem ratio that results in a higher biomass
production as compared to most of the woody plants (Schnitzer and Bongers 2002).
1.2 Climbing Habitat
Due to rapid growth but suppressed lateral growth and elongated axes, climbers pos-
sess very weak and flexible stem; they need rocks or any other man-made structure
for support. They have considerable tensile strength that indicate their evolution to
resist pulling and twisting. Darwin termed such movement of climbers as “circum-
nutation.” Climbers show a great diversity in their climbing mechanism depending
on which they are classified by Adrian Bell (an Australian morphologist) as root
climbers, hook climbers, tendril climbers, leaf or stem climbers, or twiners.
1.3 Climbing and Attachment Mechanisms
Climbing plants achieve their objective of climbing on and attaching themselves to
host plants by means of different active or passive mechanisms. Some species have
active mechanisms for both tasks, while others are passive in one or both of them.
Twining plants, as well as those that have tendrils or sensitive stems, possess active
mechanisms that permit them to achieve both objectives. Climbers with recurved
spines or adventitious roots do not have active climbing mechanisms, but these
structures represent an active mechanism for the task of attaching them to the host
plant.
S. Sharma and A. Shahzad

5
Darwin (1865) has categorized the climbing mechanism into the following
classes:
1.3.1 Twining Plants
In this mechanism, climbing plants are winding around a support by forming large
arcs. Darwin (1865) named this movement as “circumnutation.” for example,
Dioscorea spp. (Dioscoreaceae) and Ipomoea spp. (Convolvulaceae).
1.3.2 Leaf Climbers
This type of climbing mechanism is found in leaf bearers. These plants climb on
their support with the help of a sensitive petiole that bends and grasps the support
after contact, for example Clematis spp. (Ranunculaceae) and Bauhinia spp.
(Caesalpiniaceae).
1.3.3 Tendril Bearers
Tendril bearers differ from twining plant in having their faster and irregular ellipsoi-
dal movement. Such climbers have few long, slender, filiform, sensitive structures
known as tendrils for the attachment to the support. Their length may vary from
3.8 cm in Bignonia unguis (Bignoniaceae) to 40 cm in Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae)
(Jaffe and Galston 1968). Tendrils are developed from various structures of the plant
body and are discussed under the following categories.
• Axillary tendrils: These are homologous to short axillary branches; examples are
found in the Cucurbitaceae and Passifloraceae. In the genus Gouania
(Rhamnaceae), they may develop at the end of a short axillary branch, which
sometimes produces a single leaf.
• Tendrils opposite the leaves: This type of tendril is probably homologous to the
distal end of the main stem of the plant; consequently, the branches form a sym-
podial system. Examples of this type are found in the Vitaceae.
• Tendrils in the inflorescence: In the climbing Sapindaceae, the tendrils are
homologous to the basal lateral branches of the inflorescences. They are present
in pairs in the basal flowering portion of the inflorescence. Examples of this type
are found in the genera Paullinia and Serjania.
• Foliar tendrils: In many climbing genera of Bignoniaceae, the tendrils are found
to replace the terminal leaflet of the leaves. They are simple, trifurcate, or
1 Climbers: Evolution and Diversification in Angiosperm

6
sometimes are found to be modified into a Harpidium or small claw or into small
adventitious disks.
• Tendrils derived from the leaf sheath: In the Smilacaceae, the tendrils represent
a prolongation of the leaf sheath.
1.3.4 Root Climbers
Root climbers are also known as “clinging climbers.” These climbers attach to tree
trunk with the help of glandular secretion or by growing the irregularities in the host
bark (e.g., Hedera helix, Araliaceae, and Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Vitaceae).
1.3.5 Hook Climbers
Such climbers climb on their support with the help of curved spines, hooks, or
thorns (e.g., Uncaria spp., Rubiaceae; Calamus spp., Arecaceae).
1.4 Types of Climbers
Broadly, climbers are of two types (Table 1.1):
1.4.1 Vine (Herbaceous Climber)
A “vine” is a herbaceous form of climber having a relatively weak and thin stem that
grows either in disturbed colony or in high-light habitats. Vines have limited sec-
ondary growth. Most of the herbaceous vines are found in family Convolvulaceae
(morning glory family) and Cucurbitaceae (gourd family). Some of the vines have
parasitic behavior due to their non-chlorophyllous nature. They depend on their host
plant for nutrition as well as for support (e.g., Cassytha spp. and Cuscuta spp.).
However, some of the vines show fleshy and succulent nature (e.g., Australian milk-
weed Sarcostemma australe).
1.4.2 Liana (Woody Climber)
A “liana” is a woody form of climber having relatively woody or hard stem as com-
pared to vines due to significant secondary growth. Their roots grow in woodland or
forest floor and leaves grow in full sun, covering the canopies of trees.As far as their

7
occurrence is concerned, lianas are frequently found in wet tropical forests. They
assume various forms of growth like tangled, braided, and looping cables. However,
both vines and lianas are commonly found in seasonally dry short-tree tropical for-
ests. Nonetheless, in temperate deciduous forests of North America, several lianas
are found such as grapes (Vitis), poison ivy, poison oak (Toxicodendron) and green-
briers (Smilax).
Shrubs are distinguished from vines by having rigid stems capable of maintain-
ing themselves erect. Nevertheless, this distinction is not always easy to make,
because there are intermediate forms between lianas and shrubs that have a ten-
dency to climb or support themselves on nearby objects. These intermediate forms
are known as “clambering,” “scrambling,” or “scandent plants.” They spread their
branches on the other plants for getting support, for example, raspberries (Rubus).
Few climbers are secondary hemiepiphytes. Such climbers initially rooted in the
soil then grow as a vine and finally grow as an epiphyte with no attachment with the
soil.
Climbing plants occur in numerous ecosystems, but are more abundant in low-
elevation tropical forests than in any other habitat. Lianas have about 25 % of spe-
cies diversity (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Schnitzer and Bongers 2002) and 10–45 %
of woody stem density (Gentry 1991). According to Gentry (1991), climbing plants
in temperate forests represent an average 7 % of the local flora, while in tropical
forests this number reaches to 20 %. Lianas are characteristic of tropical forests,
where at least 50 % of the trees contain lianas. These can constitute a significant
portion of the biomass of the forest, since their crowns can be as large as that of the
tree that supports them. In some moist forests or rain forests in continental tropical
Table 1.1 List of some medicinal climbers (vines and lianas)
Botanical name Family Common name Type
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae Balloon vine Vine
Tinospora cordifolia Willd. Menispermaceae Giloy Liana
Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Aparajita Vine
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Asclepiadaceae Gurmar Liana
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf Asclepiadaceae Akad bel Liana
Mucuna pruriens L. Fabaceae Kaunch Liana
Clematis heynei Roxb. Ranunculaceae Murhar Liana
Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae Flame lily Vine
Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Fabaceae Kudzu Liana
Aristolochia tagala Champ. Aristolochiaceae Hooka bel Vine
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Celastraceae Mal-kangani Liana
Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum. Asclepiadaceae Jivanti Vine
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. Ranunculaceae Vatanasini Liana
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae Shivlingi Vine
Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. Cucurbitaceae Musmusa Vine
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Black pepper Liana
Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Ratti Liana
Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Hadjod Vine

8
areas, lianas can represent up to 40 % of the plant species present in the ecosystem
(Jacobs 1988), so that some of these forests are known locally as liana forests.
Abiotic factors like elevation, rainfall and seasonality, and soil fertility have a
significant effect on the abundance and distribution of different forms of climbers
(vines and lianas). According to Uhl et al. (1997), availability of support has more
pronounced effect on their abundance than nutrients or light availability. But
Laurance et al. (2001) and DeWalt and Chave (2004) suggested that vine density
and basal area may also be more in fertile soils. In contrast, liana density is more in
dry season and low in annual rainfall area (Parthasarathy et al. 2004). Deep root
system and efficient vascular system provide a competitive advantage to the lianas
over other life-form for successful resistance in seasonally dry areas (Schnitzer
2005). As far as the species richness is concerned, steady rise in species richness is
found with annual rainfall increase, while steady decrease is noticed as the average
length of dry season increased (Clinebell et al. 1995). Similar to the trees, diversity
of vine species is maintained in the tropical forests by edaphic specialization
(Wright 2002).
Ghosh et al. (1975) reported a preliminary checklist of phanerogamic climbers of
the Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta. The Indian Botanic Garden with its 273 acres
of land abounds with 15,000 plants distributed in 2,500 species. They have recorded
102 genera of the flowering climbers spread over 151 species. Out of 151 recorded
species, 76.1 % are exclusively cultivated taxa, 11.9 % taxa grew in wild state, and
12.5 % taxa are both cultivated and wild. In this garden, only 13 species of mono-
cotyledonous climbers are grown of which only one is an orchidaceous climber,
known as Vanilla planifolia.
1.5 General Taxonomy of Climbing Plants
More than 110 vascular plant families are comprised of vines and lianas. Among the
dicotyledons, family Cucurbitaceae and Convolvulaceae have numerous herba-
ceous climbing genera and species. However, woody lianas are also found in these
families, while Malpighiaceae, Bignoniaceae, Menispermaceae, and Vitaceae have
more lianas than vines. Family Apocynaceae has more lianas (e.g., Mandevilla)
whereas family Asclepiadaceae has both vines and lianas (e.g., Ceropegia,
Sarcostemma, Araujia, Cynanchum, Matelea, Decalepis spp., Tylophora). However,
the legume families exceptionally have many common vines and lianas. In legume
families, climbers have evolved repeatedly.
As far as the monocot families are concerned, only a few climbers are found, for
example, Vanilla (family Orchidaceae); many aroids (family Araceae); yams,
Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae), climbing palms (family Arecaceae); Smilax
(family Smilacaceae); Gloriosa (family Colchicaceae); Semele androgyna (family
Ruscaceae); certain species of the genus Asparagus (family Asparagaceae); certain
grasses, e.g., the climbing bamboo in the genus Chusquea (family Poaceae); some

9
liliaceous bulbs, e.g., Bowiea volubilis (family Hyacinthaceae); and Dichelostemma
volubile (family Alliaceae).
Among living gymnosperms, few species of Gnetum and Ephedra are woody
climbers. While in ferns and fern allies, several genera have vine species such as
Hymenophyllum, Lygodium, Dicranopteris, and Selaginella. Table 1.2 shows a list
of some climbers with their respective families.
1.6 Some General Properties of Climbing Plants
The following are the features that have evolved repeatedly for the climbing life-
form to be successful:
• Rapid shoot growth and long internode.
• Circumnutation and thigmotropism movements are the characteristic of
climbers.
• Development and expansion of leaf remain slow until circumnutation.
• Climbers have the least stem and leaf area ratio as compared to the erect plants.
• As far as the histology of stem is concerned, soft and hard tissues are alternate to
each other.
• They possess very wide vessesls to carry more water up the stem.
– Table 1.3 shows some useful characters used to diagnose climbing habit.
1.7 Role of Climbers in Ecosystem
The role of climbers in extant ecosystems outstrips our knowledge of their biologi-
cal characteristics, their distributions, or even their biological diversity. Recent
reviews of the role of climbers in forest ecosystems (Putz and Mooney 1991;
Schnitzer and Bongers 2002; Wright et al. 2004; Phillips et al. 2005) have high-
lighted the abundance, competitive abilities, and contribution to disturbance
regimes. Today, climbing plants typically contribute 2–15 % of the leaf biomass and
about 5 % of the wood biomass to forests (Fearnside et al. 1999; Gerwing and Farias
2000; Clark et al. 2008). In climber-rich areas, they can contribute as much as 40 %
of the estimated total biomass (Hegarty and Caballé 1991; Perez-Salicrup et al.
2001).
Climbers represent a perfect example of economy of nature by using maximum
utilization of sunlight, water, and nutrients in minimum expense of vegetation sup-
port. Climbers (woody lianas and herbaceous vines) accomplish this balancing act,
high vegetative biomass perched atop low woody biomass, through structural
dependence on other upright organisms or structures. Through their structural para-
sitism, they are able to invest large amounts of photosynthetic products into vegeta-

10
Table 1.2 List of some climbers with their respective families
S. No. Families/plants
1 Annonaceae
Desmos viridiﬂora (Bedd.) Safford
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
2 Apocynaceae
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G. Don var. cymosa
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G. Don var. elegans Hook. f.
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G. Don var. lanceolata Hook. f.
Anodendron paniculatum A. DC.
Carissa carandas L
Carissa gangetica Stapf
Carissa paucinervia A. DC.
Carissa salicina Lam.
Carissa spinarum L.
Ellertonia rheedii Wight
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br.
Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC.
3 Araceae
Rhaphidophora laciniata (Burm.f.) Merr.
4 Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia indica L.
Aristolochia tagala Cham.
5 Asclepiadaceae
Cosmostigma racemosum (Roxb.) Wight
Cryptolepis buchanani Roemer & Schultes
Cynanchum callialatum Buch.-Ham. ex Wight & Arn.
Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn.
Gymnema hirsutum Wight & Arn.
Gymnema montanum (Roxb.) Hook. f. var. beddomei Hook. f.
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br.ex Roemer & Schultes
Gymnema tingens (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. var. indicus
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. var. pubescens (Wight & Arn.)
Hook. f.
Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn.
Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon
Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt
Secamone emetica (Roxb.) R. Br. ex Schultes
Tylophora capparidifolia Wight & Arn.
Tylophora indica (Burm.f) Merr.
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) T. Cooke
(continued)

11
Table 1.2 (continued)
6 Basellaceae
Basella alba L.
7 Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpinia crista L.
Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb.
Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) Sant. & Wagh
8 Capparaceae
Capparis brevispina DC.
Capparis divaricata Lam.
Capparis sepiaria L. var. sepiaria
Capparis sepiaria L. var. retusella Thwaites
Capparis shevaroyensis Sund.-Ragh.
Capparis zeylanica L.
Maerua oblongifolia (Forsk.) A. Rich.
9 Celastraceae
Celastrus paniculatus Willd.
Loeseneriella obtusifolia (Roxb.) A.C. Smith
Maytenus heyneana (Roth) Raju & Babu
Maytenus royleanus (Wallich ex M. Lawson) M.A. Rau
Reissantia indica (Willd.) Halle
Salacia chinensis L.
Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
10 Combretaceae
Combretum acuminatum Lam.
Combretum albidum G. Don
11 Convolvulaceae
Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker
Argyreia elliptica (Roth) Choisy
Argyreia involucrata Clarke
Argyreia kleiniana (Roem. & Schultes) Raizada
Argyreia pilosa Arn.
Argyreia sericea Dalz.
Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. & Schultes
Ipomoea campanulata L.
Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.
Ipomoea quamoclit L.
Ipomoea staphylina Roem & Schultes
Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f.
Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy
12 Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt
Gymnopetalum cochinchinense Kurz
(continued)

12
Kedrostis courtallensis (Arn.) Jeffrey
Trichosanthes anaimalaiensis Bedd.
13 Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea oppositifolia L.
Dioscorea pentaphylla L.
Dioscorea tomentosa J. Koenig ex Sprengel
14 Elaeagnaceae
Elaeagnus indica Servettaz
15 Euphorbiaceae
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir
Tragia involucrata L.
Tragia plukenetii R. Smith
16 Gnetaceae
Gnetum ula Brongn.
17 Liliaceae
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
18 Linaceae
Hugonia mystax L.
19 Malpighiaceae
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz
20 Menispermaceae
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.
Cissampelos pareira L. var. hirsuta (DC.) Forman
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels
Cocculus pendulus (Forst.) Diels
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms.
Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels
Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Miers ex Hook.
Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thoms.
21 Mimosaceae
Acacia caesia (L.) Willd.
Acacia canescens Grah.
Acacia intsia Willd. var. intsia
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd
Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr.
Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib
Entada pursaetha DC.
Mimosa intsia L.
22 Moraceae
Plecospermum spinosum Trecul.
(continued)

13
23 Myrsinaceae
Embelia basaal (Roem. ex Schultes) A. DC.
Embelia ribes Burm.f.
24 Nyctaginaceae
Pisonia aculeata L.
25 Oleaceae
Jasminum auriculatum Vahl
Jasminum azoricum L. var. azoricum
Jasminum cuspidatum Rottl.
Jasminum malabaricum Wight
Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr.
Jasminum sessiliflorum Vahl
Jasminum trichotomum Heyne ex Roth
Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd.
Table 1.3 Characters used to diagnose climbing habit and supporting exemplar literature (Taken
from Burnham (2009) with permission)
Characters in climber Example and/or rationale reference
Long internodes Ray (1986), Galtier (1988), Dubuisson et al.
(2003), Dunn et al. (2006), DiMichele et al.
(2006)
Small stem diameter to length ratio. Dunn et al. (2006), Harris et al. (2007), Ichihashi
et al. (2009)
Small stem diameter relative to supported
foliage
Galtier (1988), Selaya and Anten (2008)
Delayed apical foliage expansion and/or
dense glandular trichomes
Baxter (1949), Hegarty (1991), Putz and
Holbrook (1991), Krings et al. (2003), Ichihashi
et al. (2009)
Adventitious roots Gentry (1991), Hegarty (1991), Speck (1994)
Large petiole bases relative to stem
diameter
Tomescu et al. (2001), Dunn et al. (2006)
Hooks, spines, or grappling structures Menninger (1970), Hegarty (1991), Teramura
et al.(1991)
Heterophylly Batenburg (1981), Lee and Richards (1991),
Krings and Kerp (2000), Krings et al. (2001,
2003)
Anomalous wood anatomy: successive
cambia; excessive parenchyma; multiple
vascular tissue cycles
Taylor and Millay (1981), Carlquist (1991),
Ewers et al. (1991), Caballé (1993), Mosbrugger
and Roth (1996)
Structural anatomy inconsistent with
self-support
Li and Taylor (1998), Li et al. (1994), Speck
(1994)
Taxonomic affinities to other climber taxa. Gianoli (2004)
Direct observation of climber wrapped on
larger individuals in “snapshot” deposits
Opluštil et al. (2007, 2009)

14
tive growth, reproductive propagules, and continuously meristematic tissues.
Compared to other upright growth habits, like trees and shrubs, climbers invest
large amounts of photosynthetic products in woody structural tissues. For climbers,
the potential for vegetative proliferation is thus high, leading to large and potentially
isolated populations that may contribute to speciation if broad geographic distribu-
tions are dissected. They contribute sustainability to canopy closure after tree fall
and help to stabilize the microclimate underneath. Lianas in particular add consider-
ably to forest plant diversity and provide valuably habitat and connections among
tree canopies that enable arboreal animals to traverse the treetops. Climbers consti-
tute a large and important sector of ornamental horticulture. Some play a vital role
in medicine and agriculture. Many climbers combinedly serve both the purposes. In
spite of numerous roles climbers play in ecosystem, as medicines, in horticulture,
and agriculture, little attention has been paid to them; they are scanty treated in lit-
erature. Only a few studies are carried out on climbers.
1.8 Climber Evolution
Angiosperms, with approximately 300,000 species, appear to be the most success-
ful and dominant group of land plants and have undergone an outstanding diversiﬁ-
cation compared to other plant groups (Stebbins 1981; Crane et al. 1995; Magallón
and Castillo 2009). The evolutionary success of certain lineages within angiosperms
has been related to a number of plant features, including life history traits, growth
habits, specialized organs, and physiological pathways (Quezada and Gianoli 2011).
Although taxa diversiﬁcation cannot be evaluated in ecological timescale, it is con-
sidered that genetic differentiation among populations may be a surrogate for spe-
ciation (Grant 1981; Avise 2000; Levin 2000).
Hunter (1998) suggested that the proliferation of species (key innovation) can be
used for evolutionary success of a particular taxonomic group than other related
groups. Key innovation hypothesis involve as traits that allow a clade to exploit a
previously unused or underutilized resource (Simpson 1953). This hypothesis is
used for the comparison of species richness in two sister groups (i.e., related groups
of equivalent age) having or lacking the particular trait (Barraclough et al. 1998).
Climbers exhibit in a broad range of ecological niche that attracts more pollina-
tors for their diverse specialization (Gentry 1991). Gianoli (2004) studied the phy-
logenetic relationships, growth habit, and species richness of 48 pairs of sister
groups that belong to 45 angiospermic plant families and found that in 38 pairs, the
climbing taxa were more diverse than their non-climbing sister groups. Similar to
the climbers, epiphytic genera (orchid and non-orchids) have more species diversity
than terrestrial genera.
Climbers are found among ancestral groups of angiosperms such as the Piperales
and Austrobaileyales and among monocotyledons (e.g., Dioscoreaceae, Arecaceae,
and Araceae) and are commonly represented in both major groups of rosids and

15
asterids. This phylogenetic breadth strongly supports multiple origins of the climb-
ing habit within angiosperms and supports the idea that a significant advantage is
conferred on plants that are able to transition from self-supporting to assisted sup-
port. Within flowering plants alone, Caballé (1993) estimated that between 5,000
and 10,000 species of climbers exist today. In spite of this angiosperm-centered
view of climbers, substantial evidence has accumulated, in isolated reports on the
fossil record, of diverse climbers prior to the Cretaceous radiation of angiosperms.
According to the report of Burnham (2009), the Fossil Record of Climbers (FRC)
indicates more than 1,100 climbing plants from the Paleozoic to the Quaternary.
Prior to the angiosperms’ evolution, variations among climbers pose the hypothesis
that the climbers of the past had a similarly important role in tropical forests, at least
in the Paleozoic. The extinct Paleozoic pteridosperms, in particular, appear to have
employed a range of morphologies and strategies as diverse as those of angiosperms
today. The apparently small contribution of climbers to Mesozoic ecosystems, in
contrast, may be a result of relatively few detailed morphological and anatomical
studies capable of identifying fossil lianas, as well as unusually inhospitable condi-
tions for growth and fossilization. The importance of climbers in ancient ecosys-
tems is underlined to encourage greater recognition of life-form diversity in the
past.
Burnham (2009) located a total of 1,175 individual climbing plants from the fos-
sil record and reported an overview of fossil records. This number is substantially
lower than the number potentially available; however, the records give a first good
picture of the fossil history of climbing plants. Although considerable effort was
made to locate evidence from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, with less effort placed
on the many records from the Cenozoic, the database still includes 44 % (516/1,175)
of its records from the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic record is strongly dominated by
angiosperms (90 %; 464/516) with only ferns accounting for the remainder. The
Mesozoic record is astonishingly scant with only 73 records found cumulatively
from the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. The large majority of the Mesozoic
records are Late Cretaceous climbers (71 %), which are largely angiosperm
species.
The Paleozoic climbing plant record, almost equal in record number to the
Cenozoic, includes several major plant groups. Six broad phylogenetic groups are
recognized among climbers during the Paleozoic: Sphenophyllales, Filicales,
Lyginopteridales, Mariopteridales, Medullosales, Callistophytales, and (rarely)
Gigantopteridales. The seed ferns represent the largest group, encompassing the
Lyginopteridales, Medullosales, Mariopteridales, and Callistophytales, all entirely
extinct. However, contribution by pteridophyte climbers is also significant.
Gigantopterids are included, but climbing habit in these plants is inferred from
interpretations of high leaf biomass supported on thin stems, interpretations that
have been made from incomplete material (Li and Taylor 1998, 1999; Wang 1999;
Rees 2002); the clear demonstration of climbing hooks on some species strongly
supports a habit that was not self-supporting (Halle 1929; Li and Taylor 1998;
Hilton et al. 2004).

16
1.9 How Long Ago Were Climbing Plants Common
in Forest Ecosystems?
It is clear that climbing plants were abundant enough to be fossilized and subse-
quently recovered as early as the mid-Mississippian (Visean ~335 Myr). Several
genera of lyginopterid pteridosperms (Lyginopteris, Rhetinangium, Sphenopteris)
include species whose first appearance is in the mid to late Mississippian.
Significantly, they occur in similar-age sediments in deposits from the Czech
Republic, Scotland, and Arkansas, USA. In France and Scotland, remains of pre-
sumed climbing pteridophytes and pteridosperms are also found in Visean age sedi-
ments (Galtier et al. 1993). So, climbers were abundant and diverse even in the early
Carboniferous.
Climbing plants were important in Paleozoic forests as early as the Pennsylvanian
(ca. 315 Myr), and possibly even earlier, although their ecological abundance is still
unclear (Galtier 1997; Dunn et al. 2006). The first climbing plants were present as
soon as upright supports (trees) were present to climb upon. Climber species evolved
within sphenophylls, filicaleans, and pteridosperms, and in each group, many spe-
cies can be documented as climbing, indicating that ancient climbers were, in fact,
quite diverse. Although quantitative data on species richness are difficult to com-
pare with that from modern forested communities, it appears that following the high
Carboniferous diversity, a period of scarcity existed in the climber community, in
species, and in individuals. The Mesozoic low species diversity and abundance of
climbers stands in stark contrast to the preceding Paleozoic and subsequent Cenozoic
(Burnham 2009).
Acknowledgment Dr. Shiwali Sharma is thankful to DST, for the award ofYoung Scientist under
Fast Track Scheme, SERB (vide no. SB/FT/LS-364/2012), for providing research assistance.
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Part II
Climbers as Medicine and Conservation
Challenges

23© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
A. Shahzad et al. (eds.), Biotechnological strategies for the conservation
of medicinal and ornamental climbers, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19288-8_2
Chapter 2
Biodiversity Conservation with Special
Reference to Medicinal Climbers: Present
Scenario, Challenges, Strategies, and Policies
Shiwali Sharma and Rekha Arya
Abstract Climbing plants typically contribute 2–15 % of the leaf biomass and
about 5 % of the wood biomass to forests. In India, they are widely distributed from
Nilgiris to Himalayas to Andaman Nicobar Islands. Phylogenetically, climbers are
found in over 125 families of flowering plants as well as among several fern groups
and even in one significant gymnosperm genus, Gnetum. They are largely used by
all divisions of the population either directly as folk medications or indirectly in the
preparation of recent pharmaceuticals. Climbers also play a vital role in horticulture
and agriculture. Thus, people depend on climbers for several purposes like for med-
ications, non-timber forest products, food, etc. Nowadays, plant-based pharmaceu-
tical industries have been increased due to various advantages of plant-based
medicine over the synthetic ones. Wild plants are the good source to provide the raw
materials for such industries. Unfortunately, a huge number of medicinal climbers
have been listed in Red Data Book and are on the verge of extinction due to unsus-
tainable collection of plants, habitat loss, climate change, and industrialization cou-
pled with urbanization. Thus, biodiversity conservation is an utmost concern
globally. Various strategies are in use for biodiversity conservation such as in situ
strategy, ex situ strategy, reduction of anthropogenic pressures, and rehabilitation of
threatened species. Protection and preservation of germplasm within national parks,
biosphere reserves, and sanctuaries are the examples of in situ conservation.
However, it is not an effective means of conservation. In this regard, biotechnologi-
cal approach like plant tissue culture technique proved to be fruitful. Plant tissue
culture can be applied to the rapid propagation and ex situ conservation of rare,
endemic, and endangered medicinal plants as explained by several authorities.
Other modern biotechnological tools, including cryopreservation techniques, DNA
fingerprinting, and bioreactor-mediated bio-production of phytochemicals, are
S. Sharma
Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, UP 202 002, India
R. Arya (*)
Department of Botany, Tikaram Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Aligarh 202 001, UP, India
e-mail: drrekhaarya@gmail.com

24
mostly relevant in this context. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in
force since 1992, is the major international conservation convention. The global
strategy for conservation of plants was adopted with the intention to harmonize with
existing international initiatives addressing various aspects of plant conservation.
Keywords Cryopreservation • In situ • IUCN • In vitro • Ex situ • Micropropagation
2.1 Biodiversity: Natural Capital of the Earth
Variation is the law of nature. It occurs everywhere and every moment. The varia-
tions take place at micro levels. The variations may be linear or cyclic. The variety
and variability of organisms and ecosystems is referred to as biological diversity.
The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) constituted by
the UN General Assembly published a report in 1987 which provided a boost and
endorsement to the need for conserving the world’s rich biodiversity. Despite con-
flicting views among nations, a broad consensus was reached after bitter negotia-
tions, and 170 countries signed the Biodiversity Convention, which is now ratified
by 104 countries.
A variety of living organisms (flora and fauna) on the earth constitutes biodiver-
sity. Biodiversity means variability among all the living organisms and interaction
within species, between species, and with the surroundings.According to Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD), biodiversity means variability among living organ-
ism from all sources. As defined by the International Council for Bird Preservation
(1992), “Biodiversity is the total variety of life on earth. It includes all genes, spe-
cies and ecosystem and the ecological process of which that are part.” Biodiversity
is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystem in a region. The wealth of life on
earth today is the product of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history.
It is estimated that about 1.75 million species (plant + animal) have been discov-
ered, 20 % of which is less than those to be estimated yet. Among these identified
species, only a few have been studied for their medicinal value. Moreover, most of
the biodiversity is disappearing very rapidly (as many as 27,000 species are becom-
ing extinct per year). This indicates that 3 species are disappearing every hour while
150 species are disappearing every day. Of the more than 3,000,000 known species
of plants, the IUCN has evaluated only 12.914 species, finding that about 68 % of
evaluated plant species are threatened with extinction.
S. Sharma and R. Arya

25
2.2 Types of Biodiversity (Diversity Indices)
2.2.1 Alpha (α) Diversity
Species diversity within a community or habitat comprises two components, i.e.,
species richness and evenness. Sometimes the dominance of one vegetation stratum
may affect the α diversity of the other strata.
2.2.2 Beta (β) Diversity
β Diversity is the intercommunity diversity expressing the rate of species turnover
per unit change in habitat.
2.2.3 Gamma (γ) Diversity
Gamma diversity is the overall diversity at landscape level that includes both α and
β diversities. The relationship is as follows:
g a b= + +Q
where Q=Total number of habitats or communities
α=Average value of α diversities
β=Average value of β diversities
2.3 Levels of Biodiversity
Theoretically there are three levels of biodiversity.
2.3.1 Genetic Diversity
Variation of genes within the species is referred as genetic diversity. This constitutes
distinct population of the same species or genetic variation within population or
varieties within a species.
2 Biodiversity Conservation with Special Reference to Medicinal Climbers: Present…

26
2.3.2 Species Diversity
The number of species in a region is known as species diversity.
2.3.3 Ecological Diversity
Different species present in local ecosystem and the dynamic interplay between
them are known as ecological diversity. An ecosystem consists of organisms from
many different species living together in a region that are connected by the ﬂow of
energy, nutrients, and matter that occurs as the organisms of different species inter-
act with one another.
2.4 The Mega-Diversity Regions
Seventeen megadiverse countries have been recognized by the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre including Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) (formerly Zaire), Ecuador, India, Indonesia,
Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, the Philippines, South
Africa, the United States of America (USA), and Venezuela that harbor more than
70 % of the earth’s species. Some of the very valuable “gene pool” from these coun-
tries have been identiﬁed, and they have been utilized for the buildup of modern
agriculture and allied business.
2.5 Hotspots of Biodiversity
Thousands of “ecoregions” located in diverse ecological regions comprise the
earth’s biodiversity. About 200 ecoregions are recognized as richest, rarest, and
most distinctive in terms of biodiversity and now referred as “global 200.” As much
as 20 % of global plant diversity richness comprising about 50,000 endemic plant
species is restricted to 18 ecoregions, known as “hotspot”; henceforth the countries
having more hotspots are collectively known as “mega-diversity nations.”

27
2.6 Threats to Biodiversity: Causes
These days, biodiversity loss is a global problem. Population explosion and unsus-
tainable utilization of natural resources result in drastic change in environment and
habitat loss that ultimately lead to biodiversity loss. The following are some natural
and man-made factors of biodiversity loss:
2.6.1 Development Pressure
• Construction
• Forest-based industries
• Hydel/irrigation projects
• Mining
• Oil drilling
• Pollution
• Resource extraction
• Road and transport
2.6.2 Encroachment
• Agriculture
• Expansion of forest villages
• Fishery
• Grazing/increased domestic animals
• Habitat depletion/change
• New settlements
• Shifting cultivation
2.6.3 Exploitation
• Collection made by scientiﬁc/educational institutions
• Exploitation by local authorities as revenue resources
• Firewood collection
• Food gathering and hunting
• Poaching

28
2.6.4 Human-Induced Disasters
• Floods
• Major oil spills/leakage
• Epidemics
• Forest ﬁres
2.6.5 Management of Natural Resources
• Genetic uniformity
• Inadequate water/food for wildlife
• Increased competition
• Introduction of exotic species
• Predation
2.6.6 Management of Human Resource
• Change in people’s lifestyle
• Increasing demands
• Dilution of traditional value
• Human harassment
• Inadequate trained human resources
• Lack of effective management
• Inappropriate land use
2.6.7 Political and Policy Issues
• Change in use/legal status
• Civil unrest
• Intercommunity conﬂict
• Military activities
2.7 IUCN Threat Categories
Latest IUCN red listing recognizes three threatened categories which are as
follows.

29
2.7.1 Critically Endangered (CR)
Such species face a very high risk of extinction in the wild. It is the highest risk
category assigned by the IUCN Red List for wild species, for example, Coscinium
fenestratum and Piper barberi.
2.7.2 Endangered (EN)
The taxa whose number has been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have
been so drastically reduced that they seemed to be in immediate danger of extinc-
tion, for example, Nepenthes species.
2.7.3 Vulnerable (VU)
Species can be moved into endangered category in the near future if deliberate con-
servation measures are not given, for example, Dioscorea deltoidea.
• Threatened: Species that come under any one of the above categories is known
as “threatened.”
• Rare: Species with small population, not endangered or vulnerable at present but
are at risk. They are conﬁned to a very restricted area, for example, Stemona
tuberosa.
2.8 Market Scenario for Medicinal Plants
Today, the global market for traditional therapies stands at US$60 billion a year and
is steadily growing. The global demand for herbal medicine has increased at an
annual rate of 8 % during the period of 1994–2001, and according to WHO forecast,
the global herbal market would be worth $5 trillion by the year 2050 (http://www.
expresspharmapulse.com /20021226/ cover3.htm). This clearly indicates that there
is vast scope for the traditional medicine practitioners; there is a worry on resource
conservation front. Even if only 25 % of the modern medicines descend from plants,
it would mean substantial pressure on plants as there is an ever-increasing demand
for the modern medicines.

30
2.9 Impact of Biodiversity Loss and Challenges
Regional and global climate changes adversely affect biodiversity (Penner et al.
1994; Houghton et al. 1999; Chapin et al. 2000; Sala et al. 2000; Franco et al. 2006).
Loss of biodiversity hampered the biological systems (Vitousek et al. 1997). Various
protected areas have been established in the Eastern Himalayas. The first protected
area, established in 1918, was the Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar. A total
of 99 protected areas of varied sizes measuring more than 79,000 km2
(15 % of the
total area) coverage across the region is the most significant contribution to protect
biodiversity as compared to the global percentage of 11.5 % for mountain protected
areas (Kollmair et al. 2005). Protected areas have been increased from 23,379 km2
(1977–1987) to 71,972 km2
(1997–2007), while their number increased from 46 to
99.
2.10 Climbing Phytodiversity in India
India is one of the 18 megadiverse countries and has all the 13 biomes found in the
world, with 2 major hotspots (Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats) out of a total
of 34. It has only 8 % of the global biodiversity in 2.4 % land (Bapat et al. 2008).
India has been reputed as the treasure house of a wide range of valuable medicinal
and aromatic plants inhabiting in diverse climatic condition. The entire Western
Ghats is known for its biodiversity, richness, and endemism (about 4500 known
plant species; 2000 species of higher plants), with nearly 1500 endemic. This biore-
gion is under constant threat due to human pressure. The tropical climate condi-
tions, heavy rainfall, and favorable edaphic factors support the luxuriant growth of
plant species (Daniel 1997).
Another hotspot in India is the Eastern Himalayas which is also listed in the
“crisis ecoregions” (Hoekstra et al. 2005), “biodiversity hotspots” (Myers et al.
2000), “endemic bird areas” (Stattersfield et al. 1998), “megadiverse countries”
(Mittermeier et al. 1997), and “global 200 ecoregions” (Olson and Dinerstein 2002).
Diverse ecological and altitudinal gradients result in diversity of flora and fauna.
Palaearctic, Indo-Malayan, and Sino-Japanese realms are joined in the Eastern
Himalayas (CEPF 2005). According to Dhar (2002), the world’s richest alpine flora
is found in this hotspot, and about one-third of them are endemic to the region,
comprising 7500 flowering plants, 728 lichens, 700 orchids, 700 ferns, 500 mosses,
64 Citrus species, 58 bamboo species, and 28 conifers.
Climbers occur in many plant families with only a few families such as
Dioscoreaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Convolvulaceae consisting completely of
climbing plants. Nearly 60 % of all dicotyledonous plant order has at least one rep-
resentative climber (Heywood 1993). Table 2.1 shows different medicinal climbers
and their medicinal properties.

31
Table2.1Listofdifferentmedicinalclimbersandtheirmedicinalproperties(alphabetically)
S.
no.PlantnameCommonnameFamily
Plantpart
usedSecondarymetaboliteMedicinaluse
1AbrusprecatoriusRatti,GunjaFabaceaeSeedsGlycyrrhizin,precol,
abrol,abrasine,
hyaphorine
Nervousdisorders
2AcaciatortaInchaMimosaceaeStembarkSaponins,acacininsDecoctionistakenfor
coughanddysentery
3AcalyphafruticosaEuphorbiaceaeLeavesKaempferol,sitosterol,
triacetonamine
Stomachic,alterative,
digestive,dyspepsia,
diarrhea
4AganosmacymosaSeellakkodiApocynaceaeWhole
plant
Saponins,terpenoids,
alkaloids
Anthelmintic,emetic,and
usedinthetreatmentof
bronchitis.Flowersare
usefulinophthalmia
5AnamirtacocculusKakamariMenispermaceaeLeaves,
fruits,and
seeds
Magnoﬂorine,berberine,
picrotoxin,sitosterols
Expectorant,antifungal,
anthelmintic,and
depurative
6Anodendron
paniculatum
ApocynaceaeRootsAnodendrosidesA-GEmetic,expectorant,and
alterative
7AntigononleptopusAnantlataPolygonaceaeRoot
tuber
Kaempferol,quercetinsTonic,anti-inﬂammatory
8ArgyreiaellipticaKedariConvolvulaceaeLeavesTheseedoilrevealedthe
presenceofmyristoleic,
myristic,palmitic,
linoleic,linolenic,oleic,
stearic,nonadecanoic,
eicosenoic,heneicosanoic,
andbehenicacids
Plantextractsandits
metalsaltcombination
usedasantibacterial,
anthelmintic,and
antioxidantagents
(continued)

32
Table2.1(continued)
S.
Plantpart
9ArgyreiaspeciosaSamandar-ka-patConvolvulaceaeRootsand
seeds
Triacontanol,sitosterols,
coumarins,epifriedinol
Bitter,aphrodisiac,
alterative,diuretic,
carminative,anti-
inflammatory,nervine
10Aristolochia
bracteolata
BhringiAristolochiaceaeWhole
plant
β-Sitosterols,aristolochic
acid,aristored
Antioxidantand
insecticidalproperties
11AristolochiaindicaSunandaAristolochiaceaeLeavesIsoaristolochicacid,
allantoin
Antidotetosnakebite,
appetizer,anthelmintic,
usedfortreatmentof
leprosy
12AristolochiatagalaNakuliOxalidaceaeRootsCerylalcohol,
β-sitosterols,aristolochic
acid
Tonic,carminative,and
emmenagogue
13ArtabotryshexapetalusManoranjiniAnnonaceaeRoots,
flower,
andfruits
Artabotrine,yingzhaosuA
andB,quercetin
Antifungal,antimalarial
14AsparagusasiaticusLiliaceaeLeavesAppliedtopicallyon
swellings
15AverrhoacarambolaKarukahOxalidaceaeRoots,
leaf,and
shoot
Quercetin,epicatechin,
sitosterol,lupeol
Antidoteinpoisoning,
antipyretic,anthelmintic,
anti-inflammatory
16BasellaalbaPuiBasellaceaeStem,
leaves
Kaempferols,
basellasaponins
Emollient,laxative,
hemostatic,sedative,
demulcent,diuretic
17BauhiniavahliiMaluCaesalpiniaceaeLeavesKaempferol3-glucoside,
lupeols
Againstdysenteryand
stomachache
18BenincasahispidaPethaCucurbitaceaeFruitTriterpenes,alunsenol,
mutiflorenol
Antidiabetic,coolant,
digestive,tonic

33S.
Plantpart
19BrideliascandensGhontaEuphorbiaceaeLeaves,
stembark
Ovatolide,bridelyl
alcohol,phlobatamine,
taraxerone
Antipyretic,antibacterial,
antiasthmatic,
antinociceptive
20ButeaparvifloraMaulaFabaceaeStembarkTotreathairloss
21CaesalpiniacristaLatakaranjaCaesalpiniaceaeWhole
plant
Cassane-andnorcassane-
typediterpenes
Anthelmintic,febrifuge,
periodic,vesicant,
rubefacient
22CalycopterisfloribundaShvetadhatakiCombretaceaeLeaf,
fruits,and
seeds
Calycopterin,helleborine,
veratine,quercetin
Antidysenteric,laxative,
anthelmintic,depurative,
diaphoretic,andfebrifuge
23CapparissepiariaKanthariCapparidaceaeLeaves
androots
Antiseptic,antipyretic
usedforeczemaand
scabies
24CappariszeylanicaAradandaCapparidaceaeLeaves
androot
bark
Betulin28-acetate,
capparispine
Antirheumatic,anti-
inflammatory,anti-blood
coagulant,appetizer,
emetic
25Cardiospermum
canescens
SapindaceaeLeavesMethanamine,
hexadecanoicacid
Antidiarrheal,
antirheumatic
26Cardiospermum
halicacabum
IndravalliSapindaceaeRoots1-Triacontanol,
pentacosane,pelargonidin
Analgesic,diuretic,
laxative,stomachic,
anti-inflammatory
27CeropegiajunceaSomlataAsclepiadaceaeStemCerepeginTheextractisusedfor
stomachandgastric
disorders
28CissampelospareiraBhatvelMenispermaceaeStemand
leaves
Furopyridine,
phytosterols,terpenes
Forgastrointestinal
disorder,urogenital
problems
29CissusquadrangularisAsthisamharakaVitaceaeStemTetracyclictriterpenoidsTohealbrokenbonesand
injuredligaments,
analgesicandtonic
(continued)

34
Table2.1(continued)
S.
Plantpart
30CitrulluslanatusTarboozCucurbitaceaeSeedsAspurgativeandemetic
31ClitoriaternateaAparajitaFabaceaeRoots,
leaves,
seeds
Stigmast-4-ene-3,6-diene,
taraxerol,taraxerone
Hemostatic,pasteof
wholeplantisusedin
piles
32CocciniagrandisBimbikaCucurbitaceaeFruitsTaraxerol,sitosterol,
cycloartenolacetate
Analgesic,anti-
inflammatory,
antidiabetic
33CocculushirsutusPatalagarudaMenispermaceaeRootsand
leaves
Cohirsine,haiderine,
jammin-N-oxide,
trilobine,syringaresinol
Usedforstomachand
urinaryproblems,alsoa
detoxifierusedagainst
snakebite
34Convolvulus
microphyllus
ShankhpushpiConvolvulaceaeWhole
plant
Triterpenoids,flavonol
glycosides
Antiepileptic,antiulcer
activity,tonic,alterative,
febrifuge,
psychostimulant,and
tranquilizer
35CorallocarpusepigaeusSukanasaCucurbitaceaeRootsAnti-inflammatory,used
injointpain
36CryptolepisbuchananiAnantmulAsclepiadaceaeLeaves
androots
Sarverogenin
isosarverogenin,
cryptosin,buchanin,
cryptolepain
Antidiarrheal,anti-
inflammatory,blood
purifier,anti-cough,
antibacterial,demulcent,
diaphoretic,diuretic
37CucumistrigonusIndravaruniCucurbitaceaeLeavesUsefulashelminthiasis,
flatulence,leprosy,fever,
jaundice,cough,
bronchitis,anemia,
constipation,other
abdominaldisorders,and
amentia

35S.
Plantpart
38CuscutareflexaAmarbelConvolvulaceaeWhole
plant
Scoparone,melanettin,
quercetin,hyperoside
Astringent,carminative,
anthelmintic,anddiuretic
39CycleaarnotiiPathaMenispermaceaeRootsTelradrine,phaeanthine,
uronicacid
Usedinsmallpox,bone
fracture,malarialfever,
jaundice,stomachache
40DioscoreaoppositifoliaKhamaluDioscoreaceaeTuberDioscorineProlongeddiarrhea,
chronicenteritis,cough,
anddyspnea
41DiplocyclospalmatusShivlingiCucurbitaceaeFruitsGoniothalamin,bryoninForfemaleinfertility,
leukorrhea
42EntadarheediiGillaMimosaceaeSeedsSaponinsAlexiteric,narcotic,
tonic,emetic,antipyretic,
febrifuge,and
hemorrhoidal
43GloriosasuperbaKalihariLiliaceaeLeaves,
rhizome
roots
Colchicine,gloriocineTotreatacutegout,
intestinalworms,
infertility,wounds,and
otherskinproblems;as
anantidoteforsnakebite
44GnetumulaKumbalGnetaceaeSeedsGlucosylflavones,
stilbenes,malvalicacid,
sterculicacid
Antirheumatic,
antiperiodic
45GymnemasylvestreGudmarAsclepiadaceaeLeavesGymnemicacid,
Gymnemasaponins
Leafdecoctionmixed
withmilkistaken
internallytocure
diabetes,alsoinmalaria
andsnakebite
46HemidesmusindicusAnantmoolAsclepiadaceaeRootsHexatriacontane,hemideDiureticandblood
purifier,skininfections,
rheumatism,piles;one
importantuseistoease
themind
(continued)

36
Table2.1(continued)
S.
Plantpart
47HiptagebenghalensisMadhaviMalpighiaceaeSeedsHiptaginAromatic,coolant,
expectorant,cardiotonic,
anti-inflammatory,and
insecticidal
48IchnocarpusfrutescensKalidoodhi/shyamlataApocynaceaeRootsQuercetin,lupeol
apigenin,friedelin,
kaempferol,vanillicacid
Atrophy,bleedinggums,
convulsions,cough,
delirium,dysentery,
inflammatory,analgesic,
antidiabetic,antioxidant,
andantitumorspectrum
ofactivity
49IpomoeaaquaticaKalamisaagConvolvulaceaeStemand
leaves
Carminative,anti-
inflammatory,purgative,
antipyretic,
antibronchitis,
hepatoprotective
50IpomoeaeriocarpaButaConvolvulaceaeWhole
plant
Hentriacontane,
stigmasterol
Ulcer,fever,and
rheumatism
51IpomoeamauritianaVidariConvolvulaceaeRoots,
leaves
Quercetins,sitosterol,
terpenes,phytols,fatty
acids
Skindiseases,anorexia,
fever,burningsensation
Topromotebreastmilk
production,ingredientof
Chyavanaprash
52IpomoeaobscuraPaanBelConvolvulaceaeRoots,
leaves
IpobscurineA,C,DAgainstdysentery,
appliedonsoresand
pustules
53IpomoeastaphylinaConvolvulaceaeStem
latex
Saponins,anthraquinonesRespiratorydisorders,
purgative,anthelmintic,
bronchitis

37S.
Plantpart
54Ipomoeapes-capraeConvolvulaceaeLeavesGlochidone,isoquercitrin,
betulinicacid
Anti-inflammatory,
astringent,diuretic,and
laxative,usedin
rheumatism
55Ipomoeapes-tigridisPanchpatiaConvolvulaceaeLeavesForwoundhealing,
bronchialspasm,pimples,
snake-/dogbite
56JasminumangustifoliumBanmallikaOleaceaeRootsAnthelmintic,emetic,
antidote
57JasminumgrandiflorumMalatiOleaceaeWhole
plant
Geraniol,nerol,vinyl
acetate
Antiseptic,emollient,
diuretic;rootsareused
forchronicconstipation
58JasminummalabaricumMudgaraOleaceaeRootsJasmonates,jasminoids,
isoquercetin,rutin
Emmenagogue,blood
purifier,hypotensive,
antibacterial
59JasminummultiflorumKundahOleaceaeLeaves,
flowers
Jasminin,oleanolicacid,
jasminol
Refrigerant,laxative,
cardiotonic,depurative,
digestive
60JasminumofficinaleMaltiOleaceaeLeaves,
flowers
Jasminoids,terpenoids,
oleosides
Antiseptic,
antispasmodic,
aphrodisiac,parasiticide,
tonic
61KedrostisfoetidissimaCucurbitaceaeRootsHexadecadienoicacid,
methylester,docosanoic
acid
Inchestpain,asthma,
urinarytractinfections,
diarrhea,smallpox,skin
disease
62LeptadeniareticulataJivantiAsclepiadaceaeRootsStigmasterol,tocopherols,
alpha-amyrins,diosmetin,
andluteolin
Skininfections,tonic,
febrifuge
63MarsdeniabrunonianaAsclepiadaceaeLeavesMarstenacigeninsAand
D,Marsdin
Antidiabetic
(continued)

38
Table2.1(continued)
S.
Plantpart
64MarsdeniatenacissimaMaruabelAsclepiadaceaeStemAglycones,
polyoxpregnane,
paclitaxel
Anticancer,
antirheumatic,anti-cough
65MomordicacharantiaKarelaCucurbitaceaeFruitsand
seeds
Vicine,mycose,
momorcharaside,
cucurbitanetriterpenoids
Antileprosy,anticancer,
digestive,antidiabetic
66MucunapruriensGoncaFabaceaeRoots,
leaves,
fruits
Dopaglutathione,lecithin,
gallicacid,prurieninine,
prurienidine
Maleinfertility,nervous
disorders,aphrodisiac.
AlsousedinParkinson’s
disease
67OxaliscorniculataTripattiWhole
plant
Glyoxylicacid,vitexin,
isovitexin
Bloodpurifier,
antiepileptic,bonehealer,
antidiarrheal,treatsores
68PachygoneovataDoodhlataMenispermaceaeRootsN-Methylcrotsparine
reticulineand
pachygonine
CNSstimulant,analgesic,
andhyperthermic
69PassiflorafoetidaJhumkalataPassifloraceaeLeavesHarmalol,vitexin,
apigenin,maltol,passicol,
lucenin
Emmenagogue,sedative,
hypnotic,antispasmodic
70PseudarthriaviscidaShalaparniFabaceaeWhole
plant
Leucopelargonidine
derivatives
Thermogenic,emollient,
anthelmintic,nervine,
anti-inflammatory,
diuretic,cardiotonic,
insectbite
71QuisqualisindicaMaltiBignoniaceaeSeedsQuisqualicacid,
trigonelline,and
phytosterols
Anthelmintic(against
ascariasis)tonic,
antipyretic,purgative

39S.
Plantpart
72RhaphidophoraheidiGaneshkandaAraceaeStem
juice,
leaves
RhaphidecursinolAand
B,rhaphidecurperoxin,
polysyphorin,grandisin
Antidotetosnakebiteand
scorpionstings,
antiabdominalcancer,
digestive,refrigerant
73RiveahypocrateriformisKindupataConvolvulaceaeStemand
leaves
Polyphenols,catechins,
andgallicacid
Hepatoprotective,
analgesic,anti-
inﬂammatory,used
againstasthmaandpiles
74Sarcostemma
brunonianum
SomavalliAsclpiadaceaeLatexPhytosterols,α-and
β-amyrins,lupeol,
β-sitosterol
Narcotic,emetic,
antiviral,and
rejuvenating
75SecamoneemeticaKondamAsclepiadaceaeRootsand
leaves
Phytosterols,
anthraquinones,
coumarins,chalcones
Emetic,analgesic,
antipyretic,alsoagainst
leukorrhea
76SmilaxzeylanicaRamdatunSmilacaceaeRoots,
leaves
Diosgenin,smilagenin,
saponins
Antidiabetic,
antihelminthic,
antioxidant,antiepileptic,
antigonorreal
77StephaniajaponicaRajpathaMenispermaceaeLeavesAkanidineFever,diarrhea,dyspepsia,
urinarydiseases,
antispasmodicactivityon
uterinespasms,skin
diseases,cough,
asthma-likesymptoms,
andkidneydisorders
78ThunbergiafragransMui-lataAcanthaceaeRootsand
leaves
Flavonoids,apigenin,
luteolin
Antidiarrheal,
antirheumatic
79TinosporacordifoliaGiloy,guduchiMenispermaceaeWhole
plant
Tinosporin,columbine,
palmarin,berberine,
tinosporon,giloin
Antiperiodic,
antispasmodic,
antiosteoporotic,
anti-inﬂammatory
antiarthritic,and
antiallergic
(continued)

40
Table2.1(continued)
S.
Plantpart
80ToddaliaasiaticaJangalikalimirchRutaceaeRoots,
leaves,
fruits
Alkaloidberberine,resin,
toddaline,pimpinellin
Diaphoretic,digestive,
expectorant,antipyretic
81TragiainvolucrataEuphorbiaceaeRootDiuretic,diaphoretic,
cooling,depurative
82TylophoraindicaAntamulAsclepiadaceaeRoots,
leaves
Tylophorine,desmethyl
tylophorine,gamma-
fagarine,kaempferol
Bronchialasthmaand
allergicrhinitis
83VallarissolanaceaDodhibelApocynaceaeLatex,
bark,
seeds
Vallaroside,solanoside,
caffeoylquinicacid
Analgesic,antidiarrheal,
anti-inﬂammatory,
antioxidant,digestive
84Ventilago
madraspatana
PittiRhamnaceaeBarkDigestive,carminative,
stomachic,alexeteric,
stimulantandtonic,
depurative
85VignaradiataBanurdFabaceaeLeaves,
roots
Vitexin,isovitexin,
phenolicacid
Digestive,emollient,
galactagogue,anti-
inﬂammatory,febrifuge
86VignatrilobataMunganFabaceaeLeavesFriedelin,epifriedelin,
stigmasterol,tryptophan
Sedative,antipyretic
87VitisviniferaDrakshaVitaceaeDriedripe
fruits
Leucoanthocyanins,rutin,
quercetin,kaempferol,
luteolin,gallictannins
Refrigerant,laxative,
emollient,cardiotonic,
hemostatic,nervine
88XimeniaamericanaOleaceaeFruit,
stem
Sambunigrin,gallicacid,
gallotannins
Antirheumatic,
antibacterial,antimalarial

41
Climbers are best suited for tropical and subtropical forests as compared to
temperate forests (Bongers et al. 2005). In tropical rain forest, about 25–30 % of
species diversity is due to climbers (Schnitzer and Bongers 2002). Different life-
forms of climbers are found in tropical forests that determine a key physiognomic
feature of tropical forests (Nabe-Nielsen 2001; Perez-Salicrup et al. 2001; Schnitzer
and Bongers 2002). Tendril climbers are especially suitable to grow in between
and/or throughout the forest canopies (Putz and Holbrook 1991), while most of the
small climbers and a few large ones are suited to occupy the forest edges and forest
fragments, as the tendril climbers require small diameter support to climb as com-
pared to deep forest wherein generally the thicker stemmed plants are dominated
(Schnitzer and Bongers 2002).
Austin studied the ethnobotany of weedy vines of Florida, while diversity and
distribution of climbers in semi-deciduous rain forest, Ghana and Perak, Malaysia,
were worked out by Patrick et al. (2008) and Ghollasimood et al. (2012), respec-
tively. In India, Pandey et al. (2005) examined many climbers in their study of
medicinal ﬂora of Gujarat, while 81 climbers were recorded by Jangid and Sharma
(2011) in Taluka Modasa, Sabarkantha District of Gujarat. Climbers of urban area
of Ahmadabad and Gandhinagar and Saraswati river region of Patan district of
North Gujarat were documented by Patel et al. (2013) and Seliya and Patel (2009),
respectively. Ghosh and Mukherjee (2006) recorded 149 herbaceous climbers and
79 lianas from Nicobar and Andaman covering 55 families, while Mahajan (2006)
reported 31 taxa used by tribal people of Nimar region (Madhya Pradesh) to cure
various human ailments. Diversity of climbing ﬂora of Thiruvananthapuram dis-
trict, Monghyr district of Bihar, and Koch Bihar district of West Bengal was sur-
veyed by Usha (2010), Singh (1990), and Bandopadhya and Mukherjee (2010),
respectively. According to Ajaib et al. (2012), the local people of Kotli District,
Azad Jammu, and Kashmir use 36 climbers/twiners of vascular plants for medi-
cines, vegetables, and fodder. Bor and Raizada (1982) published a book Some
Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs with a series of papers appeared in the
Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. In Uttar Pradesh, the work was con-
ducted by Siddiqui and Husain (1994), Khanna (2002), Maliya (2004), Narayan
et al. (2008), Dwivedi et al. (2009), Singh et al. (2008), and Singh et al. (2010).
Adhikari et al. (2010) have reported the distribution, pattern, and potential for
conservation of medicinal climbers in Uttaranchal state. After an extensive litera-
ture survey, they have listed a total of 88 medicinal climbers. They noticed that
Cucurbitaceae, Vitaceae, and Fabaceae have more than ten species and regarded as
the largest plant families. They have also analyzed various parts of climbers used
in various ailments. Most of the medicinal climbers are found in subtropical region
(83) followed by warm temperate (44) and cool temperate subalpine region (7),
while the least number of medicinal climbers is found in alpine region (1). In all
the species, plant parts used in various ailments are in the following order: leaves
and roots (44 species each) > fruits (17 species) > seed (15 species). Mostly climb-
ers are used in dysentery, diarrhea, fever, wounds, digestive complaints, skin dis-
eases, rheumatism, bronchitis, and asthma. Later on, they surveyed the distribution
pattern of 63 trees, 55 shrubs, 208 herbs, 34 climbers, 3 ferns, and 10 grasses (a

42
total of 605 plants) belong to 94 families in Wildlife Institute of India campus,
Dehradun (Adhikari et al. 2010).
Bandopadhya and Mukherjee (2010) have surveyed angiospermic climbers from
the district of Koch Bihar (Cooch Behar) and recorded 94 species under 63 genera
belonging to 32 families, of which 26 families with 56 genera and 80 species are
dicotyledonous and 6 families with 7 genera and 14 species are monocotyledonous.
Dicot families have 5.7 times more climbers than monocot families. Most of the
species are found in Cucurbitaceae (21 species) followed by Vitaceae (11 species).
However, there are 15 families represented by single species each. Most of the
climbers are twiners (42 species) followed by tendril climbers (39 species), scram-
blers (6 species), ramblers (4 species), and root climbers (3 species). Local major
ethnic communities, viz., Kheria, Oraon, Rabha, Rajbanshi, and Santal, use at least
50 of these species (i.e., 53.19 %) for various purposes. Of these, 32 species are
used for human consumption, 27 species have medicinal uses, and 11 species are of
multiple uses.
Muthumperumal and Parthasarathy (2009) reported a list of angiosperm climb-
ers (175 climbing plant species that belong to 100 genera and 40 families), along
with their climbing modes in tropical forests of south Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu,
India. Later, they (Muthumperumal and Parthasarathy 2013) provided a detailed
account on the diversity, distribution, and resource values of woody climbers in the
similar area. A total of 143 liana species (DBH (diameter at breast height) ≥1.5 cm)
and 32,033 liana individuals were recorded from 110 transects (0.5 ha each cover-
ing 55 ha area) in the study sites. The resource values of lianas were broadly catego-
rized into ecological and economic importance. About 90 % (129) of liana species
and 96 % (30,564) of liana individuals were established having ecological/eco-
nomic values. Fruit rewards provided by 76 species and 20,325 individuals consti-
tuted the major resource of ecological importance. 82 species and 21,457 liana
individuals are of economic importance as medicine and edible fruits and having
edible and medicinal values, and yet others are used for different domestic purposes
including furniture, fuel wood, rope making, etc. Ecologically, the prevalence of
succulent diasporas in lianas of Indian Eastern Ghats indicates the animal depen-
dence of many liana species for dispersal and underlines the need for a holistic and
whole forest conservation approach in maintaining forest biodiversity
(Muthumperumal and Parthasarathy 2013).
Agarwal (2013) studied the useful climbers of Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. In
the studied area, angiospermic climbers are represented by 42 species under 29
genera belonging to 15 families (13 dicot and 02 monocot families). Some climbers
are wild while others are cultivated. Among all families, Cucurbitaceae was found
tobethemostabundanthaving16speciesfollowedbyFabaceaeandConvolvulaceae,
both having 6 species and Oleaceae with 3 species. Cucurbitaceae is the most domi-
nant family species as well as genera wise. All other families are represented by
single species only (Agarwal 2013).
The diversity and distribution pattern of 59 angiosperm vine taxa (belonging to
44 genera) in the 6 tropical forests of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in the Western
Ghats have been reported by Jayakumar and Nair (2013). The term “vine” is used

43
for all perennial climbers like twiners, scramblers, tendril climbers, root climbers,
hook climbers, and climbing palms. Most of the inventories on tropical vines were
from the Neotropics (Putz 1983) and Southeast Asia (Putz and Chai 1987), and only
a few are available from South Asia, especially from the Western Ghats of India
(Reddy and Parthasarathy 2003). Their study was aimed to analyze two hypotheses
(Pitman et al. 2001), i.e., obligatory hypothesis (most of the species of different
vegetation types are dominated by limited number) and environmental determinism
hypothesis (restricted distribution pattern in different vegetation types). Among six
forms of climbers, twiners were the most significant in richness and abundance.
During 2008–2011, Suthari et al. surveyed forests of five districts (Adilabad,
Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, and Khammam) of North Telangana in India
where they found nine types of climber, mostly twiners (55.39 %), followed by
tendril climbers (19.12 %), scramblers (15.68 %), and branch climbers (4.90 %).
Root climbers are only 1.47 %, whereas leaf climbers, hook climbers, and watch-
spring climbers are 0.98 %. Petiole climbers are least in number (0.50 %). 76 %
climbers are wild and the rest either cultivated or naturalized. Because of its great
variety of climbers which are used as medicinal, ornamental, edible fodder, fiber,
and bio-fencing materials., North Telangana is now considered as a potential botani-
cal province of natural resource (Suthari et al. 2014).
In neotropical rain forest ofYasuní National Park, Ecuador, lianas are significant
in number (Nabe-Nielsen 2001). He recorded 606 climbers, belonging to 138 spe-
cies. Sapindaceae and Leguminosae were most species-rich families.
2.11 List of Climbers (Medicinal and Ornamental) Facing
Threat
Among threatened plants, climbers are more vulnerable to extinction because of
their dependence on support structures or due to their low clutch size and predomi-
nantly outbreeding systems (see Putz 1983; Putz and Chai 1987). Considering spa-
tial elusiveness and difficulties with climber systematics, their proportion among
threatened plants may be far greater than shrubs. Over and above, the conservation
of this element is further compounded as there are very few studies on them. Unless
a systematic assessment is undertaken to understand intrinsic problems linked with
species, and then linked with extrinsic factors operating on them, realistic solutions
to conserve medicinal climbers would be a distinct dream. The lianas are already at
disadvantageous position because of their growth form as biodiversity-insensitive
forest management practices in the past have resulted in their selective removal/
elimination as a part of silvicultural operations. Below is a list of some important
medicinal and ornamental climbers facing the problem of being threatened.

44
2.11.1 Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.
Family: Asclepiadaceae
Threat status: Vulnerable
It is a vulnerable, slow-growing, perennial woody climber of tropical and sub-
tropical regions. It is popularly called as “Gurmar” due to its distinctive property of
temporarily destroying the taste of sweetness and is used in the treatment of diabe-
tes. The leaves of the plant are used as antiviral, diuretic, antiallergic, hypoglyce-
mic, hypolipidemic, and antibiotic and in stomach pains and in rheumatism. The
antidiabetic, antisweet, and anti-inflammatory activities of G. sylvestre are due to
the presence of gymnemic acids; the other phytoconstituents include flavones,
anthraquinones, hentriacontane, resins, d-quercitol, lupeol, β-amyrin-related glyco-
sides, and stigmasterol (Parijat et al. 2007). The various reports on its multiple uses
attracted attention for utilization of the plant for gymnemic acid. Due to its indis-
criminate collection for commercial purposes and to meet the requirements of the
pharmaceutical industry, it is now considered as threatened. Conventional propaga-
tion is hampered due to its poor seed viability, low rate of germination, and poor
rooting ability of vegetative cuttings.
2.11.2 Gnetum ula Brongn.
Family: Gnetaceae
Threat status: Rare and endangered
Gnetum is the only genus included under Gnetales. It is of special interest to
morphologists and systematists because it is considered to be the highest evolved
among gymnosperms and showing close similarities to angiosperms than to Ephedra
or Welwitschia. G. ula is found in Western Ghats, Nilgiris, and hills at Coromandel
Coast. It is also found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Habitat loss is the major
reason of its endangered status.
2.11.3 Nepenthes khasiana Hook. F.
Family: Nepenthaceae
Threat status: Endangered
In India, single species of Nepenthes, i.e., N. khasiana, is found. It belongs to the
monotypic family Nepenthaceae. It is an insectivorous plant found in Northeast
India. This species captures insects with the help of their curious and attractive
pitchers and digests the proteins of trapped insects, thereby supplementing nitrog-
enous salts. Local inhabitants used the fluid of the unopened pitcher of N. khasiana

45
to cure stomach troubles, diabetes, leprosy, gynecological problems, and cataract
and as an eye drop for redness and itching (Rao et al. 1969; Kumar et al. 1980;
Joseph and Joseph 1986). Habitat destruction, deforestation, urban development,
developmental projects, road laying and modern agriculture, and fragmentation of
large contiguous populations into isolated small and scattered ones have rendered
the species increasingly vulnerable to environmental stochasticity, which would
ultimately lead to its extinction. Due to its attractive beauty, this plant has attracted
horticultural interest (Mukerjee et al. 1984; Khoshbakht and Hammer 2007). The
plant’s existence is threatened because of its collection and export by the local plant
collectors to other states of India on account of the fascinating beauty of its pitcher
(Bhau et al. 2009). The species has been classified as a threatened species and is
included in the list of rare and threatened taxa of India (Jain and Baishya 1977; Jain
and Sastri 1980). The population of N. khasiana has dwindled in the last few decades
due to deforestation and forest fires, excessive collection for trade, and slash-and-
burn agricultural practice locally known as “Jhum” cultivation.
2.11.4 Decalepis hamiltonii Wight and Arn
Threat status: Endangered
D. hamiltonii commonly is a medicinal liana. It possesses tuberous roots
(Anonymous 2003a). It occurs in the Deccan peninsula and forest areas of Western
Ghats of India. The roots are used as a flavoring principle (Murti and Seshadri
1941). The tuberous roots are aromatic due to the presence of 2-hydroxy-4-
methoxybenzaldehyde (2H4MB). Root extract is used as a blood purifier (Jacob
1937) and food preservative and in the preparation of nutraceutical and pharmaceu-
tical products (Naveen and Khanum 2010). Roots have antidiabetic, hepatoprotec-
tive, and antiatherosclerotic properties (Naveen and Khanum 2010; Harish and
Shivanandappa 2010). Destructive harvesting for the collection of aromatic roots,
self-incompatibility, extended flowering pattern, pollinator limitation, absence of
seed dormancy, and abortion of a considerable percentage of seedlings prior to
establishment are the reasons for its endangered status (Giridhar et al. 2005; Raju
2010).
2.11.5 Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill
Threat status: Threatened
T. indica, commonly called as “Antamul” or “Indian ipecac,” is a medicinal
liana. It occurs on hilly slopes and the outskirts of the forests of eastern and southern

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