1. The Effect of Computer Gaming on Subsequent Time
Perception
Stefanie Luthman1
, Thomas Bliesener2
, Frithjof Staude-Muller3
1
University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
2,3
University of Kiel, Germany
Abstract
Losing track of time upon gaming is a phenomenon often reported by players of
computer and video games. However, the few studies addressing this issue show mixed
results and do therefore not allow final conclusions about the effect of gaming on time
perception. Even less is known about whether and how time distortion continues after a
play session. Therefore, the present experiment tested the effect of gaming on the
perception of time subsequent to a game session at a LAN party. 40 players produced
standard time intervals of 10 s and 60 s before and after having played computer games.
Results show a significant increase in time productions after gaming for the short
interval, indicating that game-induced time losses continue even after a game session. In
contrast, the reverse was true for the longer interval. We discuss how this result may be
explained in terms of participants’ motivational states during the experiment
counteracting subjective time losses.
Key words: time perception, computer game, LAN party
Abbreviations: LAN = Local Area Network
Introduction
Time distortion is a common phenomenon in events of exceptional negative or
positive evaluation. In an unpleasant setting such as waiting for a bus when
already being late, time might be experienced as passing very slowly. In
contrast, pleasant situations often cause the subjective feeling that time passes
too quickly. However, time distortion is not only limited to extraordinary events
but can also emerge in daily life situations. A person who is completely absorbed
in performing an activity might reach a state of flow, a mental condition that is
marked among other characteristics by a distorted sense of time
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Such flow experiences are often reported by people
who play computer and video games (Chou & Ting, 2003; Wood, Griffiths, &
Parke, 2007). Despite the pleasure of forgetting time and space in electronic
games, time loss can also have negative consequences for the player such as
missing appointments (Esser & Witting, 1997; Wood et al., 2007) and has been
linked to video game addiction (for a critical review of video game addiction see
Griffiths, 2008). However, neither is video game addiction regarded as a mental
disorder (APA, 2007), nor does time loss offer much diagnostic value for video
game addiction as time loss is reported by high- and low frequency players alike
(Wood & Griffiths, 2007; Wood et al., 2007), warranting more research into the
nature of video game addiction and the role of time loss in this context.
A question that has not been addressed so far is if, and how, time distortion
continues after gaming. It may run out quickly, persist for a while, or even
rebound in the absence of the game. In the present study, we test the
assumption that computer gamers experience time loss whilst gaming because
attentional resources allocated towards the processing of nontemporal (i.e.
game) stimuli are subtracted from the attention paid to the processing of
temporal stimuli (Zakay & Block, 1996) and that this time distortion persists

2. temporarily after gaming as players transfer time processing schemata activated
during the game session to real-life situations (Fritz, 1997). An answer to the
question how computer games influence time perception subsequent to gaming
is crucial since many activities of daily life such as driving in traffic and
operating machinery require precise time perception. While occasional time
losses during game sessions might be appreciated by some gamers (Wood et
al., 2007), persistent time distortions after gaming could have detrimental
effects on real-world performance and the safety of gamers and their
surroundings.
Although the study of time perception is a well-established research field, the
partially inconsistent terminology across and within publications can lead to
confusion. Following the specifications of researchers who have tried to
standardize the terminology in time perception studies (Bindra & Waksberg,
1956; Block & Zakay, 1997; Zakay, 1990), a short introduction into the
nomenclature of time perception is presented here in order to enhance the
comprehension of the present experiment and the studies that are referred to in
this article.
In time perception studies with a prospective paradigm, the participant is
forewarned about the upcoming task of temporal judgment. In studies with
a retrospective paradigm, the subject experiences a time period and will only
afterwards be informed about the need of giving an estimate of its duration.
In addition to these study paradigms, there are three different methods for
executing the judgment. In the method of verbal estimation, subjects are asked
to verbally estimate the duration of a time interval (the standard) that they
have experienced. The second method is called production, in which the
experimenter instructs the subject to attempt the exact production of a given
time interval (e.g. by a stop watch). In the method of reproduction, the
experimenter demonstrates a standard (e.g. by sound) that the subject
subsequently tries to reproduce.
Inaccurate time judgments can be attributed to deviations of subjective time
flow (i.e. the psychological time) from the objective time. A decreased
subjective time flow is usually experienced as the feeling that time flies, while
an increased subjective time flow is often experienced as a dragging of time.
The outcome of such time distortions in time perception studies depends heavily
on the applied method. In a verbal estimation task, a decreased subjective time
flow will result in an underestimation of the standard time. Using a production
task, however, a subject with decreased subjective time flow will produce larger
time intervals than the standard. As with the method of production, a decreased
subjective time flow during the reproduction of a standard time interval will
cause an overreproduction. An increased subjective time flow will cause the
opposite effects, meaning an overestimation or under(re)production of the
standard, depending on the utilized method.
Theoretical and empirical background of time perception
Theories and studies on time distortion in relation to playing computer games
are rare. Myers (1992) theorizes that subjective time during a game session
becomes more drawn out when the player’s experience with the game
increases. However, his model was derived from reflections on games of the
early nineties and has not been tested on contemporary computer games.
Another theoretical inquiry on time distortion with regard to video games is the
transfer process model by Fritz (1997). He proposes ten types of schema

3. transfers between the real and the virtual world, including the transfer process
of time. According to his model, time schemata learned and applied in a game
are transferred to post-game experiences. Both models are interesting
approaches to explain the underlying processes of time perception whilst and
after playing electronic games. However, empirical studies on time distortion
among computer game players have rather drawn on models that were
developed to explain the phenomenon of time perception in general (for reviews
on such models, see Block, 1990; Block & Zakay, 1996).
Since attentional processes play a key role in prospective time judgments
(Block, 1992), as measured in the present study, one model focusing on
attention in time perception shall now be illustrated in more detail. The
attentional-gate model (Block & Zakay, 1996; Zakay & Block, 1996) combines
the assumption of an internal clock with that of attentional processes in time
perception. Briefly, pulses that are produced by a pacemaker of an internal clock
are seen as the raw material of time information. These pulses accumulate in
the clock’s cognitive counter and are transferred to working memory. There,
time judgment is made by the comparison of the number of accumulated pulses
with the average pulse number assembled in similar time periods of the past. In
contrast to other internal-clock models, the number of accumulated pulses in
the counter depends not only on the clock’s pulse rate, with high arousal
increasing the pulse rate and low arousal decreasing it, but also on the
transmissibility of the pulse stream into the counter. According to this model, a
gate between pacemaker and counter determines the transmission of pulses
between both. The gate in turn is influenced by the allocation of attentional
resources between the processing of time and nontemporal stimuli. If a person
assigns more attention to the passage of time, the gate opens and more pulses
from the pacemaker accumulate in the counter, leading to longer duration
judgments. Contrary, if an event demands more attention and resources shift
from time processing to the more salient task, the gate closes and fewer pulses
accumulate, causing a shortening of the subjective duration of a time interval.
In addition to attentional processes, diverse situational variables can influence
the perception of time. Angrilli, Cherubini, Pavese, and Manfredini (1997) have
found interaction effects between affective states and arousal on time
judgments, with underestimations of display times of attention-absorbing stimuli
(here aversive low-arousal pictures) and overestimations of display durations of
less captivating stimuli (pleasant low-arousal pictures). The reverse was found
for highly arousing stimuli. Drugs can also alter the sense of time. As for the
more common drugs, two prospective studies have showed reductions in
duration estimates due to caffeine intake (Gruber & Block, 2003, 2005). Alcohol
seems to have a similar effect on time perception as studies have found
overproductions of time following alcohol consumption (Lapp, Collins, Zywiak, &
Izzo, 1994; Tinklenberg, Roth, & Kopell, 1976).
In summary, time perception proves to be a complex phenomenon sensitive to
personal and situational variables, with the latter apparently exerting their
influence by affecting a person’s arousal and/or attention. The following chapter
reviews to what extent the use of electronic games as a situational factor can
alter the sense of time.
Time distortion among computer game players
When examining the effects of computer and video games, most studies include
the amount of time that participants play their games, in addition to the
variables of main interest. Yet, there is little research on time perception itself

4. during or after gaming. This paragraph gives an overview of the few quantitative
and qualitative studies that have connected time perception and electronic
games. So far, most experimental studies examining the effect of gaming on
time perception have used a design in which subjects retrospectively judged the
duration spent in the virtual world (see table 1). They yield mixed results and
indicate an additional influence of subjects’ gender and game experience on
time perception. With regard to the prospective design of the present study,
prospective studies show some tendency towards an underestimation of time
and an equivalent overreproduction.
In addition to quantitative studies, qualitative studies help to reveal further
aspects of time perception in computer gamers. For instance, all participants of
a qualitative interview study reported that they lose track of time during a
game, and many apply strategies for avoiding time loss, for example setting
alarm clocks (Esser & Witting, 1997). An online survey among computer gamers
revealed under what conditions subjective time loss occurs (Wood et al., 2007).
Game characteristics most associated with time loss were high complexity and a
game plot, followed by games providing multi-levels and missions, as did
beating high scores and multiplayer interactions. Nearly half of the participants
claimed that they experience time loss frequently, one third even every time
they play. Their feelings towards time loss reached from relief of boredom and
stress to guilt for wasting time.
In summary, the question of how electronic games influence time perception of
gamers cannot be settled conclusively. Although players frequently admit losing
track of time whilst playing, experimental studies have shown mixed results.
The low number of studies in combination with their differences in design,
methods, and subjects necessitate further research efforts before a concluding
answer to this question can be made.
Table 1: Overview of experiments on time distortion using electronic games