Quantitative & Qualitative Methods in Research

1. Seminário e Projecto em
Software de Código Aberto
Manuela Aparicio
Carlos J. Costa
Quantitative and Qualitative
Reseach Methods
Since 2009

2. Key Concepts (1/3)
Research- refers to the activity of a diligent and systematic
inquiry or investigation in an area, with the objective of
discovering or revising facts, theories, applications
Methodological Phases- is the all process of the research
Method- represents the means, procedure or technique
used to carry out some process in a logical, orderly, and
systematic way.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 2

3. Key Concepts (2/3)
(Method/Scientific Method)
Method- In the context of a research project, a
method refers to an organized approach to
problem-solving that includes:
(1) collecting data,
(2) formulating a hypothesis or proposition,
(3) testing the hypothesis,
(4) interpreting results,
(5) stating conclusions that can later be evaluated
independently by others.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 3

4. Key Concepts (3/3)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 4
Tools- are the various instruments that are used during the
scientific method
Techniques- are the various ways of undertaking data
collection, interpreting data, and analyzing collected data
Most methods have some common characteristics, including:
– the existence of a problem that needs to be
formulated,
– aims and objectives to be met,
– phase where the problem will be investigated

5. Actors Involved & Roles
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 5

6. Project Proposal
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 6

7. Quantitative
versus
Qualitative
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 7

8. Quantitative Methods
The goal of quantitative research and methods is to
develop models, theories, and hypotheses pertaining
to natural phenomena.
The quantitative aspect is to emphasize that
measurement is fundamental since it gives the
connection between observation and the
formalization of the model, theory and hypothesis.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 8

9. Quantitative research methods
- Quantitative research methods were originally developed in
the natural sciences to study natural phenomena.
- Examples of quantitative methods now well accepted in the
social sciences include:
– survey methods,
– laboratory experiments,
– formal methods (e.g. econometrics) and
– numerical methods such as mathematical modeling.
Straub, Gefen and Boudreau (2004).
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 9

10. Quantitative research methods
- for qualitative research, the basic epistemological positions to choose
from are threefold:
– positivist,
– interpretive,
– or critical.
- In the case of quantitative research, however, the interpretive and critical
positions are not meaningful; only the positivist one is.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 10

11. Quantitative research methods
Positivist Philosophy
- At the heart of positivism is Karl Popper's
dichotomous differentiation between "scientific"
theories and "myth".
- A scientific theory is a theory whose predictions
can be empirically tested & verified
- In theory, it is enough, for one observation that
contradicts the prediction of a theory to falsify it
and render it incorrect.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 11

12. Qualitative Methods
Typically used in specific social contexts
Qualitative research is often associated with
fieldwork and analysis in a limited number of
organisational settings
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 12

13. Qualitative research methods
- Qualitative research methods were developed in the social sciences to
enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena.
- Examples of qualitative methods
– are action research,
– case study research and
– ethnography.
- Qualitative data sources include
– observation and participant observation (fieldwork),
– interviews and questionnaires,
– documents and texts, and
– the researcher's impressions and reactions
Myers (2009).
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 13

14. Qualitative research methods
Philosophical Perspectives
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 14

15. Philosophical Perspectives
- Positivists generally
– assume that reality is objectively given and can be described by measurable
properties which are independent of the observer (researcher) and his or
her instruments.
– generally attempt to test theory, in an attempt to increase the predictive
understanding of phenomena.
In line with this Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991) classified IS research as positivist if:
– there was evidence of formal propositions,
– quantifiable measures of variables,
– hypothesis testing,
– and the drawing of inferences about a phenomenon from the sample to a
stated population.
Examples of a positivist approach to qualitative research include Yin's (2002) and
Benbasat et al's (1987) work on case study research.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 15

16. Philosophical Perspectives
Interpretive researchers start out with the assumption that access
to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social
constructions such as
– language,
– consciousness and
– shared meanings.
Interpretive research does not predefine dependent and
independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human
sense making as the situation emerges.
Examples of an interpretive approach to qualitative research include
Boland's (1991) and Walsham's (1993) work
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 16

17. Philosophical Perspectives
- Critical researchers assume that social reality is
historically constituted and that it is produced and
reproduced by people.
- Critical research focuses on the oppositions, conflicts and
contradictions in contemporary society, and seeks to be
emancipatory i.e. it should help to eliminate the causes of
alienation and domination.
- One of the best known exponents of contemporary
critical social theory is Jurgen Habermas.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 17

18. Qualitative research methods
The four research methods that will be
discussed here are
– action research,
– case study research,
– ethnography and
– grounded theory
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 18

19. Qualitative research methods
•Action research
Action research aims to contribute both to the
practical concerns of people in an immediate
problematic situation and to the goals of social
science by joint collaboration within a mutually
acceptable ethical framework (Rapoport, 1970).
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 19

20. Qualitative research methods
•Case Study
- Case study research is the most common qualitative method used in
information systems
- A case study is an empirical inquiry that (Yin 2002):
– investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context, especially when
– the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident .
- Is particularly well-suited to IS research, since the object of our discipline is
the study of information systems in organizations, and "interest has shifted to
organizational rather than technical issues" (Benbasat et al. 1987).
- Can be positivist, interpretive, or critical, depending upon the underlying
philosophical assumptions of the researcher.
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 20

21. Qualitative research methods
•Case Study
- A case study project is undertaken as an in-depth exploration of a
phenomenon in its natural setting
– involves a limited number of cases, sometimes even a single
case
– suitable when there is a desire to understand and explain a
phenomenon in a field which is not yet well understood
– a case can be:
●
an organisation,
●
a department
●
a group,
●
an individual,
●
any other “unit”
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 21

22. Qualitative research methods
•Ethnography
- Ethnographic research comes from the
discipline of social and cultural anthropology
where an ethnographer is required to spend a
significant amount of time in the field.
http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/Myers%20CAIS%20article.pdf
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 22

23. Qualitative research methods
•Case Study vs Ethnographic Research
- In a case study, the primary source of data is interviews,
supplemented by documentary evidence such as annual
reports, minutes of meetings and so forth. In an ethnography,
these data sources are supplemented by data collected
through participant observation.
- Ethnographies usually require the researcher to spend a long
period of time in the “field” and emphasize detailed,
observational evidence
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 23

24. Qualitative research methods
•Grounded Theory
- Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory
that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed.
- The major difference between grounded theory and other methods is
its specific approach to theory development - grounded theory
suggests that there should be a continuous interplay between data
collection and analysis.
- Grounded theory approaches are becoming increasingly common in
the IS research literature because the method is extremely useful in
developing context-based, process-oriented descriptions and
explanations of the phenomenon
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 24

25. Tipos de Investigação Adpatado (Patton, 1990)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 25
Tipos de
investigação Finalidade
Foco da
investigação
Resultados
desejados
Nível de
generalização Pressupostos
Investigação
Básica /
Fundamental
Conhecer,
descobrir a
verdade
Questões
fundamentais
em qualquer
disciplina
Aumentar o
conhecimento
disponível;
teorizar
Idealmente no
espaço e no
tempo
É possível
conhecer,
explicar
e padronizar os
fenómenos
Investigação
aplicada
Conhecer a
natureza dos
problemas
humanos e da
sociedade
Questões
importantes para
a sociedade
Contribuir para
teorias que visam
solucionar
problemas e
intervir na
sociedade
O mais possível
no espaço e
tempo, mas
limitadas pelo
contexto
aplicacional
Os problemas
humanos e da
sociedade
podem ser
resolvidos pelo
conhecimento
Investigação de
avaliação
Determinar a
eficiência da
intervenção
humana
(programas,
política, produtos)
Objectivos da
intervenção
Julgamento da
intervenção,
recomendações
Limitado a
intervenções
com objectivos
semelhantes
O que é válido
em
determinadas
circunstâncias
específicas pode
ser válido
noutras
Investigação Acção Resolução de
problemas
(organizações,
comunidades)
Problemas
organizacionais
e da
comunidade
Acção imediata;
resolução rápida
de problemas
Aqui e agora As pessoas
podem resolver
problemas num
contexto,
estudando-os

26. Quantitative Research Methods
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 26

27. Quantitative, Positivist Research
Methods in Information Systems
- Is a set of methods and techniques that allow
IS researchers to answer research questions
about the interaction of humans and
computers.
- There are two cornerstones in this approach
to research.
– the emphasis on quantitative data.
– the emphasis on positivist philosophy.
Straub, Gefen and Boudreau (2004).
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 27

28. What it is Not Quantitative,
Positivist Research
Analytical Modeling (ex: of a user requirement
information system needs-requirement
specification)
Design Research (ex: information system
conceptual modeling)
Qualitative Research
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 28

29. What it is Not Quantitative, Positivist
Research: Analytical Modeling,
Math or analytical modeling
– This methodology models the "real world" and states the results
as mathematical equations.
– It is a closed deterministic system in which all of the
independent and dependent variables are known and included
in the model.
– Intervening variables simply are not possible and no human
subject is required
– typically depends on mathematical derivations and
assumptions.
– Empirical data gathering or data exploration is part and parcel of
QPR (Jenkins, 1985)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 29

30. Quantitative, Positivist Research
Methods
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 30
QPR Methods Non-QPR Methods
Field experiment Math Modeling (analytical modeling)
Lab experiment Group feedback
Free simulation
experiment
Participative research
Experimental
simulation
Case study
Adaptive
experiment
Philosophical research
Field study
Opinion
research
Archival
research

31. Quantitative, Positivist Research
Methods
Type of Research,
General Research Approaches,
Data Collection Techniques, &
Data Analysis Techniques
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 31

32. Design Research
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 32

33. Design research
- Design research involves the analysis of the use and
performance of designed artifacts to understand, explain and
very frequently to improve on the behavior of aspects of
Information Systems.
- Such artifacts include (but certainly are not limited to):
– algorithms (e.g. for information retrieval),
– human/computer interfaces and
– system design methodologies or languages.
Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 33

34. Design research
- Research can be very generally defined as an
activity that contributes to the understanding of
a phenomenon.
- In the case of design research, all or part of the
phenomenon may be created as opposed to
naturally occurring.
Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004), Kuhn (1996) Lakatos (1978),
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 34

35. Design research
- Design means "to invent and bring into being" Thus, design
deals with creating something new that does not exist in
nature.
- The design of artifacts is an activity that has been carried out
for centuries.
- This activity is also what distinguishes the professions from
the sciences.
- "Schools of architecture, business, education, law, and
medicine, are all centrally concerned with the process of
design" (Simon, 1996)
Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 35

36. Can Design Be Research
- Can design (i.e. artifact construction) ever be
considered an appropriate technique for
conducting research into Information Systems?
- Discussion...
See Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 36

37. The Outputs of Design Research
Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 37
1 Constructs The conceptual vocabulary of a domain
2 Models A set of propositions or statements
expressing relationships between
constructs
3 Methods A set of steps used to perform a task –
how-to knowledge
4 Instantiations The operationalization of constructs,
models and methods.
5 Better
theories
Artifact construction as analogous to
experimental natural science

38. The Outputs of Design Research
Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2004)
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 38

39. Design Research Perspectives and
Outputs by Community
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 39
Community Perspective Knowledge Derived
HCI; IS CORE;
Decision science
Artifact as experimental
apparatus
What database
visualization interfaces
reveal about the cognition
of complex data
relationships
Database; Decision
science Software
engineering
Artifact as focused design
principle exploration
Principles for the
construction of data
visualization interfaces
Database; Software
engineering
Artifact as improved instance of
tool.
A better data visualization
interface for relational,
business oriented
databases.

40. Design vs. Positivist and
Interepretative Perspectives
Manuela Aparicio & Carlos J. Costa 40