This document provides an overview of grammar and its four levels: parts of speech, parts of the sentence, phrases, and clauses. It then discusses the eight parts of speech in detail, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. For nouns and pronouns, it covers definitions, types, cases, numbers, genders, persons, possessive forms, and correct usage. For verbs it discusses tense, voice, regular and irregular forms, transitive/intransitive distinctions. It also covers adjectives and adverbs, including forms of comparison.

1. Grammar
Grammar is a way of thinking about
language.
Four Levels of Grammar:
• Parts of Speech
• Parts of the Sentence
• Phrases
• Clauses

2. Parts of Speech:
the eight kinds of words in English
•nouns
•pronouns
•verbs
•adjectives
•adverbs
•prepositions
•conjunctions
•interjections

3. Nouns
A noun is the name of a person, place,
thing, or idea.
Examples: Mozart, Chicago, epidermis, rock,
freedom

4. Proper nouns are capitalized; common nouns
are not.
• Mozart (proper), epidermis (common)
Concrete nouns are names of objects; abstract
nouns are names of ideas.
• rock (concrete), freedom (abstract)

5. When we address someone directly, the person’s
name or title is called the noun of direct
address.
• Karen, meet me at the library.
• Meet me at the library, Karen.
A collective noun names a group.
• flock

6. Singular nouns name individual things;
plural nouns name multiple things.
• boat, flock, kindness (singular)
• boats, flocks, kindnesses (plural)

7. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the
place of a noun.
Noun:
Ike passed the ball.
Pronoun:
He passed the ball.

8. Pronouns may be masculine gender
(he, him, his), feminine gender
(she, her, hers), or neuter gender (it).

9. Pronouns may have person and number.
Subject Pronouns:
SINGULAR
PLURAL
First Person
I
we
Second
Person
you
you
he, she, it
they
Third Person

10. The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun
replaces.
Example:
Ike caught the ball, and then he passed it.
↑
↑
antecedent
pronoun

11. *There isn’t always an antecedent.
Example:
Anyone who is registered may vote.
(no antecedent)

12. Use subject pronouns as subjects; use object
pronouns as objects.
Example:
They bought the tickets and gave them to us.
↑
↑
↑
subject pronoun
object pronouns

13. MEMORIZE the subject and
object pronouns!

14. SUBJECT
OBJECT
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS
I
Singular you
me
you
she, he, it
we
Plural
her, him, it
us
you
you
they
them

15. MEMORIZE the subject and
object pronouns!
The quiz will be on _________________.

16. Possessive pronouns are used
to indicate ownership or
possession.
Example:
Diego lost his pesos.
The dog found its doghouse.

17. SUBJECT
me
my, mine
you
you
your, yours
she, he, it
her, him, it her, hers, his,
its
we
Plural
POSSESSIVE
I
Singular
OBJECT
us
our, ours
you
you
your, yours
they
them
their, theirs

18. Possessive pronouns DO NOT need
apostrophes (because they are already in
the possessive form).

19. Its or It’s?
Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is a
contraction of it and is. The
apostrophe replaces the missing i.
Possessive Pronoun
its
Contraction
it’s = it + is
Example:
It’s too late to lock its cage.

20. Using the Right Word:
it’s/its
Examine the use of the word “its” in the
following sentence.
“She approached the monster cautiously and
bravely touched its cold, steel claw.”
Its is a possessive pronoun.
Example: The dog lost its collar.
It’s is a contraction for the words it is.
Example: The dog barks because it’s
hungry.

21. Using the Right Word: it’s/its
Copy the following sentences. Choose the correct
word according to its use in the sentence.
1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.
2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten
minutes early.
3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.
4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s) own
reward.

22. Using the Right Word: it’s/its
Copy the following sentences. Choose the
correct word according to its use in the
sentence.
1. The snake shed ______ (its, it’s) skin.
The snake shed its skin.
2. Did you hear the bell? ____ (Its, It’s) ten
minutes early.
Did you hear the bell? It’s ten minutes
early.
3. Trying is not hard; ______ (its, it’s) easy.
Trying is not hard; it’s easy.
4. Sometimes success is ______ (its, it’s) own
reward.
Sometimes success is its own reward.

23. Using the Right Word: Your Turn
Write sentences, using the word in parentheses
correctly.
5. (its)
6. (it’s)

24. So far, we have studied personal pronouns.
SUBJECT
me
my, mine
you
you
your, yours
she, he, it
her, him, it her, hers, his,
its
we
Plural
POSSESSIVE
I
Singular
OBJECT
us
our, ours
you
you
your, yours
they
them
their, theirs

25. Other Kinds of Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used
to ask questions.
who, whose, whom, which,
what
Example:
Who went to the park?

26. Demonstrative pronouns are used to
demonstrate or point out.
this, that, these, those
Example:
This is the dog I want to adopt.

27. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that
relates an adjective clause to a main
clause.
who, whose, whom which, that
Example:
I called the man who lost his wallet.

28. Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a
specific person or a specific thing.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
another
anything
everybody
neither
one
anybody
each
everyone
nobody
somebody
anyone
either
everything
no one
someone

29. Possessive pronouns must agree in
number with indefinite pronouns.
Example:
Neither believed his eyes. (Not their
eyes)

30. Plural Indefinite Pronouns
both
many
few
several
Examples:
Several reported their findings.
Many are absent.

31. The following pronouns may be singular OR plural,
depending on their meaning in the sentence:
all
some
Singular:
any
none
Plural:
All of my story is true.
All of the reporters are here.
None of the lake is foggy. None of the photos are sharp.

32. Using Who and Whom
Who is the subject form; whom is the
object form.
Who will play the lead? (Who= subject)
Whom do you see? (Whom=direct object)
From whom do we buy the tickets? (whom=object
of the preposition)

33. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Pronouns that end in –self or –selves are either
intensive or reflexive pronouns.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns:
myself
yourself
herself himself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
A reflexive pronoun reflects back to a word used
previously in the sentence. The sentence’s
meaning is incomplete without it.
Example:
Linda reminded herself to buy film.
An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to a noun or
another pronoun. The meaning of the sentence is
complete without it.
Example: I myself agree with that idea.

34. Adjectives
Definition: An adjective is a word that
modifies a noun or pronoun.
Example:
The red car looked good.

35. An adjective often tells what kind, which
one, or how many.
Examples:
broken robot
those wires
two technicians

36. Proper Adjectives
When adjectives are made from proper nouns,
they are called proper adjectives. They
are always capitalized.
Examples:
Friday night
June day
Italian dressing

37. Articles
The words a, an, and the are special
adjectives called articles.
The is the definite article; it points out
one specific person, place, thing or
idea.
Example:
Please hand me the book.
A and an are indefinite articles; they are
less specific.
Example:
Please hand me a book.

38. Good and Well
The word good is an adjective that may be used to
modify nouns or pronouns; the word well is an
adverb that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs.
Example:
The good athlete runs well.
adjective
modifying the
noun athlete
adverb
modifying the
verb runs

39. Three Degrees of Adjectives
Use the positive degree of an adjective
to describe one thing.
• This is a long movie.
Use the comparative degree of an
adjective to compare two things.
• This movie is longer than the one I
watched yesterday.
Use the superlative degree of an
adjective to compare more than two
things.
• This is the longest movie I have ever
watched.

40. Short adjectives change their forms by adding
–er for the comparative and –est for the
superlative.
Positive
hot
ripe
creamy
spicy
Comparative
hotter
riper
creamier
spicier
Superlative
hottest
ripest
creamiest
spiciest

41. Longer adjectives use more for the comparative
and most for the superlative.
Positive
fragrant
well-done
flavorful
Comparative
more fragrant
more well-done
more flavorful
Superlative
most fragrant
most well-done
most flavorful

42. The comparative and superlative forms of some
adjectives are totally different words.
Positive
good
well
bad
many
Comparative
better
better
worse
more
Superlative
best
best
worst
most

43. Verbs
Definition: A verb is a word that
shows action, or being, or links a
subject to a subject complement.
Examples:
• The skaters raced around the park.
• He is.
• He is tired.

44. Action Verbs
Definition: An action verb says what
the subject of the sentence does.
• Shanna knew the winner.
• Students gathered their books.

45. If the verb is an action verb, it
might show action on a direct
object.
• Verdi composed the opera.
 (direct object)

46. Or, an action verb might show simple
action not on a direct object.
• Verdi composed.

47. Linking Verbs
Definition: A linking verb links the
subject of the sentence with a
subject complement.
Examples:
• He is a poet.
• My skates are fast.

48. Principal Parts of Verbs
Infinitive
to do (do)
Present
Past
Participle
doing
did
Past
Participle
done
to go (go)
going
went
gone
to think (think)
thinking
thought
thought
to dream (dream)
dreaming dreamed
dreamed

49. Regular Verbs
Most verbs make the principal parts
in the same regular way; therefore,
we refer to them as regular verbs.
Infinitive
Past
to work
Present
Participle
working
to spill
spilling
spilled
worked
Past Participle
(has) worked
(has) spilled

50. Irregular Verbs
Many verbs do not follow a regular
pattern. Instead, they have
principal parts which are unique.
Infinitive
Past
to shrink
Present
Participle
shrinking
Past Participle
shrank
(has) shrunk
to write
writing
wrote
(has) written

51. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A verb that has a direct object is called a
transitive verb.
• Rocks hit Sue. (Sue is the d.o.)
A verb that does not have a direct object is
called an intransitive verb.
• Rocks flew. (No d.o.)

52. Why We Call Them “Transitive”
Transitive verbs are action verbs that are
called “transitive” because of the transit
of action or energy that takes place when
the subject acts on the object.
If I kick the bucket, the energy
transfers from me to the bucket I
am kicking.
The stem trans means “across.”
In an intransitive verb, there is no transfer
of energy.

53. Transitive or Intransitive?
• Laura saw a snake.
Saw what? snake (d.o.)
Saw is transitive.
• The snake moved
quickly.
Moved what? no d.o.
Moved is intransitive.

54. Transitive or Intransitive?
Copy each sentence. Underline the verb and label it
as transitive or intransitive.
• Ian shouted a warning. shouted--transitive
• He shouted loudly.
shouted--intransitive
• The reptile exhibit will open--intransitive
will open soon.
• The snake opened
its jaws.
opened--transitive

55. Active and Passive Voice
An active voice verb is an action verb that
shows the subject actually acting.
• The meteor
struck
the ship.
A passive voice verb is an action verb that
shows the subject passively being acted
upon.
• The ship
was struck
by the meteor.

56. Six Verb Tenses
•Present
•Past
•Future
•Present Perfect
•Past Perfect
•Future Perfect

57. Conjugating a Verb
Present Tense
“to protest”
Singular
1st Person I protest.
Plural
We protest.
2nd Person You protest. You protest.
3rd Person He, she, it
protests.
They protest.

58. Conjugating a Verb
Past Tense
“to protest”
Singular
protested
1st Person I _______.
Plural
protested
We _______.
protested
protested
2nd Person You ______. You _______.
3rd Person He, she, it
They protested
______.
protested
_________.

59. Conjugating a Verb
Future Tense
“to protest”
Singular
will protest
1st Person I _______.
Plural
will protest
We _______.
will protest
2nd Person You will protest You _______.
______.
3rd Person He, she, it
They will protest
______.
will protest
_________.

60. Conjugating a Verb
Present Perfect
Tense
Singular
Plural
“to protest”
1st
Person
2nd
Person
3rd
Person
I have protested
_______.
We have protested
_______.
You have protested You have protested
______.
_______.
He, she, it
has protested
_________.
They have protested
______.

61. Conjugating a Verb
Past
Perfect
“to protest”
Tense
Singular
Plural
1st
Person
2nd
Person
3rd
Person
I had protested
_______.
We had protested
_______.
You had protested You had protested
______.
_______.
He, she, it
had protested
_________.
They had protested
______.

62. Conjugating a Verb
Future Perfect
Tense
“to protest” 1st
Person
2nd
Person
3rd
Person
Singular
Plural
I _______.
We _______.
You ______.
You _______.
will have protested
will have protested
will have protested will have protested
He, she, it
They ______.
will have protested will have protested
_________.

63. Why We Call Them “Perfect”Tenses
The three perfect tenses are called perfect
because the word perfect comes from
the Latin word perficere (“to finish”).
Stem
Meaning
per
through
fac
make
perficere = to finish (to be through making
something; to make it perfect)
The perfect tenses, therefore, are the
tenses of things which are finished.

64. Present Perfect—action which is finished now
Example: I have returned.
Past Perfect—action which was finished then
(in the past)
Example: I had returned.
Future Perfect—action which will be finished
in the future
Example: I will have returned.

65. Progressive Verb Forms
Progressive verb forms show action
still in progress. (always end in –ing)
Present Progressive:
I am playing.
Past Progressive: I was playing.
Future Progressive: I shall be playing.
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:
I have been playing.
I had been playing.
I will have been playing.

66. Adverbs
Definition: An adverb is a word that
modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.
Examples:
• The movie started early.
• My report is too long.
• He and she swim very well.

67. Adverbs help make meaning clear by telling how,
when, where, or to what extent.
Examples:
• The guide spoke softly. (How?)
• The speaker arrived late. (When?)
• He approached the cave and looked inside. (Where?)
• The cave was very dark. (To what extent?)

68. Prepositions
Definition: A preposition is a word that shows
a relationship between its object (the object
of the preposition) and another word in the
sentence.
Examples:
• The book is on the shelf.
↑
↑
(prep.)
(object of prep.)
• I have a one hundred dollar check for you.
↑ ↑
(prep.) (obj. of prep.)

69. Prepositions show relationships of time,
relationships of space, and relationships
of direction.

70. Examples:
• I took the test before lunch. (Time)
• I will save you a seat beside me. (Space)
• My relatives are traveling from Chicago. (Direction)

71. Conjunctions
Definition: A conjunction is a word that
joins (junct) two words or two groups of
words together (con).
Examples:
• Bob and Jane were here.
• I am eating outside since it is sunny.

72. Types of Conjunctions
•Coordinating conjunctions
•Subordinating conjunctions
•Correlative conjunctions
•Conjunctive adverbs

73. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join words
which are equal (co) in importance.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

74. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join unequals. They
join something of lesser importance (sub) to
something of greater importance.

75. Words Often Used as Subordinating Conjunctions
after
because
so that
whatever
although
before
than
when
as
if
though
whenever
as if
in order that till
where
as long as
provided
unless
wherever
as though
since
until
while

76. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are multiple-word
conjunctions.
Correlative Conjunctions:
either...or
not only...but also
both...and
neither…nor
whether…or

77. Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are words which act both
as adverbs and conjunctions. They are
commonly used to begin clauses.
Conjunctive Adverbs:
therefore, however, hence, so, then,
moreover, nevertheless, yet,
consequently, besides

78. Interjections
Definition: An interjection is a word which
shows emotion but has no grammatical
purpose. In other words, they just throw
(ject) and exclamation into (inter) a
sentence.
Examples:
• Whew!
• Wow!
• Oh, look at that beautiful valley.