1. Han China
Political Development:
The Han organized and controlled the realm through a strong, nonhereditary
bureaucracy.
The Han de-emphasized legalism (Strict laws, harsh punishments, and
sacrifice of personal freedom for the good of the state) in favor of a
government based of Confucian values.
The emperor had the support of the heavens as long as he was a good ruler.
Economic Development:
An urban empire that ruled a rural and peasant population.
The emperor lived in the forbidden city, so called because only his family,
servants, and closest advisors were permitted within its boundaries.
Urban areas grew rapidly during this era, with as much as 30% of the
population lived in towns and cities.
Canals were built, and the road system expanded to improve communication
and commerce. The most important export was silk.
Social Distinctions:
At the top of the Han Dynasty social structure was the emperor. No subject
was allowed to address the present emperor by name lest they take the risk
of punishment. The most powerful relative of the emperor was the empress
dowager or the wife of the previous emperor. Empress dowagers have the
power to issue edicts and pardons as well as to appoint a new emperor in the
case of the present emperor passing away without a designated heir.
Certain nobles were also present during different periods of the Han
Dynasty. During the early Western Han, some military officers were
designated as Kings. Later on, only the emperor’s male relatives were given
that designation.. At the same time, those serving the government also had
privileged positions during this dynasty. They were immune from arrests
unless permission from the emperor was granted. Scholars also belonged to
the same tier as that of the nobles and the government officials.
Farmers and peasants comprise the second tier of the Han dynasty’s social
hierarchy. Their social status can be considered to be above that of the
laborers but well below those of the wealthier landowners. However, they
were not looked down since the wealthy depended on them for their
products.Third class citizens consisted mainly of artisans and craftsmen
who were responsible making useful items such as swords and knives as well
as creating luxury goods for the wealthier class. They also belong to the
second tier of the society. However, their status is held below that of farmers.
Despite this, they were still allowed to wear fancy outfits and ride on
carriages and horses. They weren’t prohibited from becoming officials.

2. Merchants belonged to the third tier along with the commoners and the
servants. Slaves make up about 1% of the dynasty’s whole population. They
can either be privately owned or state-owned. State-owned slaves were often
given work in palaces and offices while privately-owned slaves often end up
doing domestic services and even farming.
Innovation:
The Han were interested in the decorative arts, and their bronze and ceramic
figures, bowls, jade and ivory carvings, and woven silk screens were of very
high quality.
One of the highest art forms was calligraphy, or the artistic rendering if the
written word, a skill that is highly prized in Chinese society.
Mathematics, geography, and astronomy were also valued, especially for the
practical inventions that were based on these sciences. An interest in the
sciences led to more intensive knowledge of the parts of the body and their
functions.
Religion:
Ancestors worship was still practiced during the Han Dynasty.
Taoism is considered to be the main Han Dynasty religion. It was also
founded during the Han Dynasty. Taoism can be characterized by the belief
for opposites, such as, “there would be no love without hate.”
Buddhism also became a major religion in China during the Han Dynasty
after its arrival at around the 1st century CE.
Confucianism, on the other hand, was more of a philosophy rather than a Han
Dynasty religion but also ruled China for almost 2000 years. It was during the
Han Dynasty that China first embraced Confucianism. Despite it not being a
religion, it became one of the most important ideological beliefs during that
era.
Gupta India
Political Development:
Gupta emperors ruled over a spectacular court at Pataliputra.
An efficient central government allowed trade to prosper and provided a
stable background for advances in learning and the arts.
Gupta rulers also gave power to local leaders.
Local leaders were elected by merchants and artisans.
 each village, a headman and councils made decisions for the village.
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The most respected people of the village served on the council.
At first, women were allowed to serve on councils, eventually, Hindu law
placed greater restrictions on women excluding them from participation.
The Gupta government was a highly decentralized one with the king at the

3. top of the hierarchical structure. The entire territory was divided into
different provinces with a Viceroy who was appointed to look after the entire
administration.
Economic Development:
The economy of the Gupta era continued to have agriculture as an important
part but there was significant progress in industry and trade. The guilds that
existed in the Mauryan period continued their work and remained centres of
organization and were allowed to operate almost free from government
control.
One of the most important industries in the Gupta period was the textile
industry. Not only was there significant internal demand, Indian textiles were
sought after in many parts of the world. Silk, muslin, calico, linen, wool and
cotton textiles were the major ones being produced.
Goods were able to move easily throughout the country. Pack animals and ox
carts were used to transport goods by road. Sea travel had developed
significantly by this period and Indian ships were regularly moving around
the Arabian sea, the China seas and the Indian Ocean. There is even evidence
of trade with parts of East Africa.
Social Distinctions:
During the Gupta period there was peace and harmony in the society. The
social ranking or caste of a person was decided by the trade or profession of
that person. The society was classified in four castes namely; Brahmans,
Vaishayas, Kshatriya’s and Sudras. The Brahmans carried out activities like
trade, architecture, service, etc. The Gupta rulers were Vaishayas, The
Kshatriya’s practiced industrial vocation. Sudras were engaged in activities
like trade and agriculture. People lived in joint families and the society was
primarily male dominating. The women were given secondary position. They
were expected to obey the instructions given by the male members of the
family. They were allowed to obtain education. However, they were not
permitted to participate in any rituals or read sacred texts.
Innovation:
During the Gupta regime, education included grammar, composition, logic,
metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy which became highly
specialized and reached an advanced level.
Gupta architecture marked the epoch in the creation of a number of stone
temples dedicated to the various Hindu gods. Additionally, Buddhists also
built shrines to house the remains of select holy people. These structures
were called ‘Stupas.’ This form of architecture made its way to China where it
was altered slightly and renamed the ‘pagoda.’

4. Religion:
Hinduism soon grew in complexity; acquiring more rituals, drawing more
form astronomy, and absorbing aspects of both Buddhism and
Jainism. Hinduism today owes much of its popularity and style to the Gupta
Empire.
Hinduism stands apart from all other religions for several reasons. It has no
single founder, no single book of theological law and truth, no central
religious organization, and no definition of absolute beginning and
end.Hinduism is a code of life — a collection of attitudes, personal
experiences, and spiritual practices. It is, in essence, defined by behaviors
rather than beliefs.According to Hindu philosophy, there is one divine reality,
and all religions are simply various interpretations of it. Because of this,
Hinduism allows and even encourages individuals to choose a religious path
that best suits their social, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual needs.