Learning for Undergraduates

1. Dr. Mohamed Abdelghani
M.B.B.Ch., M.Sc., M.D. Psych.
Zagazig Faculty Of Medicine

2. DEFINITION
 A relatively permanent change in
behavior brought about by
experience

3. The most important types of
learning are:
1) Classical conditioning
2) Operant conditioning
3) Cognitive Learning

Latent learning

Social (observational) learning

4. Classical Conditioning
 A previously neutral stimulus elicits a
response through its association with a
stimulus that naturally brings about the
response.
 Once an association had been made
between the two stimuli, the “conditioned
stim.” alone could lead to a response.

5. Before conditioning
(UCS)
(UCR)
Food
salivation
CS+UCS
Sound + food
UCR
salivation
After conditioning
(CS) alone
(CR)
Sound alone
salivation

6. Other related definitions
Extinction: Unlearning what we have learned. It occurs when a
previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and
eventually disappears.
Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a previously
extinguished response after a period of time during which the
conditioned stimulus has been absent.
Stimulus generalization: Response to a stimulus that is similar
to the original conditioned stimulus. The great similarity between
the two stimuli increases the likelihood of generalization.
Stimulus discrimination: Process by which an organism learns
to differentiate among stimuli, restricting its response to one in
particular.

7. Clinical Applications of classical
conditioning
1) Emotional response:
o Emotional responses may be learned through
classical conditioning.
o 11-month old infant named Albert
2) Behavior therapy:
A. Systematic desensitization: “developed by
Wolpe”.
B. Addiction to alcohol: “apomorphine”.

8. Operant Conditioning
It describes learning in which
a voluntary response is
strengthened or
weakened, depending on its
positive or negative
consequences

9. Comparison between Classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Stimulus
Response
Operant conditioning
a) A specific event, e.g. a light flash. a) Not a specific event.
b) Briefly presented.
b) Longer-lasting situation.
a) Variable, may be learned in a
a) Specific (usually a reflex or sequence (or chain of behaviors)
innate reaction to a situation, e.g. so that the end result is attainment
limb flexion or salivation)
of a desired goal.
b) Involuntary (determined by the b) Voluntary (not so closely
unconditioned stimulus)
determined by the nature of
stimulus)
Does not depend on the response
(i.e., if it always presented
regardless of what the organism
Reinforcement does, e.g. the meat is given to the
dog whether the dog salivated or
not).
Reinforcement is contingent upon
what the learner does. (If the
leaner does the 'right' thing, it is
reinforced, otherwise it is not).

10. Other related definitions
 Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the
environment that leads to an increase in a
preceding response.
 Negative reinforcer: a stimulus that removes
something unpleasant from the environment,
leading to an increase in the probability that a
preceding response will occur again in the future.
 Punishment: an unpleasant or painful stimulus
that decreases the probability that a preceding
behavior will occur again.

11. Clinical Applications
of
Operant conditioning

12. I- Programmed learning
• An instruction technique in which material to be
learned is presented in successive, well- planned
steps.
• Subjects are expected to respond to a certain
problem and then check answer they have given is
correct or not.
• The answer provides feedback or
reinforcement, immediately.

13. II-Behavior Therapy:

Acceptable responses will be reinforced and
unacceptable response will be extinguished.

It includes:
1) Shaping
2) Token economy
3) Time-out

14. 1) Shaping
 It is the teaching of a complex behavior by reinforcing
successive approximation of the desired activity.
 A complex desired behavior is broken down into a
series of simpler responses.
 This technique is effective in:
 Training of autistic children to speak
 Rehabilitation of physically handicapped
 Treating phobias.

15. 2) Token economy
 For chronic mental hospital patients.
 To apply the rules of reinforcement to individual
behavior on ward basis.
 What patients want is the reinforcement, what
the staff want them to do is the response and
the token is the intermediary.

16. 3) Time-out
o To isolate the child, who made misbehavior, for
a brief period.
o "Go to your room" without receiving any
positive reinforcement (no dinner, no TV, no
phone calls).

17. Cognitive
learning

18.  Cognitive learning implies
understanding the connection
between:
 Cause and effect
 Action and the consequences of the action.
 It includes:
1. Latent learning “Cognitive map”
2. Social learning

19. 1) Latent learning
It is a type of cognitive learning, in which, a
new behavior is acquired but not readily
demonstrated until reinforcement is provided
for displaying it.

20. .
Cognitive map
 A mental representation of spatial locations
and directions.
 People develop cognitive maps of their
surroundings, based primarily on particular
landmarks.

21. 2) Social learning
(Observational learning)

22. • Social learning theory relies on role
modeling identification, and human
behavior.
• A person can learn by imitating the
behavior of another person, but personal
factors are involved.

23. • Albert Bandura is a major proponent of the social
learning school.
• Behavior results from the interplay between
cognitive and environmental factors.
• Persons learn by observing others, intentionally or
accidentally.
• Modeling is an important component of group
therapy in which members of the group learn from
one another.

24. Factors affecting
learning

25. Personal factors:
•
•
•
•
•
Intelligence
Motivation
Emotion
General health
Previous learning
Objective factors
o Method of learning
o Teacher„s role
Environmental factors
 Good lighting
 Adequate ventilation
 Noise