a brief summary of the main grammar topics..

1. by Loany Meza and Karla

2. Is a fact we unconsciously use grammar all the time when we use
language for speaking, listening, reading and writing, and if we want
to improve our English language abilities, there is no escape from
addressing grammar issues. Grammar is a very wide topic, but not
so difficult to learn if you really like it. So, what its grammar? At
its core, the term grammar refers to either the inherent structure
of words and sentences (morphology and syntax respectively) in a
language; or to the study and description of this structure (what we
learn from the books). Other approaches include more topics like
orthography (spelling, punctuation and capitalization), semantics
(word meanings), phonetics and
phonology (sounds) and pragmatics (language
use in context). In this portfolio we are going to give you a
concrete review of the most important grammar topics,
and we are going to keep it simple, direct and to
the point.. We hope you like it, and we hope this
could be useful and valuable for you..

5. Ends with Add -es boss -> bosses
“s”, “x”, “ch” tax -> taxes
or “sh” bush -> bushes
Ends with Change “y” to Baby -> babies
consonant + “y” “i” then add –es Candy ->
candies
Curry ->
curries
most others Add –s cat -> cats
face -> faces

6. Ends with -fe Change “f” to “v” knife -> knives
then life -> lives
Add –s wife -> wives
Ends with -f Change “f” to “v” half -> halves
then wolf -> wolves
Add –es loaf -> loaves
Ends with -o Add –es potato -> potatoes
tomato ->
tomatoes
volcano ->
volcanoes
ends with -us Change -us to –i cactus -> cacti

7. Proper Nouns
Proper nouns name specific
people, places, things, or
ideas.
Examples:
Karla, Loany, Rosa, George, R
obert.
Common Nouns
Since these nouns are naming
Common nouns are the
specific things, they always
opposite of proper nouns.
begin with a capital letter.
They are generic nouns. They
name people, places, things
Sometimes, they contain two or
or ideas that are not
more important words.
specific.
Examples:
Examples:
Britney Spears, Central Park
woman, city, dog, shoe
Zoo, Pacific Ocean.
Since these nouns are not
If this is the case, both
naming anything
important words are
specific, they do not need to
capitalized, and the whole thing
start with a capital letter
is still considered to be one
unless they begin a sentence.

8. One class of nouns is concrete.
You can experience this group of
Nouns name nouns with your five senses: you
people, places, and things. see them, hear them, smell
them, taste them, and feel
Collective nouns, a special
them.
class, name groups [things] Examples:
composed of members Student, fire
[usually people]. fighter, dog, pencil, computer, i
ce cream etc.
Examples:
army, audience, board, cab Not all nouns are concrete. A
inet, class, committee, com second class of nouns is
pany, corporation, council, abstract. You cannot experience
abstract nouns with your senses.
department, faculty, family
Examples:
, firm, group, jury, majorit Intelligence, bravery, loyalty, el

9. The possessive form of a noun is used to show ownership. A noun is
possessive if a phrase can be changed to say that an item or idea
belongs to someone or something.
Example:
The new car belongs to Peter. -> Peter‟s car is new.
The possessive noun always comes before what it owns or has.
How can we form the possessive of singular nouns?
The possessive of singular nouns (a name, place, thing or idea) is
formed by adding an apostrophe plus an “s”.
Examples:
Monica‟s house -> The house belongs to Monica.
Flower‟s petals -> The flower has petals.

10. Count nouns use singular and Non-count nouns use only
plural verbs and pronouns: singular verbs and pronouns:
There is an apple. (singular) There is some fruit. (singular
There are some apples. verb)
(plural)
I like that chair. ("that" is I like that furniture.
singular). I like those furniture. (no!)
She likes those chairs.
("those" is plural)
A car is an expensive thing to Traffic was heavy today.
own. (singular verb)
Cars are an expensive form of
transportation.

11. How to count non-counts nouns..
Common Measurement Nouns used with it
words
Although non-count nouns are Bar Chocolate
Soap
supposed to be uncountable, we
Cube Sugar
sometimes need to count them. Ice
At least, we sometimes need to
Game Tennis
explain the quantity of Soccer
something which is non-count. Cards
We can do this by using a Glass Wine
measurement word, or Beer
Water
counter, like this: Juice
-a bar of chocolate
Piece Advice
Information
-two loaves of bread Baggage
Clothing
Furniture
-three slices of meat Homework
Machinery

13. When we group adjectives together there is a general rule
for the position of each type adjective, these are:
Position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Opinion Size Age Shape Color Material Origin Purpose
Nice Small Old Square Black Plastic British Racing
Ugly Big New Circular Blue Cotton American Running

14. A compound adjective is formed when two or more
adjectives work together to modify the same noun.
These terms should be hyphenated to avoid
confusion or ambiguity. Example: The black-and-
blue mark suggested that he had been involved in
an altercation.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question
„How much?‟
Examples : Some, Little, Any, Enough

15. A derived adjective is an adjective derived
from a noun or verb. Example: dreamy
from dream, sterilized from sterilize
This form of adjective is used in a sentence
before a noun to indicate possession. For
instance, in the sentence, “ Do not touch my
diary. It is personal.”, the word “my”
inserted just in front of the noun “diary” is
the adjective. Few other examples of
possessive adjectives are “your”, “his”,
“her”, “our”, “their”, etc.
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or
highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative
adjective to describe the extreme quality of one
thing in a group of things. Examples: large -
>largest; big -> biggest; fat -> fattest.
Comparative adjectives are used to compare the
difference between 2 nouns, or a collective noun .
Examples: large -> larger; big -> bigger; fat->
fatter

16. This form of adjective is used to demonstrate
or indicate certain things. For instance, in the
sentence, “Parents of only those students, who
have not managed to pass in all subjects, will
have to come for tomorrow‟s parents-teachers
meeting.” The word “those” indicates a
particular lot of students who have failed in
their test. Placed before the noun “students”,
this is a form of demonstrative adjective.
Other such adjectives are “that”, “these”,
“this”, etc.
Interrogative Adjectives are used to ask
questions about a noun.
Examples : What, Which, Whose
While demonstrative adjectives point out specific
things, indefinite adjectives do not indicate
anything specific. Indefinite adjectives are
formed from indefinite pronouns and the most
common ones among them are
“any”, “many”, few”, “several”, etc. In the
sentence, “Several soldiers died in the Pacific
War.”, the word “several” placed just before the
noun “soldiers” is an adjective, which does not

18. ADVERBS OF PLACE
ADVERBS OF TIME These answer the
These answer the question where?
question when? This adverb usually
This adverb usually comes after the
comes either at the very object, otherwise after
beginning of the the verb:
sentence or at the end. Examples:
Examples: -We saw you there.
-Afterwards we decided -We were sitting here.
to go by car. -We looked everywhere.
-I've done that journey -Have you seen my
before. glasses anywhere?
-We haven‟t started -I'm sure I left them
yet. somewhere.
-She is still a student.

19. ADVERBS OF MANNER
These answer the
question how?
This adverb usually
comes after the direct
object or if there is no ADVERBS OF DEGREE
direct object, after the These answer the question
verb: to what extent?
Examples: This adverb can modify an
adverb or an adjective and
-She speaks Italian
comes before the word it
beautifully. modifies:
-He works well. Examples:
-You must drive your car -The bottle is almost
carefully. full, nearly empty.
-Eat quietly. -They should be able to
pass their exams quite
easily.
The following adverbs of
degree can also modify
verbs:
almost, nearly, quite, hardly
, scarcely, barely, just.

20. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
These answer the question
how many times?
This adverb comes after the
verb 'to be':
Examples:
-She is always honest.
Comes before simple tenses AFFIRMATIVE
of all other verbs: ADVERBS
-They sometimes spend the (yes) and Adverb of
whole of Saturday fishing. negation (No)
Comes after the first Examples:
auxiliary in a tense yes, surely, certainly, in
consisting of more than one deed, by all
verb: means, no, not at
-I have often wondered how all, by no means.
they did that. -I hope my parent just
I can sometimes go without for once will say yes to
food for days. my latest idea.
-You must have heard
about the haunted house
surely?

21. INTERROGATIVE
ADVERB (Question):
When? Where? How?
Why? How much/often?
Examples:
-When was the last time
you saw the accused? RELATIVE ADVERB
-Where have you been all when, where, how, why
the while? These words are the
-How could you have same in form as
overlooked all these Interrogative Adverbs;
mistakes? but they are not
-Why do you have to do questions.
such a stupid thing? Examples:
-The time when he
arrived is still unknown.
-The scene where the
accident occurred is
close to the hospital.

22. Perfect
SIMPLE FORMS FORMS
Perfect
PROGRESSIVE progressive
FORMS FORMS

23. Present Tense Past Tense
Present tense expresses an unchanging, Past tense expresses an action or situation
repeated, or reoccurring action or situation that was started and finished in the past.
that exists only now. It can also represent a Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The
widespread truth. irregular verbs have special past tense forms
which must be memorized.
Example Meaning
Example Meaning
The mountains are Unchanging action
tall and white.
W.W.II ended in Regular -ed past
Every year, the Recurring action 1945.
school council elects
new members. Ernest Hemmingway Irregular form
wrote "The Old Man
Pb is the chemical Widespread truth
and the Sea."
symbol for lead.
Future Tense
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This
tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb. Example:
The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.
The future tense can also be The surgeon is going to perform the
expressed by using am, is, or are with first bypass in Minnesota.
going to.
We can also use the present tense The president speaks tomorrow.
form with an adverb or adverbial (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)

24. Present Progressive Tense Past Progressive Tense
Present progressive tense Past progressive tense describes a
describes an ongoing action that is past action which was happening
happening at the same time the when another action occurred.
statement is written. This tense is This tense is formed by using
formed by using am/is/are with was/were with the verb form
the verb form ending in -ing. ending in -ing.
Example: Example:
The sociologist is examining the The explorer was explaining the
effects that racial discrimination latest discovery in Egypt when
has on society. protests began on the streets.
Future Progressive Tense
Future progressive tense
describes an ongoing or
continuous action that will take
place in the future. This tense is
formed by using will be or shall
be with the verb form ending in
-ing.
Example:
Dr. Jones will be presenting
ongoing research on sexist

25. Past Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Tense Past perfect tense describes an
Present perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past
action that happened at an indefinite before another past action. This
time in the past or that began in the tense is formed by using had with
past and continues in the present. This the past participle of the verb.
tense is formed by using has/have with Example:
the past participle of the verb. Most By the time the troops arrived,
past participles end in -ed. Irregular the war had ended.
verbs have special past participles that
must be memorized.
Example Meaning
Future Perfect Tense
Future perfect tense describes an
The researchers have At an indefinite time. action that will occur in the future
traveled to many before some other action. This
countries in order to tense is formed by using will have
collect more
with the past participle of the
significant data.
verb.
Women have voted in Continues in the Example:
presidential elections present. By the time the troops arrive, the
since 1921. combat group will have spent
several weeks waiting.

26. Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Present perfect progressive tense
Past perfect progressive tense
describes an action that began in the
describes a past, ongoing action that
past, continues in the present, and
was completed before some other
may continue into the future. This
past action. This tense is formed by
tense is formed by using has/have
using had been and the present
been and the present participle of
perfect of the verb (the verb form
the verb (the verb form ending in -
ending in -ing).
ing).
Example:
Example:
Before the budget cuts, the
The CEO has been considering a
students had been participating in
transfer to the state of Texas
many extracurricular activities.
where profits would be larger.
Future Perfect Progressive
Future perfect progressive tense describes
a future, ongoing action that will occur
before some specified future time. This
tense is formed by using will have been and
the present participle of the verb (the verb
form ending in -ing).
Example:
By the year 2020, linguists will have been
studying and defining the Indo-European
language family for more than 200 years.

28. Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples: 
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the
passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should
be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the
action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.
[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]
Examples: 

29. ACTIVE PASSIVE
Present Simple Tense Once a week, Tom cleans the house. Once a week, the house is cleaned
by Tom.
Present Continuous Tense Right now, Sarah is writing the letter. Right now, the letter is being written
by Sarah.
Present Perfect Tense Many tourists have visited that That castle has been visited by many
castle. tourists.
Past Simple Tense Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.
Past Continuous Tense The salesman was helping the The customer was being helped by
customer when the thief came into the salesman when the thief came
the store. into the store.
Past Perfect Tense George had repaired many cars Many cars had been repaired by
before he received his mechanic's George before he received his
license. mechanic's license.
Future Simple Tense Someone will finish the work by 5:00 The work will be finished by 5:00
PM. PM.
Future Perfect Tense They will have completed the project The project will have been
before the deadline. completed before the deadline.

30. Transitive and intransitive verbs
A verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb needs an object (in
sentence) to give complete meaning while intransitive verb does need an object (in
sentence) to give complete meaning.
Transitive verb.
He sent a letter.
(Send is a transitive verb and it needs an object Example: a letter ,to express full
meaning.)
Intransitive verb cannot be changed into passive voice
The sentences having intransitive verbs (belonging to any tense) cannot be changed into
passive voice. The reason is that there is not any object in such sentences and without
object of sentence passive voice is not possible.
A sentence can be changed into passive voice if it has subject and object.
Intransitive Verb.
He laughs.
(Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need object for expressing full
meaning.)
-Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs.
The following tenses can also not be changed into passive voice.
-Present perfect continuous tense
-Past perfect continuous tense
-Future continuous tense
-Future perfect continuous tense

31. Types of Modals
•Modals of Ability: Can, Could, Be able to,
May, Might
•Modals of Advice: Should, Ought to, Had
better
•Modals of Necessity: Must, Have got to,
Have to
•Modals with “Not”: Must not, Do not have to
•Modals of Polite Request: Would you, Could
you, Will
You may not
I can speak
work on dad's
English.
computer.
You should
I think it will
drive carefully
rain on Friday.
in bad weather.
You must be
tired.

32. Passive voice for Present/Future Modals
Active voice: CAN Passive voice: CAN BE
She can play a violin. A violin can be played by her.
She cannot play a violin.
Can she play a violin?
Active voice: MAY Passive voice: MAY BE
I may buy the COMPUTER The computer may be bought by me.
I may not buy the computer. The computer may not be bought by me.
May I buy the computer? May the computer be bought by me?
Active voice: MIGHT Passive voice: MIGHT BE
Guests might play chess. Chess might be played by guests.
Guests might not play chess Chess might not be played guests.
Active voice: SHOULD Passive voice: SHOULD BE
Students should study all lessons. All lessons should be studied by students.
Students should not study all lessons. All lessons should not be studied by students.
Should students study all lessons? Should all lessons be studied by students?
Active voice: MUST Passive voice: MUST BE
You must learn the test-taking strategies. Test-taking strategies must be learnt by you.
You must not learn the test-taking Test-taking strategies must not be learned by
strategies. you.
Active voice: OUGHT TO Passive voice: OUGHT TO BE
They ought to take the examination. The examination ought to be taken by them.

33. Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that
usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also
in front of gerund verbs).
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which
preposition. The only way to learn prepositions
is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in
English (literature) and learning useful phrases
off by heart.
 Types of Prepositions
 Preposition for Time
 Preposition for Place and Direction
 Preposition for Agent and Instrument
 Prepositional Phrase

36. Prepositions
for Direction

37. Preposition for Agent. (by) Preposition for device,
Preposition for agent is used instrument or machine.
for a thing which is cause of Different preposition are
another thing in the sentence. used by different devices,
Such prepositions are instruments or machines.
by, with etc. Examples: Such prepositions are by,
-This book is written by
with, on etc.
Shakespeare.
Examples:
-The work was completed by
him. -She comes by bus daily.
-The room was decorated by -He opened the lock with
her. key.
-The tub is filled with
water.

38. A prepositional phrase is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is just a verb followed by
a preposition.
Some verbs need particular prepositions to be used after them in sentences having a direct
object. Such a verb with its required preposition is called a prepositional phrase.
For example: “He knocks at the door”.
In above sentence “knock at” is prepositional phrase which contains a verb “knock” and a
preposition “at”. Without the use of correct preposition after a prepositional verb in a
sentence, the sentence is considered to be grammatically wrong. For example if we say, “he
knocks the door”, it is wrong because it lacks the required preposition “at”. So the correct
sentence is “he knocks at
the door”.
Prepositional Verbs are transitive and they have a direct object
in sentence. Some of the frequently used preposition verb are,
laugh at, knock at, listen to, look at, look for, look after, wait for,
agree to, agree with, talk about, talked to.
Examples:
-She is listening to music.
-She looked at the blackboard.
-We believe in God.
-They were waiting for the teacher.
-Do you agree with me?
-Do you agree to my proposal?
-Someone is knocking at the door.

39. it.

40. it.
You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or
"yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that
you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a
coordinating conjunction:
-Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "and" links two
nouns.
-This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film
theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "for" is used
to link two independent clauses.
-Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth
dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases
("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs
describing the verb "spends."

41. it.
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the
nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent
clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till,"
"until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating
conjunction:
-After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause
"After she had learned to drive."
-If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause
"If the paperwork arrives on time."
-Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when
his computer crashed."

42. it.
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link
equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are
"both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and
"whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
-Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the
two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my
grandfather" and "my father".
-Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."
-Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."

43. SIMPLE SENTENCE
Some students like to study in the
Also called an independent clause.
mornings.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
Contains two independent clauses Alejandro played football, so
joined by a coordinator: FANBOYS Maria went shopping.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
has an independent clause joined The students are studying because
by one or more dependent clauses. they have a test tomorrow.

45. Spatial Order:
Conclusions: -on the other
-in final side
analysis -opposite to
-in conclusion -in the back
-in final -in the front
consideration -at that point
Opinions:
-I agree/disagree Time Order:
that/with/ -as soon as
-I am for/against -before long
the idea of -in the first
-There are reasons place
why.. -in the meantime

46. Comma: tells the reader to pause, just Semicolon: To separate two
as the blinking yellow light tells a independent clauses. One or both
driver to slow down and proceed with of the clauses are short and the
caution. ideas expressed are usually very
Example: similar.
-Let‟s play hockey, baseball and Example: He loves studying; He
tennis. can't get enough of school.
Colon: To provide additional details and Apostrophe: The superscript
explanation. sign ( ' ) used to indicate the
Example: omission of a letter or letters
•He had many reasons for joining the from a word, the possessive
club: to get in shape, to make new case, or the plurals of
friends, to lose some weight, and to get numbers, letters, and
out of the house. abbreviations.
Question Mark: The question
Exclamation Mark: Is used to express a
mark is used at the end of a
sense of urgency or a strong emotion.
question.
Example: Look out!
Example: Where do you live?