It discusses current tourism development explanatory models in the context of sustainability and presents the proposal of a new integrative model; it introduces the research I am undertaking as part of my PhD as the context for the above mentioned discussion.

1. DIP SEMINAR TO THE HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
DEPARTMENT OF LUNDS UNIVERSITET - SWEDEN
Critique of available explanatory models and proposal
of a new integrative one
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
IN THE CONTEXT OF
SUSTAINABILITY
03/11/2011 LEONARDO NOGUEIRA DE MORAES
THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

2. 2
Presentation Overview
Presentation Objectives: discuss current
tourism development explanatory models in
the context of sustainability and present the
proposal of a new integrative model;
introduce the research I am undertaking as
part of my PhD as the context for the above
mentioned discussion
Presentation Contents:
1. Context for the Discussion
2. Current Tourism Definitions
3. Current Tourism (Development) Models
4. Proposed Human-Environment Relations
Model
5. Proposed Tourism Definitions and Model
12

3. Why is Tourism Relevant?
• In 2011, it is forecasted to be directly
responsible for:
– 2.8% of World GDP (2.9% in 2021)
– 3.4% of World Employment (3.6% in 2021)
• Considering its multiplying effect on
the economy, its importance raises to:
– 9.1% of World GDP (9.6% in 2021)
– 8.8% of World Employment (9.7% in 2021)
(WTTC, 2011b)

4. Why is Tourism Relevant?
Direct Travel &
Tourism
Contribution
•Commodities
•Accommodation
•Transportation
•Entertainment
•Attractions Indirect Travel & Induced
•Industries Tourism Contribution
•Hotels and Contribution (spending of
Catering direct and
•Retail • T&T investment indirect
•Transportation spending
employees)
services • Government
•Business services collective T&T • Food & beverages
•Sources of spending • Recreation
Spending • Impact of • Clothing
•Residents’ purchases from • Housing
domestic T&T suppliers • Household goods
Spending
•Businesses’
domestic travel
spending
•Visitor exports
•Individual
government T&T
spending
(WTTC, 2011b)

5. Inbound Tourism as Export
2009-10 2008-09
(AUD to
Rank Export Item (DFAT, 2010) million) 2009-10
1 Coal 36,445 -33.4%
2 Iron Ore & Concentrates 35,090 2.5%
3 Education-Related Travel Serv. 18,507 10.6%
4 Gold 14,301 -18.3%
5 Personal Travel (excl ed) Serv. 12,121 3.9%
5.9 million visitor arrivals in 2010
(Tourism Australia, 2011) 6 Crude Petroleum 8,955 8.5%
7th position in the WTTC World
Tourism Economy Ranking (2011a) 7 Natural Gas 7,789 -22.7%

6. Identifying Research Interests
• Sustainability
• Tourism Development
• Strategies

7. Research Aim
To contribute with the current body of
knowledge on processes of
implementation of higher degrees of
sustainability within tourism
development

8. Framework for the Research Focus
• Vision
• Drivers and
Inhibitors
• Strategy
• Intervening
Conditions
• Context

9. Competition and Cooperation
The control of a complex • Complex Adaptive Systems
adaptive system tends to be (Waldrop, 1992)
highly dispersed. (…) If there
is to be any coherent • Economic Clustering Theory
behaviour in the system, it (Porter, 1998)
has to arise from
• Tourism Micro-Clusters and Networks
competition and
cooperation among the (Michael, 2007)
agents themselves
(Waldrop, 1992, p. 145).

10. Degrees of Sustainability
Considering sustainability infers a strong
vision for the future and that the future
poses a lot of uncertainty, it is preferable
to suggest that a certain pathway seems
more or less sustainable according to
scenarios that are projected, but still
uncertain, rather than simply sustainable
or unsustainable. Classifying pathways as
sustainable or unsustainable is only
possible when analysing the past for
present consequences are known, but
never the future as it is still to be seen.

11. World Heritage Enlistment
International Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (UNESCO, 1972).
The inscription of a site on the World
Heritage List brings an inevitable and
welcomed awareness and curiosity
about the site and its outstanding values
(UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2008).

12. World Heritage Enlistment
If a site loses the
characteristics which
determined its inscription on
the World Heritage List, the
World Heritage Committee
may decide to delete the
property from both the List
of World Heritage in Danger
and the World Heritage List
(UNESCO World Heritage
Centre, 2008).

13. Research Focus
• Sustainability Degrees
• Competition and
Cooperation
• World Heritage
Enlistment
• Small Oceanic Islands
• Development Contexts

14. Research Questions
Primary Question:
1. How do different types of competition and
cooperation among tourism stakeholders of
natural World Heritage enlisted small oceanic
island destinations influence the
sustainability of their tourism development?
Secondary Questions:
1. How does UNESCO’s World Heritage
enlistment program influence competition
and cooperation among tourism stakeholders
of enlisted small oceanic island destinations?
2. How do the cultural, socio-economic and
regulatory contexts of such destinations
influence these relationships?
3. Which other significant factors currently
affect the way such stakeholders compete and
cooperate and how?

15. Overarching Research Framework
Sustainability and
Research Topic Tourism Development
Socio-Ecological
Research Object Complex Adaptive
Systems
Holistic and Inductive-
Research Approach Deductive
Embedded
Research Design Qualitative Multiple Case
Study
Social and
Multiple Tourist Organisation
Data Collection Sources Destinations
Organisational
s and People
Networks
Sustainability Structure Agency
Grounded
Data Analysis Theory
and Tourism (Competition (Competition
Development and Coop.) and Coop.)

16. Proposed Research Methodology
• Qualitative Embedded Multiple Case
Study
• Three Sources of Data and Evidence
per Case (Yin, 2009) and Data
Triangulation (Patton, 2002, p. 247)
• Two Stages of Field Data Collection
• Data Analysis using a Grounded
Theory Approach (Glaser 1967)

17. Small Oceanic Islands
• Size
• Coastal Areas (Climate Change)
• Isolation
• Amplification of conditions and
consequences
• Scarcity of resources
• Sense of Limits

18. Cases Selection Process
Reason(s) to
Natural Heritage and Mixed Small Oceanic Year of Disconsider as a Case
Country Criteria
Island Sites Inscription Study
Uninhabited / No
Heard and McDonald Islands Australia 1197 viii;ix
permanent Population
• Small oceanic islands Lord Howe Island Group Australia 1982 vii; x No reason
Filter 1
Uninhabited / No
Macquarie Island Australia 1997 vii; viii
permanent Population
Brazilian Atlantic Islands: Fernando de Noronha No reason for FEN; No
• Succesfully conserve their natural Brazil 2001 vii; ix; x
(FEN) and Atol das Rocas Reserves (ADR) tourists allowed in ADR
heritage and are enlisted by UNESCO
Filter 2 Uninhabited / No
Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary Colombia 2006 vii; ix
permanent Population
Uninhabited / No
• Tourism destinations that are visited Cocos Island National Park Costa Rica 1997 ix; x
permanent Population
by tourists which stay inland vii; viii; Enlisted as in danger
Galápagos Islands Equator 1978
Filter 3 overnight ix; x property
New Uninhabited / No
New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands 1998 ix; x
Zealand permanent Population
• Existence of permanent population Russian Uninhabited / No
Natural System of Wrangel Island Reserve 2004 ix; x
Federation permanent Population
that is involved with tourism
Filter 4 Uninhabited / No
Aldabra Atoll Sychelles 1982 vii; ix; x
permanent Population
United Uninhabited / No
Gough and Inaccessible Islands 1995 vii; x
Kingdom permanent Population
United Uninhabited / No
Henderson Island 1988 vii; x
Kingdom permanent Population

19. Multiple Case Study Site Selection
FERNANDO
DE NORONHA
ARCHIPELAGO
LORD
HOWE
ISLANDS

20. Lord Howe Island Group

21. Fernando de Noronha Archipelago

22. Sites Characteristics
Island Name Fernando de Noronha Lord Howe Island
Country Name Brazil Australia
Country Population 191,429,828 21,844,831
Country Area 8,511,965 sq km 7,692,024 sq km
Country Density 22.4 per sq km 2.8 per sq km
State PE NSW
Island Population 2,321 364
Island Area 16.99 sq km 15.2 sq km
Island Density 136.6 per sq km 23.9 per sq km
Visitors Limit 450 400
Distance from Connecting Airport 545 km 700 km
Part of National Marine Park Yes Yes
World Heritage Enlisted by UNESCO 2001 1982

23. Definitions of Tourism
Consider tourism as:
• Sector/Industry;
• Activity; or
• Phenomenon.
Leiper (1979) categorises definitions as:
• Economic;
• Technical; and
• Holistic

24. Economic Definitions of Tourism
Tourism is an indentifiable nationally
important industry. The industry involves
a wide cross section of component
activites including the provision of
transportation, accommodation, recreati
on, food, and related services (Australian
Department of Tourism &
Recreation, 1975).

25. 25
Technical Definitions of Tourism
UNWTO:
• “Tourism comprises the activities of
persons travelling to and staying in
places outside their usual environment
for not more than one consecutive
year for leisure, business or other
purposes” (MacIntosh et al, 1995).
• Facilities for social
sustainability

26. 26
Holistic Definitions of Tourism
Hunkizer and Krapf (1943):
• Tourism is the sum of the phenomena
and relationships arising from the
travel and stay of non-residents, in so
far as they do not lead to permanent
residence and are not connected to
any earning activity (Burkart, 1981).
• Facilities for social
sustainability

27. Tourism Models
• Explanatory Models
Versus
• Prescriptive Models
• Tourism Spatial Models
Versus
• Tourism Structural Models

28. 28
Leiper’s Tourism Model (1979)
The three basic elements of
Leiper’s Model:
• Tourists
• Geographical Elements
• Tourism Industry
It lacks to acknowledge:
• Locals (hosts)
• Other regions of the
globe
• Facilities for social
sustainability

29. Tourism System (SISTUR – Sistema de Turismo, Beni, 2001)

30. 30
Tourism Impacts and Meta Impacts
Impacts Economic Social
Positive Multiplier Effect Decrease of Social
Service Intensive (Jobs) Differences
Invisible Export (Inbound) Sense of Community
Spatial Redistribution of New social structures
Currency Local Development
Wider Access to Products
Negative Invisible Import Increase of Social
(Outbound) Differences
Currency Leakage Crime Rates, Diseases, etc
Inflation Sense of Community
Competition with New Social Structures
traditional industries Neo Colonialism
Impacts Environmental (Meta) Cultural
Positive Help Protect and Identity Recall
Conserve Heritage Value
Help Change Mindset and Broadening of Global
Behaviour Understading
Negative Help Damage and Destroy Demonstration Effect
Help Change Priorities Xenophobism
and Behaviour Staged Behaviour

31. Tourism Development Models
• Tourism Development
Versus
• Tourism Evolution
• Tourism Dev. Explanatory Models
Versus
• Tourism Dev. Prescriptive Models
• Product (Destination) Centric
• Market (Tourist) Centric
• Product and Market Centric

32. 32
Tourist Psychographic Personality
Profiles (Plog, 2001)
Venturers: more independent,
intellectually curious, willing to
take risks and to be challenged
and that would require a lot of
self-confidence, quick decisions
and their own personal judgement
Dependables: seek experiences
that are more familiar, somehow
conservative and passive, more
predictive and well-thought of,
more popular and well-established
• Facilities for social
sustainability

33. 33
Tourist Area Life Cycle (Butler, 1980)
Of key importance is the intervention of
management to prevent development
exceeding the inherent capacity of the
destination (capacity defined in terms of
limits of economic, social, environmental
and physical parameters), on the basis
that if capacity levels were
exceeded, decline in quality of visitor
and resident experiences would
result, along with environmental and
other problems, and these would result
in a decline in visitation and thus also
tourist expenditure and funds for
reinvestment in the destination
(Butler, 2009, p. 348).

34. Trend Dynamics (Vejlgaard, 2008, p. 64)
The role of trend-setters
and trend followers in the
process of making trends
mainstream
Key people in the tourism
destination could be
responsible for beginning
the process of tourist-host
acculturation.

35. Managing Limits to Tourism Flows
Dimensions of Carrying • Miguel Cifuentes – CC (Wearing, 1999)
Capacity (CC): • Visitor Impact Management – VIM
• Ecological (Farrell, 2002)
• Social • Limits of Acceptable Change – LAC
(Stankey, 1985)
• Cultural • Visitor Activity Management Process – VAMP
• Economic (Eagles, 2002)
• Psychological • Tourism Optimization Model – TOMM (ibid)
• Physical • Recreation Opportunity Spectrum – ROS (ibid)
• Tourist • Visitor Experience and Resources Protection -
VERP (US Department of Interior, 1997)

36. Proposed Human-Environment Relations Base Model
Human Needs
Human Beings
Human Resources
Human Systems
Environmental
Systems
Environmental
Biosphere
Resources
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Litosphere
Reshaping
Consequence
of Reshaping

37. Proposed Tourism Definition
Tourism is the sum of temporary and sporadic
human travel to non-routine areas. It is
motivated by the search for alternative ways to
satisfy specific human needs to those that are
available in their areas of residency. Tourism is
capable to transversely impact the
environmental and human resources and
systems of all areas delineated by its occurrence
(originating, transit, destination and all other
regions) as well as the globe as a whole. It thus
interferes positively and negatively with the
human capacity to survive (global dimension of
tourism development sustainability) as well as
with the tourist destination’s capacity to
continue to attract tourism flows (sectoral
dimension of tourism development
sustainability).

38. Tourism Development Sustainability Definition
Tourism development sustainability is
understood as the degree of resilience of a
tourism development operational model
(and therefore its capacity to increase the
chances of its long-term continuance).
Such resilience is understood as being
dependent on the model’s capacity to
establish a mutual positive outcome
relationship with global and local
(destination, transit route, origin and other
areas) human and environmental systems
it relates to, aiming at the conservation
and democratic access of human and
environmental resources for existing and
future generations.

39. Proposed Tourism Development Model
+ Endogenous Atributes or
Degree of Authenticity
Human Needs
Exogenous Atributes or
Degree of Tourism Humans Beings
Orientation
Human Resources
Human Systems
Environmental
Systems
Environmental
Resources
Temporary
Not Reshaped Relocation
Reshaping
Reshaped not for
Tourism Purposes
Consequence
Reshaped for
Of Reshaping
Tourism Purposes

40. 40
References
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Australia, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service.
BENI, M. C. 2001. Análise Estrutural do Turismo, São Paulo, SENAC.
BURKART, A. J. & MEDLIK, S. 1981. Tourism: past, present and future, London, Heinemann.
BUTLER, R. W. 1980. The Concept of a Tourist Area Life Cycle of Evolution: implication for
management of resources. The Canadian Geographer, 24, 5-12.
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qualitative research, Chicago, Aldine Pub. Co.
HUNZIKER, W. & KRAPF, K. 2011. Grundriß Der Allgemeinen
Fremdenverkehrslehre, Zürich, Polygr. Verl.
MCINTOSH, R. W., GOELDNER, C. R. & RITCHIE, J. R. B. 1995. Tourism:
principles, practices, philosophies, New York, Wiley.
MICHAEL, E. J. 2007. Micro-clusters and networks: the growth of tourism, Oxford, Elsevier.
PATTON, M. Q. 2002. Qualitative research and evaluation methods, Thousand
Oaks, California, Sage Publications.
PLOG, S. 2001. Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity: An Update of a Cornell
Quarterly Classic. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 42, 13-24.
12 • Facilities for social

41. 41
References
PORTER, M. E. 1998. Clusters and the New Economics of Competition. Harvard Business
Review, 76, 77-90.
TOURISM AUSTRALIA. 2011. Tourist Arrivals Data [Online]. Sydney: Tourism Australia.
Available: http://www.tourism.australia.com/en-au/research/default_3935.aspx [Accessed
26/07/2011.
UNESCO 1972. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
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UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE CENTRE. 2008. World Heritage Information Kit [Online]. Paris:
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available: http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/567/activity-
567-1.pdf.
US DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR. 1997. The Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP)
framework: a handbook for planners and managers [Online]. Denver: National Park Service.
Available: http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3849348 [Accessed 30/08/2010. VEJLGAARD, H.
2008. Anatomy of a trend, New York, McGraw-Hill.
WALDROP, M. M. 1992. Complexity: the emerging science at the edge of order and chaos,
New York, Simon & Schuster.
WEARING, S. & NEIL, J. 1999. Ecotourism: impacts, potentials, and possibilities, Oxford ;
Boston, Butterworth-Heinemann.
WTTC 2011a. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2011: Australia. World Travel & Tourism
Council. London.
WTTC 2011b. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2011: World. World Travel & Tourism
Council. London.
YIN, R. K. 2009. Case study research: design and methods, Thousand Oaks, Calif., SAGE.
12 • Facilities for social

42. Further information
Access www.lndmoraes.id.au for:
• Current state of research
• Research project and methodology
• Photos and videos of the two sites
• Information about the two case study
sites
• Contact information