Research methods miriam 2011 for uploading

RESEARCH METHODS
(2nd semester, 2011-2012)

MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012

LECTURES
TYPES OF RESEARCH -
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
METHODOLOGIES - GANTT
CHART
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ACTIVITIES
Formulating Titles, Research Questions
and Objectives
Writing an RRL
Constructing Dummy Tables and
Graphs
Developing the Literature Citations

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The usual definition of RESEARCH...

“going to the library”
“google-ing some key
words”

What’s your definition???

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RESEARCH

the process of constant exploration
and discovery
the process of discovering new
information and gain new
knowledge
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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
systematic, controlled,
empirical, critical
investigation of hypothetical
prepositions about the
presumed relations among
natural phenomena
(Kerlinger, 1973)
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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
a process through which we attempt to
achieve SYSTEMATICALLY and with
the support of data:
the answer to a question
the resolution of a problem
the greater understanding of a
phenomenon
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8 DISTINCT
CHARACTERISTICS
OF A RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

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1. Originates with a question or
problem
What are he environmental
factors that increase shrimp
productivity?
What active compound in atis
leaves extract is cytotoxic to
cancer cells?
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2. Requires a clear articulation of
a goal
What precisely do you intend to
do?
Example: to determine the
difference in body weight loss
after administration of various
plant extracts
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3. Follows a specific plan of
procedure

carefully planned
methods in a purposeful way:
to yield data relevant to their
particular research problem

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4. Usually divides the principal problem
into more manageable subproblems
principal problem: How do we get from UP
Manila to Trinoma?
subproblems:
What is the most direct route?
How far do I travel by train?
How much will I spend to reach my
destination?
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5. Guided by specific research problem,
question or hypothesis

hypothesizing: attempting to
account for the cause
(*guesses)

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6. Accepts certain critical
assumptions

it is necessary to assume

7. Research requires the collection
and interpretation of data in
attempting to resolve the problem
that initiated the research
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8. It follows logical,
developmental stages

From questions to answer

“research begets research”

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ULTIMATE AIM OF RESEARCH
To fill in the gaps along the stream of knowledge
To provide solution to contradictory results from
previous studies
To satisfy one’s curiosity and quest for
knowledge
To find truths for the satisfaction of answering
questions and using this new information to help
others
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EXPERIMENTAL
Purpose: the only method of research which can truly test ! !
! ! hypothesis concerning cause-effect relationship.

the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and
the difference determined

Independent Variable : also referred to as the experimental variable, the
cause, or the treatment, is that activity or characteristic believed to make a
difference.

Dependent Variable : also known as the criterion variable, effect, or posttest
is the outcome of the study, the change or difference in groups which
occurs as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

Example: 1.! Effect of varying concentrations of Pb on the brain of
golden apple snail
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The Process of Research:
Logical Steps
The Research problem
ProblEm Identification (Looking for a Topic)
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
Researchability of the Problem

Formulation of Research Objectives
Definition of Research Objectives
Characteristics of Research Objectives


THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
the heart of the research project
requirement: to state the problem
with unwavering clarity,
precision
what if i simply cannot find a
good problem?
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IDENTIFYING YOUR PROBLEM
where to find interesting problems...
journals, books, abstracts (library/trusted links)
recommendation sections of theses and dissertations/journal
articles
ideas from your mentor or professor
ideas from seminars, research colloquia and conferences
personal/family experiences
rare/interesting occurrences which needs to be explained
top ten causes of mortality/morbidity in your locality
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CHARACTERISTIC OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
should be of great interest can be completed in the
to you allotted time desired

useful for the concerned must use appropriate and
people in a particular field up-to-date technology

possess novelty does not carry ethical or
moral impediments
lays foundation for
further research in the field

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A GOOD RESEARCH
PROBLEM SHOULD BE
S-M-A-R-T!
SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE,
REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND MMPBalolong

IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF
RESEARCH?

EXternal factors
novelty and avoidance of unnecessary
repetition
practical value of the problem
availability of data on the problem
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IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF
RESEARCH?
personal factors specialized working
conditions
training and personal
qualifications hazards to be
encountered
time requirements
research funds (cost)
availability of subjects
and equipments

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STATING YOUR RESEARCH

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
MUST BE STATED IN A CLEAR
AND COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL
SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS
AS POSSIBLE!

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WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE
RESEARCH PROBLEMS?
BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS
EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON
EMBRYO
E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY
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FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE
INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO
CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A
STATEMENT OR A QUESTION
SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF
A RESEARCH PROJECT
SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
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SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
TO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED
PROTOCOL TO DETECT
FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM
SAMPLES USING PCR

TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF
ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF
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HOW DO YOU FORMULATE
YOUR OBJECTIVES?
GENERAL
summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
should be closely related to the research question.
EXAMPLE:
Problem: low utilization of child protection
units (CPUs)
General Objective: to identify the reasons for
this low utilization
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HOW DO YOU FORMULATE
YOUR OBJECTIVES?
SPECIFIC
smaller, logically connected parts of a
general objective
should systematically address the various
aspects (dimensions) of the general
objective
should specify what you will do in your
study, where and for what purpose.!
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PICKING THE RIGHT WORDS
Clearly phrased in operational terms
Use action verbs
Examples: explain, apply, predict, identify,
employ, evaluate, describe, illustrate, defend,
integrate, use, assess, contrast, interpret,
distinguish, sort, categorize, diagram, solve,
formulate, report, relate, organize, restate,
recall, prepare, review, list, arrange, classify,
name, construct, translate, recognize, create,
determine
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WORDS TO AVOID...
• To know • To internalize

• To understand • To grasp the
signiﬁcance
• To really
of!
understand
• To have an
• To fully
awareness
appreciate
of! !
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SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
GENERAL: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in Zimbabwe
provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of good quality to people
with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these services can be
improved

SPECIFIC

To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing
care and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS.

To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems
address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as
patients.

To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as
well as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.

To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the
patient by the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC
programme.
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ACTIVITY FOR TODAY
1. Formulate Title from Desired Topics
2. Formulate the Research Question/Research
problem
3. Formulate Objectives

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LECTURES
TYPES OF RESEARCH -
LITERATURE
CHART


SCOPE & LIMITATIONS
Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing
the scope of his study without becoming
concerned with a trivial problem
Assumptions, restrictions and limitation
must be explicit with respect to the
coverage of the study
Helps focus attention on valid objectives,
& helps minimize the dangers of over
generalization


FACTORS TO CONSIDER
the scope of the problem
time allotted for the conduct of the study
cost and funding
cooperation/coordination needed from other
institutions or researchers
availability of research subjects
availability of equipment needed
ethical considerations


THE LITERATURE
REVIEW
Evaluating Others’ and Developing Your Own


REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
After the research problem has been identified and the objectives
formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.
Two Important Uses:
•

To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the
research to be conducted relative to:

- who have done the work on the problem area
- what has been found
- research design utilized
- statistical analysis applied
- problem met and how were they resolved

•

To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual
framework based on previous research studies done.


RELATED LITERATURE: Composed of
discussions of facts and principles to which the
present study is related
RELATED STUDIES: studies, inquiries or
investigations conducted to which the present
proposed study is related or has some bearing or
similarity
usually unpublished materials
manuscripts; theses; dissertations


FUNCTIONS OF YOUR RRL
It identifies the start for the research problem by
presenting the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies
in the previous researches. This provides the study
with a conceptual framework justifying the need for
investigations.
It puts together all the constructs or concepts that are
related with the researcher’s topic. The theory then
leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own
investigation
It presents the relationships among variables that have
been investigated. This process enables you to view
your topic on hand against the findings earlier bared.


CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUR RRL
The surveyed materials must be as recent as
possible
Materials reviewed must be objective and
unbiased
Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study
Surveyed materials must have been based upon
genuinely original and true facts or data to make
them valid and reliable
Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many


HOW TO CONDUCT THE
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
“WHERE DO I GO FROM HERE?”


WHERE TO SEARCH

personal or school library (magazines,
journals, books, etc)
attend seminars, scientific meetings (under
your topic of course)...take down notes
do a computer-aided search through databases
example: www.scirus.com; pubmed;
SCIENCE DIRECT, etc


WHERE ELSE???
You can actually ask for
reprints:
via postcards
via request letters
via emails


AFTER ALL THESE PHOTOX
WHAT’S NEXT?
“ITS TIME TO ORGANIZE YOUR TREASURES!”


ORGANIZING YOUR RRL

General Information
Methods in Other Studies
Support for Objectives
Results to Compare with My Results
Pros and Cons of Controversy
Others...it may be of use (malay mo!)


ALSO....

write all bibliographic information,
i.e., author(s), complete title,
publisher, date and place of
publication, and so on
write what others have said on the
subject plus your own impressions
and comments


IT’S TIME TO WRITE...
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM!


Use headings arranged in logical order to
indicate main points

Avoid too long introduction to your main topic.

Include information that are directly related and
relevant to your topic.

A maximum of half-page (double-space) must
constitute one paragraph

Do not copy in toto the information from your
source. No more than 10% of the entire paper is
allowed for direct quotation


Give due credit to the real source of your data.
Cite the authors at the end of the sentence.

Paraphrase using your own words and style
the data gathered.

Summarize important points from your
sources and relate them to your topic.

Reinforce your data with selected ﬁgures or
statistics from your course.


A common problem...

“turning your
list of ideas into a
BORING review”


HOW TO AVOID IT

Make subheads (not too
many), transitional
phrases and unifying
ideas to make
information ﬂow
smoothly


Spice your writing with a variety. Keep your paper alive!
Vary the way sentence and paragraph begins:
Author A found out
Author B found out
Replace found out with:
demonstrates; presented evidence for;
supported; observed; reported; examined;
concluded
Early in the 1980’s, author A
According to Author A,


READY TO DO YOUR
RRL?


But before that, let us learn to
critique or evaluate a research
study


ACTIVITY FOR TODAY: CRITIQUING A
JOURNAL PAPER
Why did the Researchers do this particular
study?
Who/What was/were studied?
How was the study done?
What did the researchers find?
What were the limitations of the study?
What are the implications of the study?


TODAY!!!
TYPES OF RESEARCH -
LITERATURE
CHART


MATERIALS & METHODS
MATERIALS METHODS

laboratory supplies formulate
hypothesis
equipment (descriptive)
travel, testing hypothesis
communication (analytical)


FORMULATING YOUR
HYPOTHESIS
A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,
1976)
States the researcher’s expectations concerning
the relationship between two or more variables in
the research problem
Testable statement of a potential relationship
between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)


CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS
Stated in declarative form
Stated in definite terms, the relationship
between variables
Should reflect the theory or literature that it is
based on
Should be brief and to the point
Should be testable


TWO TYPES OF
HYPOTHESIS
“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”


THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
Ho
Never true or established but can be possibly
disproved in the course of the experimentation
No difference relationship between the variables
we want to study
May act as a starting point and as a benchmark
against which the researcher will measure the
actual outcome of the study once the researcher
has collected the data

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS/ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS

HA
Alternative hypothesis
Relationship is always
positive


EXAMPLES...
Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging
HA : Vitamin C inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50%
compared to placebo

Ho : There is no significant difference between the
effectivity of cerebral artery bypass and standard medical
therapy)
HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than
standard medical therapy


TWO TYPES OF HA
Non-directional – reflects a difference
between groups, but the direction of the
difference (unequal) is NOT specified

Directional – reflects a difference
between groups and the difference is
specified


IDENTIFYING YOUR RESEARCH
VARIABLES
Variable – any trait/characteristic that
manifest differences irrespective of whether
the differences are qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex
Quantitative – weight, height, length, light
intensity, temperature


TYPES OF VARIABLE
Independent – the treatment variable

variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects
of this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent
variable)

the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the
outcome

Dependent – outcome variables in a research study

refers to the outcome or response variable

Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to
be the effect of the independent variable being considered

Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized,
cancelled out or equated for all conditions


TRY THIS....
PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide
loading on plant morphology
Identify the:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Intervening/extraneous variable

CONSTRUCTING YOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN

represents the “plan of attack” of the
researcher
in answering the research objectives
in obtaining all the relevant data in relation
to objectives and hypothesis


CONSTRUCTING YOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN
the specific areas of concern in the choice of a
research design are the following
selection and number of subjects
control and manipulation of relevant variables
establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes
instrumentation
maximization of internal and external validity


FACTORS TO CONSIDER...
research objectives
feasibility
ethical considerations
economy and efficiency
internal and external validity

INTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to extent to which investigator is able to
control the different biases affecting the study
and in the end, measures what he really
intends to measure
Did the experimental treatment really bring
about a change in the dependent variable?
Did the independent variable make a
significant difference?


EXTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to the extent to which the
investigator is able to generalize the
results of his study
Are the results applicable to groups and
environment outside of experimental
setting?


DESIGN TOOLS

Experimentation
Questionnaire
Interview schedule and forms


DESIGN THE PLAN FOR DATA
ANALYSIS
A number of researchers think about data analysis only
after all data has been collected
Consequences:
Some very important variables in study are either not
measured at all or collected using a measurement
scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data
analysis
Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable, given
the nature of the data that were collected


THE SOLUTION...
A good practice is to construct a dummy
table

Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn to
help the investigator conceptualize how the
data is going to be organized and
presented after it has been collected


RESEARCH DESIGN
Table 1 - Research Questions and Designs
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
TYPE OF RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGN
QUESTION USUALLY USED
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Descriptive 1. Observational w/ one observation
(Describe conditions) 2. Observational w/ multiple obs.
3. Ex Post Facto

Differences 3. Ex Post Facto *
(Is there a difference?) 4. Pre/Post (two obs. of DV)
5. Pre/Post w/Control Group
(two obs. of DV)
6. Two-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV)
7. Three-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV)
8. Repeated Measures (two or more obs.)
9. Factorial (two or more IVs)
10. Co-variance (pre-observation as control)
11. ABA Time Series (single subject)
12. AB Time Series (single subject)
Relationships
(How do the variables 13. Correlation/Regression (one group)
relate to each other) 14. Correlation/Reliability (one
group and two obs.)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
* This design bridges both types

DATA ANALYSIS
TABLE 2
Relating Research Designs to Appropriate Statistical Analyses

------------------------------------------------------------------
-
DESIGN STATISTICAL TEST
------------------------------------------------------------------
-
DIFFERENCES RESEARCH QUESTION
1. Basic two-group design 1. a. t-test - independent means
(Interval or ratio data)*
b. Mann-Whitney U test
(Ordinal data)
c. Chi-square (nominal data)

2. Pre-test and post-test 2. a. t-test - dependent
design. (non-independent) means
(Interval)
b. Wilcoxon or Sign test
(Ordinal)
c. McNemar test (Nominal)


DATA ANALYSIS
3. Time-Series or Single 3. Interrupted time-series
analysis
Subject (interval)

4. Covariance, or repeated 4. a. Repeated measures
analysis
measures design. of variance OR Analysis
of
co-variance (Interval)
b. Friedman's AOV by ranks
(Ordinal)
c. Cochran's Q (Nominal)

5. Three or more groups 5. a. Analysis of variance
design (Interval)
b. Kruskal-Wallis AOV
(Ordinal)
c. Chi-square test for K
independent groups
(Nominal)


CITING YOUR REFERENCES
Format: American
Psychological
Association (APA)
http://
www.apastyle.org


GANTT CHART


READY TO MAKE
YOUR
PROPOSAL?

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