1. Manner of Death
Erin Dillon

2. Manner of Death:
(the way in which death was
caused)
 Natural – if autopsy reveals a natural disease (ex-
cancer, pneumonia)
 Accident – if autopsy reveals something unexplained
(ex- severe head injury with no symptoms of
assault, but victim found near fallen ladder)
 Suicide - angle of bullet entry and gun powder residue
indicate that the gun was fired while being held by the
victim (or self inflicted wounds)
 Homicide – angle of bullet entry and gun powder
residue indicate that the gun was fired by somone
other than the victim

3. History
o 1248:
o Hsi Duan Yu (book) by Sung Tz’u – how to distinguish drowning
victim from one who was strangled
o Position of ―coroner‖ developed
o 1761:
o Giovanni Morgagni
o Italian anatomist
o Writes On the Seats and Causes of Diseases
o 1910:
o Richard Cabot
o American physician
o Studies 1000 autopsies- doctors are wrong about cause of
death about 40% of the time

4. Importance
 In each case, something is learned by
classifying the ―manner of death‖
– Natural: research can be conducted about the
disease
– Accident: this same accident may be prevented
– Suicide: future suicides can be prevented by taking
appropriate measures
– Homicide: the killer can be persecuted if found

5. Special Cases
 Drug Overdose –
– Classified as suicide
 Assisted suicide –
– classified as ―Suicide‖ (unless otherwise required by state law)
 Deaths in which infants/young children die because of
placement in a potentially hostile environment
– (ex: bath tub with water, or being left in a locked car)
– classified asAccident if there is no evidence of intent to harm the child.
 Death of infant/fetus due to maternal drug intoxication –
– Can be classified as accident or homicide depending on
whether or not it is deemed ―intentional‖ by a court

6. Blood Spatter Evidence
Danni Siminerio
Powerpoint Templates Page 6

7. Description
• The physical properties
of blood and the patterns
produced under different
conditions as a result of
various forces applied to
the source of the blood
• Angle of impact, drip
pattern, dispersion, wipe
pattern, velocity, location
Powerpoint Templates Page 7

8. History
• Began in 1890s
• More developed in late 1950s
• People:
– Dr. Eduard Piotrowski
– Dr. Paul Kirk
– Dr. Herbert MacDonell
Powerpoint Templates Page 8

9. Dr. Eduard Piotrowski
• First truly scientific study of
blood spatters
• Institute for Forensic
Medicine – Krakow, Poland
• 1895 – Published book of his
work – "Concerning the
Origin, Shape, Direction and
Distribution of the Bloodstains
Following Head Wounds
Caused by Blows‖
Powerpoint Templates Page 9

10. Dr. Paul Kirk
• Studied the effect of
velocity, angle of impact and the
combination of the two
• 1955 – The State of Ohio v.
Samuel Sheppard
– Established the relative
positions of the attacker and
the victim, as well as showing
that the attackerstruck the
victim with his left hand
Powerpoint Templates Page 10

11. Dr. Herbert MacDonell
• 1971 – Published "Flight Characteristics
of Human Blood and Stain Patterns‖
• 1973 – Developed the Bloodstain
Evidence Institute
– Trained law-enforcement in blood spatter
analysis and developed courses to continue
to train analysts
• ―Father‖ of bloodstain pattern analysis
in the Western hemisphere
• 1983 – founded the International
Association of Bloodstain Pattern
Analysts (IABPA)
Powerpoint Templates Page 11

12. Importance
• Now a standard practice for law enforcement
• “It is of the highest importance to the field of forensic
medicine to give the fullest attention to bloodstains
found at the scene of a crime because they can
throw light on
a murder and
provide an
explanation for
the essential
moments of the
incident.”
Powerpoint Templates Page 12

13. HAIR EVIDENCE By Joy Lee

14. DESCRIPTION
 Evidence that involved any
kind of hair usually
underwent hair analysis
 Two kinds of hair analysis
 Chemical hair analysis: Used for
retrospective purposes when
certain chemicals cannot be
found in blood or urine
 Microscopic analysis: Used for
assessing different
characteristics of hairs and
comparing them to other hairs
of “known sources”

15. IMPORTANT PEOPLE
 Murder case of Duchesse de Praslin
 Charles de Choiseul-Praslin married Fanny Sebastiani
 Had 10 children and lived a fairly happy life together
 Had housekeeper named Henriette Deluzy-Desportes
 Deluzy later had an affair with Praslin
 Fanny insists on getting rid of mistress, but Praslin keeps her for a
bit
 August 18, 1847, ~4 am, Fanny is found dead in her bedroom with
slashes across her chest; the room smelled of gunpowder and blood
 Inspector Pierre Allard investigated the case
 Found a pistol under the bed + realized wife’s head was crushed by a
heavy instrument
 Noticed that the Duke’s gun + clothes stained of blood and hair
 Took a magnifying glass and compared hairs from the gun and of
Fanny’s
 Praslin found guilty and convicted of his wife’s murder

16. IMPORTANT PEOPLE
 Francois Goron – First
forensic scientist to use hair
to identify people
 Was ordered to investigate the
death of an unknown victim
 At the time, scientists could not
differentiate between animal
and human hair yet
 Goron was then able to discover
that the hair had been dyed and
identified the owner
 Eventually led to the arrest of
the alleged killer

17. SIGNIFIGANCE
 Fairly easy practice of
magnifying hair strands and
comparing the structures
 Low cost
 Can be used as a replacement
for blood or urine tests + lasts
much longer
 Ability to measure a large
number of toxins or other
chemicals
 To see whether or not absorbed
poisons link to behavioral / health
problems

18. WORKS CITED
 "Hair Analysis." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 09 June
2012. Web. 10 Sept. 2012.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_analysis>.
 Steck- Flynn, Kathy. "Crime & Clues." Trace Evidence: Hair.
N.p., 8 Sept. 2011 . Web. 10 Sept. 2012.
<http://www.crimeandclues.com/index.php/forensic -science-
a-csi/trace-a-dna/19-trace-evidence-hair>.
 Yusof, Mohd Yaakob. "Duke De Praslin Case File." Duke De
Praslin Case File. N.p., 1 May 2012. Web. 10 Sept. 2012.
<http://www.crimerack.com/2012/05/duke -de-praslin-case-
file/>.

19. History of Forensic Science
(Questioned Documents)
by Claire Reyes

20. What are questioned documents?
O ―Refers to any
handwriting, typewriting,
signature, or mark
whose authenticity is in
dispute‖
O Can include wills,
contracts, letters, sales
receipts—any surface
with marks or writing

21. QDE
O Questioned document
examination
O Umbrella term for many
subspecialties
O Handwriting
analysis, historical
dating, typewriting
analysis, paper/ink
specialists…

22. Discovery and Development
O Jean Mabillon(French
monk)
O 1681 De Re Diplomatica
O Outlined
diplomatics(analysis/verificat
Oion of documents}
Albert S. Osborn
O prominent QD examiner
O 1910 Questioned Documents
O 1922 The Problem of Proof
O 1942 founded American Society of
Questioned Documents Examiners

23. Importance of QDE
O major role in cases
involving:
O murder, forgery,
counterfeiting, art crimes,
gambling, kidnapping,
organized crime, fraud, con
games, theft, arson,
burglary, serial murders, sex
crimes
O Verifying authenticity of
document(s) help identify
author(s) and (dis)prove
fraud

24. Forensic Anthropology
by Apollo Santiago

25. What is forensic anthropology?
• Anthropology—the study of
humankind (in every aspect, including
culturally, biologically, archeologically, an
d linguistically. Anthropos means "man."
Logy stands for the "science of".)
• Forensic Anthropology—focuses on the
study of the human skeleton to identify
unknown remains that show evidence of
a crime

26. The Development of
Forensic Anthropology
1878—Thomas Dwight's "The
Identification of the Human Skeleton: A
Medicolegal Study" describes that the gender
and stature characteristics of humans were
determinable by examination of the bones
themselves.
1957—The growth stages of skeletal bones
are identified by Americans Thomas
Mocker and Thomas Stewart, forming
the basis of forensic anthropology.

27. Webster–
Parkman Case
(1849)
1849— John Webster and George Parkman were both
Harvard professors. In November, Dr. Webster had
disappeared. The chief witness Ephraim Littlefield revealed
the vault in the medical school which contained some
human remains. Most of it had been partially cremated,
and so dental and skeletal fragments were used to identify
the remains. It was Dr. Parkman. In November 23, John
Webster was convicted for murder, and was hanged in
August.

28. The Murder of Louisa
Bicknese
1897—Adolph Luetgert, a sausage
manufacturer, claimed his wife ran
away. His factory was searched. His
wife's rings, a corset, and several
bones.George Dorsey was one of the
first Forensic expert to lead a forensic
Anthropology investigation. He
concluded that Luetgert murdered his
own wife.

29. Importance of Forensic
Anthropology
With Forensic Anthropology, as long as
there are bones, it is possible to determine
whether or not a crime has taken place.
Forensic Anthropologysolves
what is unknown
about unidentified individuals by analyzing greatly
decomposed remains.
What Forensic Anthropology can
determine about an
individual: age, sex, stature, ancestry, race,
cause of death, health condition before
death
Without Forensic Anthropology, there would be more
unidentified victims, more unsolved crimes. It is important in
both legal and humanitarian contexts. It is needed to solve the
final pieces and bring closure to affected families

30. Bibliography
• http://anthropology.si.edu/writteninbone/forensic_fil
es.html
• http://www.theabfa.org/
• http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/theory_pages/for
ensic.htm
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/murder/peopleeve
nts/p_parkman.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Luetgert
• http://www.bxscience.edu/publications/forensics/ar
ticles/anthropology/h-anth02.htm

31. Afiya Thomas

32. •AFIS-Automated Fingerprint Identification System
•Was launched on July 28, 1999.
•A national fingerprint and criminal history system that matches
unknown fingerprints against a database to identify criminal and
suspects.
•Primarily used by law enforcement agencies and is controlled by the
FBI.

33. Henry Classification System
•Developed by Sir Edward Henry
•Developed in the late 19th century for criminal
investigations in British India
•First progression towards the modern AFIS system
L L L L L R R R R R Pinky
Pinky Ring Middle Index Thum Thum Index Middle Ring
b b
Finger 10 9 8 7 6 1 2 3 4 5
Number
Value (if 1 1 2 2 4 16 16 8 8 4
Whorl)
Pattern Arch Loop Whorl Loop Arch Loop Whorl Arch Arch Loop
Value 0 0 2 0 0 0 16 0 0 0
1+ (Sum of even finger value) = 1+(16+2) = 19
1+ (Sum of Odd finger value) 1+(0) 1

34. •First the examiner places the fingerprint into the system
•The computer then narrows the search down to possible matches
known as candidates.
•The examiner then compares each canidate individually to make
a possible match.
•Even if the examiner declares a “match” in the system they
typically have to get a copy of the record from the state for a final

35. AFIS was developed by the FBI during the late nineties in
order to make criminal classification more effective and
efficient.
Errors:
•Though this system is key to tracking down criminals and
convicting the guilty, many people has tired to get around it,
by changing their fingerprints.
•Some criminal has attempted to change their fingerprints

36. •AFIS allows law enforcement a fast and efficient way to
identify and connect criminals to evidence.
•The average response time for an electronic criminal
fingerprint submission is about 27 minutes, while electronic
civil submissions are processed within an hour and 12
minutes.
•Prior to this time, the processing of ten-print fingerprint
submissions was largely a manual, labor-intensive process,
taking weeks or months to process a single submission.

37. IBIS
By Rhianna Kern

38. WHAT?
Integrated Ballistics Identification System
Built for the forensic identification of ballistic
information
Saves and searches for matches on bullets and
casings as well as the previous cases they’ve been
involved in
Replaced the painstaking task of identification
by examination by experts

39. People
―Forensic Technology‖ created IBIS in 1991 to
examine and suggest possible matches beyond
human capacity
IBIS is maintained by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco
and Firearms and Explosives

40. Importance
Available in 235 sites nationwide; one in every state
and most major metropolitan areas
Major connections between states and coasts can be
made using this technology that was not possible
before.

41. Bibliography
http://www.forensictechnology.com/
http://www.nij.gov/journals/258/forensic-
databases.html
http://www.archives.gov/records-
mgmt/rcs/schedules/departments/department-of-
justice/rg-0436/n1-436-09-001_sf115.pdf

42. DNA Profiling -1987
A system of identification using a
sample of an individual’s DNA
DNA is taken
from samples of
blood, saliva,
urine, and semen
to be used as
evidence

43. Back to Bio
• DNA is taken from samples of blood, saliva,
urine, and semen to be used as evidence
• DNA profiling is the gathering, processing, and
analyzing of the unique sequences on the loci
**Bio reminder! Locis are an area on a chromosome**
• Sequences called VNTRs (Variable number
tandem repeats), which are different enough
from person to person to use as identification

45. Kary Mullis
• December 28, 1944
• BA of Science from Georgia Institute of Tech
• 1983- Invented the Polymerase Chain Reaction
• PCR= process which multiplies one strand of
DNA billions of times withing hours
• Won Nobel Prize in chemistry – 1993

46. Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys
• British, working on advancing DNA technology
at same time as Mullis
• Credited with invention of DNA profiling
• One of the first scientists to discover split
genes

47. Importance
Not only does DNA
DNA can be useful in
profiling provide
identifying a criminal
evidence against a
or victim. It also can
guilty suspect, but it
answer questions
can also free
involving paternity.
suspicion against an
innocent one as well.

48. Psychological Profiling
Emily Frazee

49. Psychological Profiling
What Why
• a set of techniques used by To assist the court in
law enforcement agencies determining whether or not
to try to identify there is sufficient behavioral
perpetrators of serious evidence to suggest a common
crime scheme or plan in order to
address forensic issues, such
Who as whether similar crimes may
• Thomas Bond, Walter C. be tried together or whether
Langer, James A. Brussel, other crimes may be brought
Howard Teten, Richard in as evidence
Walter & Bob Keppel, John
When
Douglas & Robert Ressler,
David Canter • 1978

50. Psychological Profiling
• No solid evidence
• Accurately guides
investigation
• Behavioral and
investigative tool
• Predict and profile the
characteristics of
unknown criminal
subjects or offenders
• Investigates offender's
behavior, motives and
background

51. Psychological Profiling

52. Holmes & Holmes
2008 Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool (4 ed.)
Three main goals
• provide law enforcement with
a social and psychological
assessment of the offender
• provide law enforcement with
a “psychological evaluation of
belongings found in the
possession of the offender”
• give suggestions and
strategies for the interviewing
process

53. History
• Middle Ages: inquisitors
trying to profile heretics
• 19th century: Jacob
Fries, Cesare
Lombroso, Alphonse
Bertillon, Hans Gross +
• 1940s: James Brussel &
FBI

54. Notable Profilers
• Thomas Bond
• Walter C. Langer
• James A. Brussel
• Howard Teten
• Richard Walter & Bob Keppel
• John Douglas & Robert Ressler
• David Canter

55. Thomas Bond
•1880s medical doctor & police
surgeon
•Tried to profile the personality of Jack
the Ripper using signature personality
traits of the offender to assist police
investigation.
•5/7 murders in the area at that time
fit his profile:
•Strong
•Composed
•Daring
•Quiet & harmless appearance
•Middle-aged, neatly attired
•Loner, mentally unstable, satyriasis
•No real occupation
•No anatomical knowledge

56. Walter C. Langer
•Psychoanalyst from Boston, MA
•Chief of the US Office of Strategic
Services asked him to develop a
"profile" of Adolf Hitler’s behavioral
and psychological analysis for the
construction of strategic plans, given
various options
•1972: published The Mind of Adolf
Hitler

57. James A. Brussel
• Greenwich Village psychiatrist, New
York State's assistant commissioner
of mental hygiene.
•NYC serial bomber
•detailed description of the unknown
offender: heavy middle-aged man,
unmarried, living with sibling, skilled
mechanic from Connecticut, Roman
Catholic immigrant, obsessive love for
his mother but hatred for father,
personal vendetta against
Consolidated Edison, "chances are he
will be wearing a double-breasted suit.
Buttoned.”
•George Metesky in Waterbury,
Connecticut arrested in January 1957
and confessed immediately.
•Albert DeSalvo aka Boston Strangler
•“Sherlock Holmes of the Couch‘”

58. Howard Teten
•veteran police officer from California,
joined the FBI in 1962
•instructor in applied criminology at
the old National Police Academy in
Washington, D.C.
•disagreed with Dr. Brussel’s
Freudian interpretations, but he
accepted other tenets of his
investigative analysis
•1972 FBI’s Behavioral Science
Unit at Quantico was formed
•Joined FBI Instructor Patrick J.
Mullany and Col. Robert K. Ressel
whose profile led to the arrest of David
Meirhofer
•1st serial killer caught using FBI’s new
investigative technique which became
more sophisticated 10 years later

59. Richard Walter & Bob
Keppel
•1974
•Keppel: homicide detective, used new
methods of psychological profiling to
investigate notorious serial killers Ted
Bundy and the Green River Killer
•Walter: criminal psychologist in
Michigan's notorious prison system
•Walter interviewed over 2000
murderers, sex-offenders and serial
killers to group all killings and sex
crimes into four distinct "subtypes“
•Walter co-founded the Vidocq society
•Keppel and Walter created the Hunter
Integrated Telemetry System
•Published "Profiling Killers: A Revised
Classification Model for Understanding
Sexual Murder"

60. John Douglas & Robert
Ressler
•1978
•FBI
•created organized and disorganized
typology – still used today
•Ressler founded the National Center
for Analysis of Violent Crime
•studies provide more information
which can be added to offender
profiling program.

61. David Canter
•1986
•psychologist and criminologist
•composed British crime's first
offender profile for the Railway
Rapist/Killer
•John Duffy arrested, charged &
convicted
•13/17 proclamations were accurate
•Profiling became commonplace in
large-scale police searches afterwards

62. Importance
• Psychiatrist, Dr. Richard
B. Jarvis used this in the
investigation of the serial
murders committed
by Ted Bundy.

63. Flaws
• FBI agent, John E.
Douglas’ investigation
of Gary Leon
Ridgway, aka Green
River Killer.
• Incorrect information
can lead to false
positives or false
negatives

64. Television & Film Examples
• Law & Order: Criminal Intent
• 1990s Profiler
• 1991 The Silence of the Lambs
• 2005 Criminal Minds
• 2011 Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior

66. NCIC
national crime information center

67. The Beginning
• Created in
1967 under J.
Edgar Hoover
• Part of the FBI
• Original cost
<$180 million

68. Current Day
• Now has 15 million
active records in
19 files
• Averages 7.5
million
transactions per
day

69. How It's Used
• Used to share files
all over America
with
federal, state, and
local law
enforcement
• Works under
shared
FBI, federal, state,
local and tribal

70. NCIC Files
• Article File • Protection Order File
• Gun File • Supervised Release File
• Boat File • Unidentified Persons
• Securities File File
• Vehicle File • U.S. Secret Service
• Vehicle and Boat Parts Protective File
File • Gang File
• License Plate File • Known or Appropriately
• Missing Persons File Suspected Terrorist File
• Foreign Fugitive File • Wanted Persons File
• Identity Theft File • National Sex Offender
Registry File
• Immigration Violator

71. Sam Sheppard Case
1954
by Brian Perkins

72. About
• Convicted of 2nd degree murder of wife,
Marilyn Sheppard
• Pleaded not guilty
• Sentenced to life in prison

73. Controversy
• Sam Sheppard claimed “bushy haired man”
murdered his wife
• Freed July 16, 1964 after finding 5 violations
of Sheppard’s constitutional rights during his
trial
• Trial to reinstate conviction on Nov. 1, 1966
– Found not guilty

74. Inspiration
• Basis for movies, TV shows, and books

75. Why is this important?
• Showed flaws in the system at that time
• Need for more accurate genetic tests

76. George Zirkel

77.  Police Officer in Berkeley Police Department
 First American to use polygraph in criminal
investigations

78.  Invented in 1921
 Used blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and
skin conductivity during test
 First practical use led to guilty sentence on
murderer William Hightower

79.  Over the next fifteen years, Larson assisted in
hundreds of criminal cases
 Still used today to help convict criminals

80. Fingerprints
By Christian Kelly

81. history
Fingerprinting actually
dates back to
Babylonian times
The murder of two boys
in Buenos Aires was the
first use in a criminal
investigation.

82. classification systems
Sir Francis Galton
developed the first
fingerprint classification
system
Sir Edward Henry added
to Galton’s system and
the Henry Classification
System became the
standard

83. fingerprint identification

84. fingerprinting in
crime investigation

85. modern fingerprinting

86. By AndiLeibowitz

87. • Comparison with one (or more) known voices with an
unknown voice

88. • First studied at Bell Labs in New Jersey in
1940
• Developed originally for military purposes

89. • Was not used for forensic purposes until
the 1960s
• The technique was first adopted by the
Michigan State Police

90. • Since 1967, over 5,000 law enforcement
related identification cases have been
processed by certified voiceprint
examiners.

91. • Voiceprint analysis has been used in
criminal cases such as:
•Murder
• Rape
• Extortion
• Burglary
• Etc

92. FBI Crime Lab
by Vincent Siciliano

93. Description
-1932-FBI Crime
Laboratory Created
-Began with only one
full time employee
-located in
Washington D.C.

94. Description
-forensic research/analysis
facility
-offers expertise to law
enforcement agencies
-services include analyzing:
-bio evidence
-weapons
-drugs
-offers courtroom expert
witness testimony for
investigations

95. People
-Special Agent Charles
Appel
-Forensic scientist
-Was the only full time
staff at first
-Area of special interest
was in questioned
document examination
-Samuel Pickering-
chemical analysis
specialist- first subject
matter expert

96. Importance
-one of the best and
most well known
research facility in
the world
-serves as a source of
information and
criminological
support in American
Law

97. Works Cited
-http://www.fbi.gov/about-
us/history/highlights-of-
history/articles/laboratory
-http://www.enotes.com/fbi-crime-
laboratory-reference/fbi-crime-laboratory

98. Blood Types
By: Julianna Robinson

99. Who
• Karl Landsteiner
o June 14, 1868 - June 26, 1943
• Nobel Prize (1930)

100. Where
• University of Vienna, Austria

101. Why
• Landsteiner was curious to find out why
some people died and some people became
better during blood transfusions
• Discovered that the wrong blood inserted in
one's body can cause death

102. Importance
• Blood transfusions were now possible
• Blood banks were created to preserve blood
for 2-3 week periods to make major
surgeries possible

103. How
• Landsteiner cross tested sera and red cells
from scientists working in his lab, including
his own. His findings revealed that blood
from certain scientists caused the blood of
others to clump, suggesting the existence of
at least two antibody classes.
• Eventually discovered the four types of
blood.

104. What
• Definition: A blood type is a classification of
blood based on the presence or absence of
inherited antigenic substances on the
surface of red blood cells
•
Types: A, B, AB, O

105. CODIS
Tyler Richardett

106. What is CODIS?
• “Combined DNA Index System”
• FBI’s program of support for criminal justice
DNA databases as well as the software used to
run these databases
• National DNA Index System (NDIS) is
considered one part of CODIS
▫ Contains the DNA profiles contributed by federal,
state, and local participating forensic laboratories

107. Development
• Outgrowth of the Technical Working Group on DNA
Analysis Methods (TWGDAM)
▫ Developed guidelines for standards of practice in the
United States and Canadian crime laboratories as they
began DNA testing in the late 1980s
• FBI Laboratory began pilot project with six state and
local crime laboratories to develop software to
support each laboratory's DNA testing and allow
sharing of profiles
• The DNA Identification Act of 1994 formally
authorized the FBI to operate CODIS
▫ Did not become fully operational until 1998

108. DNA Markers
• CSF1PO
• D3S1358
• D5s818
• D7s820
• D8S1179
• D13s317
• D16s539
• D18s51
• D21s11
• FGA
• THO1
• TPOX
• vWA

109. Importance
• DNA profile of the suspected perpetrator is developed
from the swabs in the kit
• Forensic unknown profile attributed to the suspected
perpetrator is searched against their state database of
convicted offender and arrestee
▫ If there is a match, laboratory will go through procedures to
confirm the match obtain the identity of the suspect
• DNA profile from the evidence also searched against the
state’s database of crime scene DNA profiles
▫ If there is a match, laboratory goes through the
confirmation procedures the match will have linked two or
more crimes together
• Law enforcement agencies involved in these cases are
then able to share the information obtained on each of
the cases and possibly develop additional leads

110. Bibliography
• "CODIS and NDIS Fact Sheet." Federal Bureau
of Investigation. U.S. Department of Justice,
n.d. Web. 10 Sept. 2012.
<http://www.fbi.gov/about-
us/lab/codis/codis-and-ndis-fact-sheet>.
• "CODIS Markers." DNA Consultants. N.p., n.d.
Web. 10 Sept. 2012.
<http://dnaconsultants.com/Detailed/335.h
tml>.