1. THE ROLE OF READER AND TEXT
FACTORS IN THE READING OF
HYPERTEXTS
2. Relevance of the study
• Personal experience
• Information literacy - a key skill for acquiring
information presented without borders
• Make collaborative education successful
• Knowledge creation than knowledge
absorption needed due to fast paced
changes – Rao, JNCASR
• Transferable skills to be incorporated into
curriculum - Chawdari, NUS
3. Skills for the 21st Century
• communication
• acquiring and processing information
• synthesising knowledge
• integrating knowledge from different disciplines
• dealing with uncertainty
• creative thinking (discovery, imaging solutions)
• analytical skills
• building the broader picture from specifics
Source: EUA DOC-CAREERS Project
4. Interdisciplinary and transferable
knowledge
• Interdisciplinarity: integration of concepts, theories,
techniques and perspectives from two or more
disciplines to advance fundamental understanding or
to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the
scope of a single discipline.
• All cutting edge developments in technologies occur
at the interface of two or more disciplines -
Anandakrishnan, IIT, Kanpur.
• This research has implications for developers, web
developers, instructional designers, ELT practitioners,
reading researchers and others.
5. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Interplay of factors that affect comprehension
Reader factors
• Level of second language
• Topic familiarity
Text factors
• Linearity
• Availability of reading aids
6. PROCESS OF READING
Components approach
• Automatic word recognition skills
• Vocabulary and structural knowledge
• Formal discourse structure knowledge
• Content/world background knowledge
• Synthesis and Evaluation Skills and Strategies
• Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
Monitoring Grabe (1991)
7. PROCESS OF READING
Metaphoric approach
• Bottom-up processes
• Top-down processes
• Interaction of bottom-up and top-down
processes
• Interactive-compensatory model
8. Acquisition of information from
expository texts
• Extraction of relevant information
• Assimilation
• Remembering
• Make inferences from text
• Applying knowledge from reading
Gibson and Levin (1975)
9. Factors affecting information
acquisition from texts
Background knowledge of the reader - Schema
theory
• Reconstruct and reorganize information by linking
old with new
• Conceptual frameworks (schemata) help make sense
of what is read
• Help hierarchically and systematically organize text
information and form their mental representations
thus store them in readers’ long-term memory
• Types of schemata - linguistic schemata, format
schemata and content schemata
10. Cognitive Flexibility theory
• meaning construction involves reassembling of
knowledge from various sources or from multiple
instances of representation of conceptual structures
• prior knowledge summoned is not retrieved as a
fixed entity but reconstructed by assembling relevant
schemata from various sources
• multiple knowledge representations essential for
promoting higher-order reading skills
11. The Construction-Integration Model
• Interaction of local level and global level
processes
• Three levels of mental representation of text
meaning
- surface representation of the words and sentences
- textbase representation of the meaning of the text
- situation model representation of what is described
by the text integrated with the reader’s background
knowledge
12. Reading Strategies
conscious and purposeful activities employed by
readers to achieve specific reading objectives
- knowledge based strategies: used in top-down
processing, facilitate global comprehension
- language based strategies: used in bottom-up
processing, assist local comprehension
13. Classification of Strategies
• Direct strategies – help assimilate text input
by re-organizing text content, adapting and
reconstructing it
- cognitive, compensation and memory
• Indirect strategies - help judge progress in
comprehension, identify inadequacies, detect
obstacles, decide remedial action and
evaluate the efficacy of processes
- metacognitive, social and affective
14. Strategic Reading
• Activate prior knowledge
• Monitor and repair comprehension
• Determine important ideas
• Synthesize
• Draw inferences
• Ask questions
• Navigate Pearson et al. (1992)
15. Texts and Comprehension
• Interaction of reader and text promoted through
language-based and knowledge-based cues .
- Language-based cues (can be non-verbal cues)
signify important ideas, relation among ideas, and
organization of ideas (e.g., linearity, signalling devices
like headings, subheadings, titles, fonts, boldface,
italic, graphics, paragraphing).
- Knowledge-based cues help readers evoke relevant
content schemata required to comprehend the text
(e.g., previews, text summaries, lead-ins).
16. Text features and Hypertexts
Multiple reading aids: link to a vast number and
types of resources, and so might promote
comprehension
Disadvantage - cognitive overload,
irretrievability of text and disorientation
Linearity: due to their linked or networked
nature are unable to use text cues and signal
devices.
Disadvantage - conscious effort in lower-level
processing
17. Types of texts studied
• Is a cohesive structure more essential than reading
aids?
• In the absence of text structure, will presence of
comprehension aids promote comprehension?
• Can presence of both text cohesion and
comprehension aids result in better comprehension?
Text structure and reading aids
Print texts, Pre-structured texts, Self-navigating texts
18. Links
• Provide the non-linear quality of texts
• Deliver the ability to connect to multiple
sources and modes of information
• Issue: Do only certain reader variables benefit
from the absence of static, linear, totality of
information presented in linked texts or
hypertexts?
19. Link Features
Placement of nodes Nature of movement
• Internal • Forward
• External • Backward
• Vertical
• horizontal
Presentation of links Purposes of hyperlinks
• Implicit • build text structure
• Explicit • introduce comprehension
aids
20. Classification of links according to
their primary function
• Authorizing
• Commenting
• Enhancing
• Exemplifying
• Mode-Changing
• Referencing/Citing
• Self-Selecting
21. Classification of links
• Introduction - placing the hypertext within its context: what is
the text talking about
• Overview - introduces main topics and subdivisions of the
text; it may also provide several links to these
• Conclusion - sums up the text presented
• Argument - presents a specific issue/ sub topic within the
larger topic
• Elaboration - further details about the topic
• Example - illustrates with evidence, an illustration, etc.
• Context - points to the larger picture implied by the
immediate issue thus assisting global understanding
22. Prior Research
• Paper and hypertext – both good
• Amount of reading – can’t decide
• Reading order – can’t decide
• Self-regulation – deep learning, but only field-
independent and good reasoning skills
• Networked texts – higher order learning even for
unfamiliar topics
• Hypertext expertise required
• Reading strategies – linear reading, metacognitive,
intertextual, navigating (linear, mixed, mixed review)
23. Prior research in hypertext reading
• Self-navigating texts promote deep
comprehension
• High language level and high topic familiarity
can compensate for absence of text factors
• High language level can compensate for low
prior knowledge and absence of text factors
So what about the ESL reader characterized by
Low L2
Low prior knowledge
Low prior knowledge and L2
24. Inconsistencies in research conducted
• levels of language, levels of prior knowledge,
familiarity with hypertexts, and interest were
not controlled.
• Texts were not authentic; all were designed
for purposes of conducting research
• different task types were used to assess the
effects of reading (locate info, assess deep
learning)
25. Addressing gaps in research conducted
• reading strategies: strategies related to link behaviour have
been documented.
Strategies used by ESL readers
Strategies used by readers who developed their reading ability
reading hypertexts.
• navigation strategies: some have been identified
Is there a good navigating strategy?
Do they vary based on levels of language and/or high topic
knowledge
• use of links: have identified reasons for link selection
An understanding of link types that may facilitate
comprehension.
26. Current Research
• Subjects with varying levels of L2 proficiency chosen
• Familiar and unfamiliar texts topics selected
Identify text factors that will disrupt or support
comprehension processes of L2 readers.
Will non-linearity disrupt hypertext reading processes?
Can availability of reading aids help readers overcome
their prior knowledge and language deficits?
27. Research Issue
Hypertext comprehension processes of ESL
readers - Levels of Comprehension
Can hypertexts promote deep comprehension in ESL
readers?
• Can hypertexts compensate reader deficits?
• What are the roles played by reader factors (level of
L2, topic familiarity) in determining levels of text
comprehension?
• What are the roles played by text factors
(linearity, reading aids) in determining levels of text
comprehension?
28. Research Issues
• Reading strategies used by ESL readers
• Reading strategies used for comprehending
hypertext types
• Navigating strategies
• Links that are helpful
29. Research Design
Subjects: 24 non-native users of English
- Background information questionnaire
- Hypertext domain expertise questionnaire
• scores in IELTS test:
high levels of English proficiency (HL2) between 6.5 – 8
low levels of English proficiency (LL2) between 3.5 – 5
• Graduates and above
• Similar domain expertise
• Hypertext experts
30. TEXTS - 6
Difficulty level determined through Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score -
between 9 and 10.
Effects of text variables: 2 print, 2 pre-structured, 2 self-navigating
print - effects of availability of author-determined order of reading
pre-structured - influence of pre-determined order and presence of
comprehension aids
self-navigating - lack of structure and availability of comprehension aids
Effects of availability of prior knowledge: One text in each mode of
presentation dealt with a topic familiar to the subjects and the second one
with an unfamiliar topic.
Determined through Topic familiarity questionnaire
31. Texts Chosen
I. Print, familiar: What Are Business Rules?
http://www.dulcian.com/BRIM%20Documents/What%20Are%20Business%20Rules.htm
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 10
Print, unfamiliar: Fatal anaphylactic reactions to food in children
http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/AL/al94-01.htm
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 9
II. Pre-structured, familiar: Improving the Accessibility of Your Web Site
http://www.w3.org/WAI/impl/improving
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 9
Pre-structured, unfamiliar: Reading: a cognitive process
http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1540719&lastnode_id=0
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 9
III. Self-navigating, familiar: Web development
http://www.december.com/web/develop.html
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 9.5
Self-navigating, unfamiliar: Politexts, Hypertexts, and Other Cultural Formations in the Late Age of
Print
http://www.ibiblio.org/cmc/mag/1995/mar/kaplan.html
Flesch-Kincaid Readability Score: 10
32. Tools Used
• The think aloud protocol - direct access to readers’ thought
process
Each TOL utterance is parsed and coded into restatements of text
(surface), paraphrasing of text information (textbase ), and
integration of text information with subjects’ prior knowledge
(situation representation)
• Metacognitive response sheet – aid to TOL, prompts
• Retrospective interviews – after TOL
• Free recalls – orally produced, recorded and transcribed
Scored for number of idea units, not coherence
• Distractor tasks – after every recall
• Summarizing task – written or keyed in. scored for main ideas
(2 marks) and supporting details (1 mark)
33. Research Design
• Interaction-effects of reader factors and text
factors in hypertext comprehension
High L2 / Low L2
familiar Unfamiliar
PR PS SN PR PS SN
34. Order of Data Collection
Six texts read in the order:
• print familiar
• print unfamiliar
• pre-structured familiar
• pre-structured unfamiliar
• self-navigating familiar
• self-navigating unfamiliar
While reading perform TOL
After reading:
• Respond to Retrospective interview questions
• Record a Free recall
• Perform a Distractor task
• Give a written summary
35. Findings
• High L2 – familiar • High L2 – unfamiliar
PS – least surface and most PS – least surface clauses
textbase clauses
PS - Well-organized summaries
SN – most situation clauses
• Low L2 – familiar • Low L2 – unfamiliar
PS - least surface, most PR – highest level of
textbase and maximum comprehension
situation clauses
36. Conclusions regarding levels of
comprehension
• L2 or topic familiarity threshold required for
PS hypertext comprehension
- Text coherence and reading aids (PS) help
overcome L2 or pk deficit
• L2 and topic familiarity threshold required for
SN hypertext comprehension
37. Reading Strategies
• High L2 readers use more reading strategies
• Low L2 readers use additional cognitive
strategies in PS texts
• Low L2 readers use additional metacognitive
strategies in PS texts
• High L2 and Low L2 use very less word-based
strategies while reading electronic texts
38. Navigating strategies
• Linear – mostly by LL2 or by HL2 when reading
unfamiliar texts and SN texts
• Mixed – HL2 and familiarity of topic
• Preview – gain a general layout of text
• Review – understand purpose of links
• No links clicked
39. Links
• Links found useful • Links not used
Introduction Context
Overview Explanation
Conclusion Argument
Word meanings Contrast
Assistance with text Example
structure
Graphic representation of
text content
40. Findings
• Basic information regarding text topic should be available outside
nodes
• Links to activate prior knowledge to occur at the beginning of texts
• Links with word meanings help while reading unfamiliar texts
• Nodes should be short and important points highlighted with bullets
• Links are clicked seeking answer to a question
• Link nodes should provide direct information on the clicked word; it
should not open to further links
• Links, unless clearly named, might cause mismatch between reader
predictions and node contents
• Too many links is not a good idea
• In the absence of guidance readers visit irrelevant links
• Node contents can help make or break a text’s reliability and
reliability of other links in the same text
41. • Text coherence is an essential factor for adequate comprehension
• Presence of comprehension aids in addition to text coherence helps
overcome comprehension deficits
• Lack of coherence seems to facilitate generation of situation clauses in
high L2 proficiency and high prior knowledge readers
• A threshold of either language competence or prior knowledge availability
seem to be a pre-requisite to accessing hypertexts: Readers with low L2
and low prior knowledge find print texts easiest to comprehend.
• A second higher threshold of language and prior knowledge competence
seem to be a pre-requisite to accessing self-navigating hypertexts
• Reading hypertexts seem to promote better metacognition activity
•
42. • High language proficiency readers use more reading
strategies than low language proficiency readers.
• Certain reading strategies used by both high L2 and
low L2 readers are the same: difference is in terms of
frequency and manner of use.
• A transfer of strategies from print medium to
electronic medium may be possible. However, the
electronic medium also requires specific, additional
strategies.
• Comprehending self-navigating hypertexts require
further inter-textual and synthesis strategies
43. • Linear Navigating Strategy helps comprehend
unfamiliar texts better
• Use of a Linear Navigating Strategy and links
previews help acquire familiarity of text layout
• Link reviews might facilitate comprehension
• Number of links selected does not seem to
determine the amount of information recalled
• Certain link types help adequate and coherent
comprehension (overviews, introductions,
conclusions and word meanings)
44. Pedagogic Implications
• Informed Strategy training programme Pouwer (2001) : help
readers to transfer strategies they use in print reading
contexts. Include skills like:
- Guessing word meanings
- Gathering information by going beyond the text (from Google,
Wikipedia)
- make optimal use of multiple representations and form coherence
among them.
Provide scaffolding to support the use of higher order
thinking skills: Readers with high L2 levels unable to move
beyond textbase level representation of text, and readers
with low levels of second language competence were
unable to move beyond a surface level comprehension
45. Instructional Design Implications
• Reduce cognitive overhead using
- visual text coherence cues like headings,
subheadings, typographical features, connectors, and
enumerators
- non-visual text coherence cues like linear
organization of texts
- identify the relationship between links and chart out
a navigation path for readers to follow
46. Instructional Design Implications
Use of links
- links that provide text structure: table of contents, introduction, overview
- links that provide language support: word meanings
- links that deliver knowledge support: Context, Argument, Contrast,
Graphic, Explanations, Example, Conclusion
Presentation of links
- Explicit links required for SN texts
- Too many external links cause disorientation
- Allow readers to get back to main page
- Allow preview without visiting links
- Short and direct information
- No irrelevant information
47. Further Research
• are pre-structured hypertexts accessible only to
those readers who have crossed a threshold of
language competence and have a minimum level of
prior knowledge?
• Do we need higher reading skills and proficiency in
topic domain to access self-navigating hypertexts?
• are there additional strategies used by say, a native
user of English or an ESL user who scores a band 9
• Is there a good navigating strategy?
• Will linked structure cues help readers overcome
reading deficiency?
48. New Technology
For texts that are universally accessible, highly
personalized and allow cognitive flexibility
• Smarter links
• guided tours
• dynamic coherence
• indicators that denote the location of nodes
50. Exploratory paradigm
• To research into territories not ventured into
before
• Factors that influence a process
• Variables that affect a product
• Description of process, not control it
• Form hypotheses for further research
51. Data in a nutshell
Surface
HL2 hpk HL2 lpk
33.3%
35
30
24.4%
25
20
PS
15 SN
9.3% PR
10
4.6% 5.2%
5
1.3%
0
1 2
PS SN PR PS SN PR
52. Text
HL2 hpk HL2 lpk
80
70
60
50
40 PS
30 SN
20
PR
10
0
1 2
PS SN PR PS SN PR
57. Examples for implicit and explicit links
Implicit: We can categorize corporate organization structures into two types.
Explicit: We can categorize corporate organization structures into two types.
For details on the two types of corporate organization structures, see
structures.
OR
We can categorize corporate organization structures into two types. Click here
for details on structures.
58. Harrison’s classification of links
Authorizing - Describes an organization's legal, formal policies, contact information,
etc. that authenticate the site and its content - About Us Customer Service Policies
Commenting Provides opinion about the site and/or its content - Press Releases
Testimonials
Enhancing Provides more factual information about site content by offering greater
detail or painting the "bigger picture” - Guidelines for Membership Site Map
Exemplifying Provides a specific example of content within a broader category - Future
Events Today's Horoscopes
Mode-Changing Moves users from the reading mode to one that requires a different
kind of activity - Online Survey Shopping Cart
Referencing/Citing Provides information that "informs" or supplements the site's
content - Bibliography Related Links
Self-Selecting Allows users to narrow a search by making choices based on their age,
sex, geographical location, life situation, personal interests, and so on - For Seniors
Only Your Local Chapter
Our eyes do not just fixate on the features of the text, instead, we make use of
parafoveal vision.
