Approaches

APPROACH, METHOD & TECHNIQUE

Approach : A set of assumptions, beliefs and theories dealing with the nature of language learning and
teaching.

Method : An overall plan for systematic presentation of a language based upon a selected approach.

Technique : Specific activities demonstrated in the classroom that are compatible with a method. As a
method is consistent with an approach; the techniques used in the classroom are also in
harmony with that approach. It is an umbrella term. It includes everything that teachers and
learners do in the classroom.

Task : It is a form of technique. It focuses on the authentic use of language for meaningful
communicative purposes.

Activity : It is a form of technique. It refers to everything students do in classroom. There is a particular
objective and a time limit (role-plays, drills, games, gap-filling exercises, discussions).

Drill : Technique that focuses on a minimal number of language forms through repetition.

CATEGORIZING TECHNIQUES

Manipulative to Communicative Techniques

Manipulative :
The technique is totally controlled by the teacher
Requires a predicted response from the student
(Choral repetition & cued substitution drills, dictation-listening/writing- , reading aloud)

Communicative:
The technique is less controlled by the teacher
Students’ responses are completely open-ended and therefore unpredictable
Students are free to be creative with their responses and interactions with other students
(Story-telling, brain-storming, role-plays)
Communication can take place from the very first day of language class. Communicative techniques for
beginners involve small chunks of language. On the very first day of class’ students can be taught to ask and
respond to questions such as “What is your name? Where do you live? How old are you?”

Controlled to Free Techniques

Controlled:
Teacher centered
Manipulative
Structured
(Teacher controls the language that the students are expected to say “I would like …….”)
Predicted student responses
Pre-planned objectives
Set curriculum
Dance, songs, jokes, play, role-play, dialog presentation, reading aloud, drills, translation’ dictation, copying,
identification, recognition, testing, meaningful drills

Semi-Controlled:
Brain-storming, story-telling, cued narrative dialogue, information transfer, information exchange

Free :
Student centered
Communicative
Open-ended
(Students complete writings in a creative way or dialogs and debates)
Unpredictable responses
Negotiated objectives (aims to empower the students)
Cooperative curriculum (Content of the course is negotiated with the students)
Composition, problem solving, drama, interview, discussion

THE DIRECT METHOD
This method is born as a reaction to GTM as GTM could not prepare learners for real life situations in which
communication was essential. It is an oral based approach. It is based on the belief that L2 learning should be
more like L1 acquisition. It gets its meaning from the fact that meaning should be conveyed directly in the
target language through demonstrations and visual aids. The learning process should include spontaneous use
of language in a meaningful context, lots of oral interaction, no L1 use, no translation between the languages
and no analysis of grammatical rules. This method is also known as the Berlitz Method recognized widely by
his foreign language schools in all over the world.

Weaknesses: This method did not take well in public education due to the budget limitations, classroom size
and time. In addition, this method’s success highly relied on the skills and personality of the teacher.

Goals of the T: T’s goal is to teach sts. how to think and to communicate in the target language.

Role of the T & Sts: T directs the classroom activities but sts. are also active.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: Sts. should associate meaning with the target language so T
conveys the meaning via demonstrations and visual aids using pictures, objects and pantomime. Translation is
forbidden. Sts. communicate in the target language as much as possible. T creates real context for them to
communicate. Units may include situations like “going shopping/at a bank/market/” or topics like “weather,
money, geography). Grammar is taught inductively. Sts. figure out the rules from the examples given. Sts.
practice vocabulary by using new words in sentences.

The nature of student-teacher interaction: The interaction is between T-St., St.-T and St.-St.

Language & Culture: Language is primarily spoken. Sts. study common, everyday speech in the target
language. Sts. also study culture and learn how the speakers of that language live.

Language skills emphasized: All of four skills occur from the start but oral communication is seen as basic.
Thus, reading and writing exercises are based on what sts. practice orally. Vocabulary is emphasized over
grammar. Correct pronunciation is aimed right from the beginning.

Error correction: Errors are corrected by various techniques such as guiding sts. to self-correct.

The role of the sts’ native language: L1 is never used.

Sample Lesson: Konu US cografyasi. Sinifta harita var. Sts. tek tek okuma parcasindan cumleler okuyor, T onlar
okurken harita uzerinden isaret ediyor. 2 sts. anlamadiklari kelimeleri soruyorlar. T tahtaya cizerek ve
demonstrate ederek anlatiyor. Sts. sorularini L2 ile soruyor. Sonra, T parca hk. Sorular soruyor, sts. full
cumleler icinde cevap veriyor. Sonra sts. birbirlerine soru soruyor. T telaffuz hatasini aninda duzeltiyor, sinifa
da tekrarlatiyor. Grammar hatasini ise st.’a soru sorarak kendisinin duzeltmesini sagliyor. Sonra prepositions
kullanmalari icin cocuklara oturduklari yerler ve esyalari hk. Sorular soruyor. Sts. da birbirlerine soruyor. Sonra,
prep. uzerine fill in the blanks alistirmasi yapiyorlar. Sonra, defterlerine yazi yazdiriyor. 3 defa (normal, yavas,
phrase phrase) okuyor.

Following lessons: US cografya tekrar, paragraph yazma, pronunciation calisma, bir proverb uzerinden sohpet.

THE DIRECT METHOD
PRINCIPLES OBSERVATIONS & TECHNIQUES

Language is primarily speech but also reading skills Sts. start a lesson by reading a passage aloud. Each
should develop through practice with speaking. reads a sentence in turns (Reading Aloud)

Culture is not only fine arts (Sts also study geography The passage includes information on geography of US.
and cultural attitudes). T is also using a map of US.

Objects and pictures are used to help sts understand T points to the map while sts are reading the passage.
the meaning.
L1 is never used in the classroom. T asks if they have any question. Sts. Ask their
questions in the target language.
Meaning is conveyed through demonstrations and Sts ask questions about the meaning of some words.
visual aids. T does not explain or translate. Sts are Ex: “between” T demonstrates by showing two sts.
expected to make direct association between target “mountain range” T draws on the board.
language and meaning.
Sts. should learn to think in the target language as T asks questions and sts. answer in full sentences.
soon as possible. Vocabulary is learnt better when (Question and answer exercise)
learnt in full sentences. New words and grammatical
sentences are practiced better in this way.
Sts. learn how to communicate in the target language. T invites sts. to ask questions about the map.
Learning how to ask questions is also a part of the (Question and answer exercise)
process.
Pronunciation should be worked on right from the A st. makes a pronunciation mistake while asking a
beginning of the instruction. question. T works with the st. and the whole class
until he is satisfied.

Error correction is through guiding student to self- A student makes a grammatical error and the teacher
correct. asks him to make a choice (Is it ….. or is it …..?) The st.
corrects herself (Getting Sts. to Self-Correct)

Grammar is taught indirectly in an inductive way. T asks questions to each student about themselves
Also, sts. find opportunity to use language in real using prepositions (on/in/at/between) Sts. answer
context. Sts. should be encouraged to speak as much and then they make up questions and ask them
as possible. (Conversational Practice)

Grammar is taught inductively way. The grammar Sts. fill in the blanks with prepositions practiced in the
rules are never given explicitly. lesson (Fill in the Blanks Exercise)

Writing is also another important skill that should be T asks sts. dictates a paragraph about geography of
developed from the beginning of language learning US. He reads it three times with different speed. Also,
process. Sts. label blank maps and direct T to complete a map.
Also, they write a paragraph about geography of US.
(Dictation & Paragraph Writing)

Learning a language also involves how speakers of T uses a proverb to discuss how people in the US
that language live. view punctuality.

The Grammar Translation Method The Direct Method

Translation is a must in both ways No translation is allowed.

Teacher & sts. use L1 L1 is forbidden

Reading & Writing are primary skills. No importance Although 4 skills are used from the beginning,
or attention is given to speaking. Language is for language is seen as being primarily spoken not
mental exercise and for appreciating literature. written

Grammar is taught deductively Grammar is taught inductively.

Vocabulary is taught through memorization Vocabulary is demonstrated through the use of
authentic materials in complete sentences.

Interaction is mainly form T-St. Interaction goes both ways.

T makes use of contrastive analysis such as cognates Sts. should learn to think in the target language.

No attention is given to pronunciation. Pronunciation receives attention right from the
beginning.

Errors are corrected immediately. Self-correction is encouraged.

Learning a language is limited to its literature and Learning another language also involves to learn how
fine-arts. speakers of that language live.

THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
The Direct Method did not take hold in the US the way it did in Europe due to several problems such as lack of
native speaking teachers of modern foreign languages, the belief of US institutions in promoting reading
proficiency rather than oral skills. By that time, The World War II broke out and the need for Americans to
become orally proficient in the languages of both their aliens and their enemies emerged. Ironically, the
Audio-Lingual Method borrowed many aspects from the Direct Method and injected them to their own
teaching method. It was also influenced by Skinner’s Behavioristic Theory which advocates that language is
acquired through a process of habit formation which involves too much repetition, imitation and
reinforcement. According to Behaviorism, the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the language was
through conditioning-helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.
Rote practicing and overlearning were also important. In addition, according to Behaviorism, errors should be
avoided at all costs.

Weaknesses: It failed to teach long-term communicative proficiency and usually students were unable to
transfer skills into real life communication. The Innatists Hypothesis introduced by Chomsky in rejection to
Behaviorism proved that language acquisition cannot be explained by imitation and repetition. Language is
rather creative. Also, human brain is not a “tabula rasa”. We are prewired to acquire a language. We have an
inborn capacity.

Goals of the T: T’s goal is to teach sts. how to think and to communicate in the target language. In order to do
this, they believe sts. need to overlearn the target language. Sts. achieve this by forming new habits in the
target language and overcoming the old habits of their L1.

Role of the T & Sts: T is like an orchestra leader. T directs and controls the language behavior of sts.She is also
responsible for providing a good model so that sts. can imitate. Sts. are imitators. They have to respond as
accurate and as rapidly as possible.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: New vocabulary and language patterns are presented
through dialogs. Dialogs are learnt through repetition and imitation. Various drills are used based upon the
patterns presented in the dialog. Sts. successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is introduced
inductively. Sts. reading and writing works are based on what they practice only.

The nature of student-teacher interaction: The interaction is between T-St., St.-T and St.-St. but it is through
drills and chain drills and it is teacher directed.

Language & Culture: Language is primarily spoken. Sts. study common, everyday speech in the target
language. Sts. also study culture and learn how the speakers of that language live.

Language skills emphasized: The natural order of language acquisition is followed. (listening-speaking-
reading-writing). Language is seen as being primarily spoken not written Vocabulary is kept to a minimum
while students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns. Sts. reading and writing works are
based on what they practice only. Correct pronunciation is aimed right from the beginning.

Error correction: Errors are to be avoided at all costs. T does contrastive analysis to predict where sts. will
make errors and work on them.

The role of the sts’ native language: L1 is never used. Students should overcome the habits of their L1 as soon
as possible.

Sample Lesson: Konu; iki kisi arasinda (Bill & Sally) gecen bir konusma. T dialogu okuyor ve sts.
ezberleyeceklerini bilerek dinliyorlar. L1 kullanilmiyor. T conveys meaning by demonstrations and visual aids.
Instructions are in English. Sonra, 2 kere daha okuyor ve son okuyusunda bu defa anlamaya calismalarini
istiyor. Sonra, her satiri okuyor ve sinifa tekrarlatiyor. Sinifin soyleyemedigi bolumde backward build-up drill
yaptiriyor. Sonra kendisi Sally, sinif Bill oluyor ama sinif soylemeden o model olarak soyluyor onlarin okuyacagi
satiri yani repetition drill yaptiriyor. They have to listen carefully and mimic the teacher’s model as accurately
as possible. Sonra roller degistiriyor. Sts. yanlis okursa durdurup dogru modeli veriyor. Sonra, “Gunaydin
(isim)-Gunaydin Teacher” “Nasilsin?-iyiyim” chain drill baslatiyor. Boylece tek tek sts. pronunciation uzerinde
calisabiliyor. Herkes bitirdikten sonar iki sts. seciyor to perform the dialog for the rest of the class. Birkac
ornekten sonar dersin ana bolumune geciyor. Onlara bir cue vererek single-slot substitution drill (tek kelime
degisiyor) yaptiriyor (I am going to the post office –the bank-). Cocuklar ne yapacaklarini mecburen anlayip
yapiyorlar. Ayni seyi bu defa “How are you?” ile yapiyorlar. (pronoun degistirerek). Sonra T multiple-slot
substitution drill yaptiriyor. (I am going to the post office-she/ to the park). Sonra soru cevap olarak question-
answer drill ve ayrica transformation drill yaptiriyor. Son kez daha sinifi ikiye bolerek dialogu tekrarlatiyor (cift
tarafli) ve dersi bitiriyor.

Following lessons: Dialog tekrari, birkac satir ekleyerek gelistirerek devam, drills, “a little/few” ile ilgili drilller,
ve ancak birkac hafta sonra dialogu deftere yazma, bazi kelimeleri slime ve onlara tekrar yazdirma, alfabe
oyunu, Amerikadaki supermarketler ile ilgili T sunumu ve Mali/Amerikan futbol karsilastirmasi.

THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

Language forms occur in content. T introduces a new dialog.

L1 & L2 have separate linguistic systems. They should Meaning is conveyed through demonstrations and
be kept apart so that sts’ L1 should not interfere with visual aids. T does not explain or translate. Sts are
the target language expected to make direct association between target
language and meaning.

Language learning is a process of habit formation. Students repeat each line of the dialog several times.
Learning takes place by repetition They know they are supposed to memorize it (Dialog
memorization)
Errors should be prevented at all costs. Errors lead to Sts. fail to repeat the line correctly. The teacher uses
formation of bad habits. They should be corrected a (backward build-up drill).
immediately.
Positive reinforcement helps the sts. develop correct T says “very good” when the st. answers correctly.
habits.

Students should learn to respond to both verbal and T uses spoken cues and picture cues for the drills.
non-verbal stimuli.
Each language has a finite number of patterns. T conducts transformation and question answer drills.
Pattern practice helps sts. to form habits which
enable them to use the patterns.
Students should overlearn. They should learn to When sts. handle it, the teacher poses the questions
answer automatically without stopping to think. to them rapidly.

Major objective of T is to help get students acquire New vocabulary is introduced through lines of the
the structural patterns; sts. will learn vocabulary dialog. Vocabulary is limited.
afterwards.
Major challenge is to get students overcome the old T does a contrastive analysis of the target language
habits of their native language. and the sts’ native language in order to predict where
they will have difficulties.

Language is seen as being primarily spoken not T writes a dialog on the board towards the end of the
written. The natural order of acquisition is followed week. Sts. do some limited work with the dialog and
(listening-speaking-reading-writing). the sentence drills.

Culture and language cannot be separated. Learning Supermarket alphabet game and discussion about
another language also involves learning how speakers Mali and American football.
of that language live.

The Audio-Lingual Method The Direct Method

No translation is allowed. No translation is allowed.

L1 is forbidden L1 is forbidden

The natural order of language acquisition is followed. Although 4 skills are used from the beginning,
(listening-speaking-reading-writing). Language is seen language is seen as being primarily spoken not
as being primarily spoken not written written

Grammar is taught inductively. L2 learning should be Grammar is taught inductively, through examples and
like L1 acquisition. T drills sts. in the use of exercises.
grammatical patterns (Behaviorism – repetition)

New vocabulary is introduced through lines of Vocabulary is demonstrated through the use of
dialogues. authentic materials in complete sentences.

Interaction is mainly from T-Sts. Interaction goes both ways.

Sts. should learn to think in the target language. Sts. Sts. should learn to think in the target language as
should overcome the habits of their L1 and form the soon as possible.
new habits required by L2.

Pronunciation receives attention right from the Pronunciation receives attention right from the
beginning. Sts. often work in labs on minimal pairs. beginning.

Immediately corrected by the teacher. It is important Self-correction is encouraged.
to prevent learners from making errors as errors lead
to the formation of bad habits.

Learning another language also involves learning how Learning another language also involves learning how
speakers of that language live. speakers of that language live.

DESUGGESTOPEDIA
This method is developed by a Russian psychologist. He argued that people use %5-10 of their mental
capacity. In order to make better use of our mental reserves limitations needs to be desuggested.
Psychological barriers should be removed. Some of the classroom methodology was not particularly unique.
The primary difference laid in the decoration, furniture, baroque music, seating arrangements and the
authoritative behavior of the teacher. The most significant difference of this method form GTM, ALM and DM
is that is highly influenced by an “affective-humanistic approach” an approach in which there’s respect for
student’s feelings. Teachers should help students to eliminate the feelings that they cannot be successful.

Weaknesses :The method depends on too much memorization. It is not an appropriate method because it
does not help students to improve. Despite such claims, Desuggestopedia gave insights to language teaching
professionals. It highlighted the strength of the human brain. In addition, it showed that reducing the trait
anxiety through music and other relaxation techniques is beneficial for successful language learning.

Goals of the T: T’s goal is to tap students’ mental powers to accelerate the process of language learning. The
paraconscious part of the mind should be activated by using techniques and their psychological barriers
should be desuggested.

Role of the T & Sts: T is the authority. Sts. must trust and respect her. It is believed that sts. will retain
information better if it comes from someone whom they trust. Once they trust the T they will feel more
secure and that will be less inhibited.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: The classroom is bright and cheerful. Grammatical
information is displayed on several posters which are hung on the walls of the classroom so that sts. will learn
in an indirect way without intentionally directing their attention to them (peripheral learning). Students select
target language names and new occupations. The texts contain lengthy dialogs. Next to the dialogs are
translations in the sts.’ L1. There are also reproductions of paintings, notes on vocabulary and grammar.
Baroque music is played while T reads the dialog. T matches her voice to the rhythm of the music. T aims to
activate both left and the right brain for effective learning. No homework is assigned. Sts. may read the dialog
before going to sleep and after they wake up if they want to.

The nature of student-teacher interaction: The interaction with the whole group of students right from the
beginning. T dili kisitli da olsa kullanmaya baslamalari icin sts’a en basta basit bir dialog ogretiyor.

Feeling of students: A great deal of attention is given to their feelings. It is believed that if sts. are relaxed and
confident they will learn the language effortlessly. Sts’ psychological barriers should be desuggested. A new
identity makes them feel more secure because the mistakes will not be made by themselves, it will be that
identity’s mistake.

Language & Culture: Sts. study common, everyday speech in the target language. Sts. also study culture and
learn how the speakers of that language live. The use of fine arts is also important.

Language skills emphasized: Vocabulary is emphasized. Sts. has to memorize large number of words. Minimal
explicit grammar is introduced. The paraconscious mind is expected to absorb the linguistic rules accordingly.

Speaking is emphasized. Students also read in the target language (dialogs) and write (imaginary
compositions).

Error correction: Errors are corrected gently. The teacher uses a soft voice.

The role of the sts’ native language: L1 translation is used to make meaning of the dialog clear. T also uses L1
in class when necessary. As the course proceeds the use of L1 decreases.

Sample Lesson: Konu “To want to is to be able to”. T once sts. greeting ve sonra ogrenmek icin
ugrasmamalarini, ogrenmenin dogal olarak gerceklesecegini soyluyor. Kendilerine yeni identity ve occupation
secmelerini istiyor. Meslekleri onlara pantomime kullanarak anlatiyor. Sonra yeni identity ve isleriyle ilgili
sorular soruyor. Sts. yes/no cevaplari veriyorlar. Sonra siniftaki muzik aletlerini calmaya basliyorlar. T 20 syf.
Dialogu dagitiyor. Otline’I biraz L1, biraz L2 biraz da pantomime ile anlatiyor. Instructions baslangicta mostly
L1. 3 kere okuyor. Ilk okumada sesini muzige uyduruyor, ikinci okumada muzik degisiyor ve daha geri planda
kaliyor. O arada translated taraftan takip etmelerini ve not tutmalarini tavsiye ediyor. En son okumada sadece
dinliyorlar. Class is dismissed and there is no homework. T isterseniz yatmadan ve uyaninca okuyun diyor.
Ikinci derste T sapkalar cikariyor. Once kendi takip karakterkerden biri oluyor. Sonra dorder dorder digerlerine
giydiriyor. Dialogu bir kizgin, bir uzgun, bir mutlu okutuyor. “You are auditioning for a role in Broadway”
oynatiyor. Bu defa dramatic okumalarini istiyor. Sonra dialogdan target language’da sorular soruyor. Bazen
translation yapmalarini istiyor. Sonra onlara alfabe oyunu oynatiyor (cocuk gibi davranmalarini saglamaya
calisiyor). Circle Time activity yaptiriyor (hayali identityleri ve occupationlari uzerinden). Yanlislar soft voice ile
duzeltiliyor.

More advanced levels: daha complex cumleler ve grammar, yeni kelimelerin antonyms/synonyms veriliyor.
Sts. kendileri novel kelimeler kurmalari icin tesvif ediliyor.

DESUGGESTOPEDIA

Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment. The classroom is bright and colorful (Classroom set-
up)

Students can learn from their environment even if Among the posters there are several grammatical
their attention is not directed to (peripheral learning) information are hung on the walls (Peripheral
learning)

If sts. trust and respect T’s authority, they will accept The teacher speaks confidently.
and retain information better.
T aims to desuggest the psychological barriers that T teacher says “you will not need to learn, just enjoy”
sts. bring to class. (Positive Suggestion)
They will feel less inhibited since their performance is Sts. choose new names and identities (Choose a new
really that of a different person. identity)
T teaches them a dialog so that they can start to Sts. learn a dialog and introduce themselves to each
communicate immediately. other and to T.

Songs are useful for freeing the speech muscles. They play instruments as they sing a song.

The teacher integrates indirect positive suggestions The title of the dialog is “To want to is to be able to”.
meaning that there’s no limit what they can do.
Fine art provides positive suggestions for the There are reproductions of classical painting
students. throughout the text

Communication takes place on two phases. The first T matches her voice to the rhythm while reading the
phase is language (message is encoded by T-receptive text
phase for sts.) The second phase is factors that
influence the message to be decoded.
On the conscious phase learner attends to the
language and on the subconscious phase the music
suggests that learning is fun and easy. When they are
in unity learning will take place effectively. Music is
also ideal for overcoming sts. barriers.
Fantasy reduces barriers to learning Sts. are directed to act as the characters in the dialog

T helps the students to activate their brain for T leads the class in various activities involving dialogs,
learning through various activities. T also tries to role-plays, games, question answer, translations….
avoid repetition. (Creative Adaptation)

When sts. act as children, they will be more open to T teachers the sts. children songs
learning. Trusting the T is also important.

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
Curran’s “Counseling-Learning” model of education was inspired by Carl Roger’s “Humanistic Psychology”
which views humans as a whole. According to this view true human learning is both cognitive and affective.
Adults often feel threatened by a new situation being afraid of appearing foolish. Curran believed that if
teachers acted as counselors “language counselors” they would reduce the fear of students. By appreciating
students’ feelings and fears a teacher could help students to overcome their negative feelings and turn them
into positive energy for successful learning.

Weaknesses: Teachers attempt counseling without special training. The method lacks a syllabus. The
objectives are unclear. Evaluation is difficult. The focus is on fluency rather than accuracy.

Goals of the T: T’s goal is to teach sts. to communicate in the target language. Also, T wants students to take
responsibility for their own learning. They should also learn how to learn to learn from other sts. T accepts
them as whole persons. T values the sts. and their feelings.

Role of the T & Sts: T is the counselor. T recognizes how threatening a new environment can be for adult
learners so understands and supports them.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: In beginning classes sts. have conversation using their L1.
According to Curran there are 6 elements necessary for non-defensive learning.

SAARRD (Security – Attention - Aggression – Retention - Reflection – Discrimination)
Security : Sts should feel secure to enter in a successful learning experience
Attention : St’s involvement in learning.
Aggression : The sts should be given an opportunity to assert themselves, involve in the activities and has
to show what he/she has learnt
Retention : The material takes place within the whole itself (whole person).
Reflection : Students are invited to consider their learning experience.
Discrimination : Sorting out the differences among target language forms

The nature of student-teacher interaction: Neither student, nor teacher centered but rather teacher-student-
centered both being decision makers in the class. Not competition but cooperation is encouraged. It is
believed that trusting relationship can reduce the trait anxiety that students fell.

Students’ Feelings: Responding to the students’ feelings is very important. One regular activity is inviting them
to comment on how they feel. T can help them to overcome negative feelings that might otherwise block their
learning. L1 use is also for them to feel secure.

Language skills emphasized: At the early stages students decide on what to do in class. Later, when they feel
more secure, T might prepare specific materials. Understanding and speaking the language is seen as basic.
Thus, reading and writing exercises are based on what sts. practice orally.

Error correction: Rephrasing is used for correcting errors (to repeat correctly what the student has said
incorrectly without calling further attention to the error).

The role of the sts’ native language: L1 use is also for them to feel secure. Where possible native language
equivalents are given to the target language. Instructions are given in L1. Sts. express and share their feelings
in L1.

Sample Lesson: Herkes masanin cevresinde circle olacak sekilde oturuyor. Masanin ortasinda bir tape
recorder var. Tanisma faslindan sonra ogretmen sohpet edeceklerini ve kendi soylediklerinin kayit edilecegini
soyluyor. Daha sonra kaydin transcriptini cikaracaklarini anlatiyor. Arkalarinda durup konusmalarini
cevirecegini soyluyor. Elini kaldiran ogrencinin gidip arkasinda duruyor. Translate ediyor, sonra kayit ediliyor.
Sohpet bitince ogrt. De yanlarina oturuyor ve L1’da hislerini soruyor. Hepsini saygiyla accept etmek zorunda.
Sonra teypten kendilerini dinleyip tekrar etmeye calisiyorlar. Teyp durdurularak utterance’lar tek tek tahtaya
yaziliyor. Ogrt. Ogrencilerin sadece dinlemelerini ve seyretmelerini istiyor, yamayin diyor. Tekrar okuyor.
Arkaniza dayanin dinleyin diyor. Sonra da Human Computer olacagini ve tam olarak yapacaklarini anlatiyor.
Sonra grup work yapiyorlar. Transcriptteki kelimeleri kullanarak yeni cumleler kuruyorlar. Ogrt. Error
oldugunda rephrasing yapiyor. Tape 2 kere daha dinleniyor. Dersin son 10 dk. Yine fikirlerini soruyor.

Following lessons: Conversation uzerinde calismaya devam, study grammar in conversation, sira ile transcript
okuma (biri L1 biri taget language), pronunciation uzerinde calisma olanagi, create a new dialogue with that
words.

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

Building a relationship with and among sts. is very T greets sts and introduces himself and has sts.
important introduce themselves

A new learning experience can be threatening. When Explains briefly what they are going to do
sts. know what to do they feel more secure
Language is for communication. Sts. have conversation
T superior knowledge may be threatening for the sts. The teacher stands behind the students
T also fosters interaction by standing behind the sts.
T should be sensitive to sts’ level of confidence and T translates what sts. want to say and the utterances
give them what they need to succeed. are tape recorded (Tape Recording Conversation)
T and sts are whole persons. By sharing their Sts. are invited to talk about how they feel.
experiences they will get to know each other and built
community
Each learner is unique. T should create an accepting T accepts and understands what sts. say
atmosphere. By this way the learning experience
becomes less threatening. The teacher counsels the
sts.
L1 is used to make the meaning clear. Sts. feel more S listen to the tape and give the L1 translation.
secure when they understand everything.
Sts. learn best when they have a choice in what to In the (Human Computer Activity) sts. choose what
practice. They should take control of their own they want to repeat and T repeats as many times as
learning. they want him to repeat.

They feel a sense of community and also they learn Sts. work in groups (Small Group Tasks).
from each other in groups. Cooperation not
competition is encouraged.

Fantasy reduces barriers to learning Sts. are directed to act as the characters in the dialog

avoid repetition.


TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
This method is developed by James Asher. It was influenced by a general approach named “The
Comprehension Approach” by which the importance is given to listening comprehension. L2 learning should
be more like L1 acquisition. A baby spends many months listening to the people around it long before it ever
says a word. The child has the time to internalize the sounds it hears. No one tells the baby that it must speak.
The child chooses to speak when he feels ready to do so. Asher also added that the child’s listening is
accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving, looking and so forth). He also gave some
attention to right brain learning. According to Asher motor activity is a right brain function and it should
precede left brain language processing. He also wished to come up with a method that would lower down the
debilitative anxiety level that appears in many language classes. TRP heavily utilized the imperative mood.
Commands were the easy ways to get learners to move about and to loosen up. No verbal response was
necessary. More complex syntax could also be incorporated into the imperatives.

Weaknesses: The method does not cater for the needs of advanced learners.

Goals of the T: T’s goal is to have their students to enjoy their experience in learning a second language. T also
aims to reduce the debilitative anxiety that students feel.

Role of the T & Sts: T is the director of sts’ behaviors. Sts. are imitators of her non-verbal model. When
students feel ready to speak they can act as a teacher and give commands.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: T always models what to do. T performs the actions with the
students. Later, T gives directions and sts. perform alone. Afterwards, all class performs. Then, T combines the
element of the commands and give commands that they are not familiar with. Sts. perform them, also. These
commands are usually humorous. Sts. also learn to read and write them. Sts. who are ready to speak starts
giving commands.

The nature of student-teacher interaction: T is speaking and directing the sts. by giving commands. Sts. are
non-verbal respondents. Later on, sts. become more verbal and T becomes more non-verbal. Sts. perform all
together.

Culture: Culture is the life style of people who speak the language. Sts. learn how the speakers of that
language live.

Students’ Feelings: The major goal of this method is to lower down the debilitative anxiety and stress sts. feel
when studying foreign languages. One of the primary ways of doing it is to let them speak whenever they are
ready. In addition, perfection should not be expected. Another way to lower down anxiety is to make
language learning enjoyable.

Language skills emphasized: Vocabulary and grammatical structures are emphasized over other language
areas. These are embedded within imperatives. It is believed that all grammatical features can be introduced
through imperatives. One of the reasons of using imperatives is that children acquiring their L1 are exposed to
language that includes imperatives. Comprehension should precede production. Sts. reading and writing
works are based on what they practice only. Sts. learn to read only after 10 hours of instruction.

Error correction: It is expected that sts. will make errors when they first begin speaking. Teachers should be
tolerant on them and only correct major errors. The errors should be corrected in an non-threatening way.

The role of the sts’ native language: L1 is not used. T conveys his message using his body language and visual
aids.

Sample Lesson: Ogrt. sinifa giriyor. Greets the sts. L1 kullanarak ne yapacaklarini anlatiyor. Basta
konusmayacaklarini ogretmeni dinleyip yaptiklarini ve soylediklerini yapacaklarini anlatiyor. Ingilizce
commandlar verecegini soyluyor. 4 kisiyi secip yanina oturtuyor. Hep beraber oturuyorlar. Once onlara
sirasiyla hep 6 command veriyor. Once kendi gosteriyor, sonra hep beraber, sonra yalniz onlar, sonra tum sinif
yapiyorlar. Command sirasini degistirip tekrar soyluyor, hizli soyluyor. Sonra bir ogrenci seciyor. O ogr. tek
basina command veriyor. Bu 6 command’I iyice anladiklarindan emin olunca yenilerini ekliyor. Sonra
command’lari birbirine karistirip novel command’lar veriyor. Bunlar genelde komik oluyor. Sonra daha
complex commandlar veriyor. Sonra verdigi command’lari tahtaya yaziyor. Sts. defterlerine yaziyorlar. Daha
ileri seviyede ogranciler konusmaya hazir olunca commandlar vermeye basliyorlar.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Meaning is conveyed through actions and body T gives a command and performs it with the students.
language. The right brain which is responsible for the
non-verbal behavior should be activated at the
beginning of foreign language instruction. The target
language should be presented in chunks rather than
single words.

Their comprehension is expected to develop before Sts. say nothing.
production. They are not forced to speak until they
feel ready. They learn the language by moving their
body parts.
The imperative is a powerful linguistic device. By T sits down and issues commands to the volunteers
giving commands in imperatives T can direct sts.’
behaviors and actions.
Sts. learn by both performing and observing the After the volunteers whole class performs the actions.
actions.
Sts. should feel successful. Feeling of success and low T introduces new commands after they succeed in the
anxiety facilitate learning. previous ones.
Sts. should not be made to memorize fixed routines. T changer changes the order of commands

Error correction should be in a non-threatening way. When sts. make an error, T repeats the command by
Errors should be tolerated. acting it out.

Sts. should develop flexibility in understanding novel T issues novel commands to the sts.
combinations in the target language.
Language learning is more effective when it is fun. T issues commands that are humorous commands.

Spoken language should be emphasized over written T writes the new commands on the board.
language.

Sts. speak when they feel ready. A few weeks later, a st. begins giving commands

avoid repetition.


THE FUNCTIONAL-NOTIONAL APPROACH
First of all, it is not a method. It is an approach. Teacher can choose this approach and add the techniques
taken from other methods and form an eclectic approach for their teaching. Its’ major emphasis is on the
communicative (pragmatic) purposes of the speech act. It focuses on what people want to do or what they
want to accomplish through speech. The curriculum is set dependent on the functions of the language that the
learner wants to accomplish.

Functions of language:
Introducing self and other people
Asking for information
Exchanging information
Asking questions
Giving commands and directing people
Apologizing and thanking
Identifying and describing
Imaginative function

Functional language also incorporates specific notions. Notions are meaning of elements which may be
expressed through nouns’ pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives and adverbs. Notions may
change according to gender, number, tense, aspect, emphasis, the context and to whom we are addressing
our speech (the teacher or a student; the boss or the employee, family member or a stranger).

Students and their communicative purposes are at the very center of the teaching program. The learner’s
academic, social and vocational needs will underlie all aspects of the program’s linguistic and cultural context.
It makes provision through a unit or a module system. As the program is designed according to the needs of
the learner, the linguistic context, the curriculum will be meaningful to the learner and thus will be self-
motivating. The learner will have intrinsic motivation which leads to successful learning.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Communicative Language Teaching is influenced by the Communicative Approach. According to this approach,
communicative competence is the goal of language teaching. Classroom goals are focused on all of the
components of communicative competence such as grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic and
strategic. That means, linguistic competence (the knowledge of forms and their meanings) is just one part of
communicative competence. Another aspect of communicative competence is knowledge of the functions the
language is used for. The teacher tries to get students to develop linguistic fluency besides accuracy. In
addition, learners should be able to adjust their language use according to the status of the interlocutor and
the social context in which the communication takes place. Language techniques are designed to engage
learners in the functional and authentic use of language for meaningful purposes. It reminds us of functional-
notional approach. It involves knowing and using the appropriate notions according to the functions of the
language that the learner wants to accomplish.

For example; in the role-play activity, T wants them to imagine that they are employees of the same company.
He also wants one member of each group to act as the boss. T wants them to discuss the possible outcomes of
a merging agreement between their company and another company in a company meeting. After the
discussion session, they discuss on the language forms appropriate when speaking to a colleague and when
speaking to the boss. T introduces a situation in which the boss doesn’t think that the vacation policy will
change after the merging but the employee thinks it will. T and the students discuss that it is more appropriate
to say “I think the vacation policy might change” instead of saying “The vacation policy will change”. On the
other hand, if it is your colleague with whom you disagree, than there is no problem in saying “The vacation
policy will change” or “I know/I’m sure that the vacation policy will change”.

According to Morrow (1981), activities that are truly communicative should have three features in common:

1) Information gap: It refers to a situation where one of the communicators knows something that the other
one does not.
In the card game the speaker did not know what her classmate was going to do the following weekend. So,
there is an information gap.
2) Choice: Student chooses a kind of sport from the blackboard and utters it in the form that she likes. So, the
student has a choice both in terms of prediction and the language form.
3) Feedback: The speaker received feedback from the members of her group. If the students didn’t have the
card that involved her prediction, she opened the card which had been put face down on the table and
learned that her prediction was true.

Classroom tasks are designed to equip students with the skills necessary for communication outside
the classroom in different contexts.

Goals of the T: The goal is to enable students communicate in the target language. T guides them to learn and
use the functions of the language as well as the linguistic forms and the meanings. They need to know that a

variety of forms can be used to accomplish a single function or the same form of language can be used for a
variety of functions.

A speaker may say “It may rain” or “Perhaps it will rain” to make a prediction (variety of forms of language for
a single function)

A speaker can use “May” both to make a prediction and to give permission “You may sit in the back” (the
same form of language for a variety of functions)

They must also be able to choose the appropriate form according to the roles of the interlocutors and the
social context that the communication takes place in. In addition, they must also be able to negotiate meaning
with their interlocutors in order to understand whether the interlocutors decoded the message correctly or
not.

A speaker may say “Can you pass the salt?” when having dinner a dinner with his friends and family.

A speaker is more likely to say “Could you pass the salt please?” when having dinner in a formal context with
interlocutors who are socially in a higher position like his boss.

Role of the T & Sts: Teacher is the facilitator, need analyst, adviser, researcher and counselor. She is not
supposed to know everything. The teacher aims to facilitate lifelong learning among students. During the
activities he acts as an adviser, he answers sts’ questions and monitors their performance. He might make
note of the sts’ errors during a communication based activity and he might work on sts’ errors later during an
activity that focuses on forms and accuracy.
Sts. are active communicators even if they have limited competence in the target language. They are expected
to negotiate meaning continuously during communication. They are encouraged to discover their own
learning styles and to develop skills for lifelong learning.

Characteristics of the teaching/learning process: Everything is done in class and every activity aim to enhance
sts’ communication skills. Sts. use the language through meaningful communicative activities such as
scrambled sentences, language games, role-plays and problem solving tasks. Another important characteristic
of CLT is the use of authentic materials such as newspaper articles, radio programs, debates on radio and TV.
Authentic materials help students to become familiar with different types of language used in real life.

The nature of student-teacher interaction: The teacher is more effective when working with sts’ linguistic
accuracy. At other times, he is the facilitator of the activities. He mostly establishes situations that enable sts
to communicate with each other.

Language & Culture: Language is for communication. Linguistic competence is not enough. It should be
accompanied by sociolinguistic competence. Sts. should know the functions that the language is used for. In
addition, they should be able to adjust their use of language according to the status of the interlocutor and the
social context that the communication takes place in. They should be competent in using the appropriate
notions according to the functions of the language that they want to accomplish.
Culture is everyday lifestyle of people who use both verbal and non-verbal language.

Students’ Feelings: It is believed that if the learning is meaningful they will be more motivated to learn the
target language. Sts. are also given a chance to express their ideas and opinions on a regular basis.

Error correction: Errors are seen as the signs of sts’ developing language competence. Errors of form are
tolerated during communication based activities which aims to develop fluency. Sts. are accepted to be
candidates of successful communicators even with a limited linguistic knowledge. T may note the errors
during fluency activities and return to them later with an accuracy-based activity.

The role of the sts’ native language: Judicious use of sts’ native language is permitted. However, whenever
possible, the target language should be used during communicative activities, while giving instructions and
assigning homework. It is important to use the target language as much as possible because by this way sts
realize that the target language is not only a subject to be studied in school; rather, it is a tool for
communication.

Language skills emphasized: Students work on all four skills from the beginning. Generally a functional
syllabus is used. A variety of forms are introduced for each function. At first, simpler forms are introduced.
Later, as the sts become more proficient in the target language more complex forms are introduced. They also
learn about cohesion and coherence. They learn how sentences are bound together through linguistic devices
that make a text cohesive such as pronouns, articles, prepositions, auxiliaries and tense markers. They also
make use of basic semantic propositions and add linguistic devices to make a unified and a coherent text.
Activity: Introducing a newspaper headline “PM Meets Queen”. Sts. are directed to add grammar to unify the
headline and to make it coherent. “The Prime Minister has met the Queen”

Activity: Scrambled words “Kim/dog/run/over” How many sentences can you make with the following element
in any order by adding grammatical words such as pronouns, articles, prepositions, auxiliaries and tense
markers?
Subject & Object relations can be established through the use of Passive Voice.
A relationship between nouns can be established through the use of possessive ‘s.
Time relations can be clarified through the use of tense markers.

Some Definitions:

Information gap: Exists when two communicating people already know the answer to a question. In this case
the exchange is not really communicative. If the exercise is tightly controlled so that students can only say
something in one way, the speaker has no choice and the exchange, therefore, is not communicative.

Communicative competence: The knowledge of forms and their meaning is just one part of communicative
competence. Knowledge of the functions is another aspect of communicative competence. Communicative
competence is interlanguage plus 1 (i+1)

Communication: In communication the speaker has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it. True
communication is purposeful

4 dimensions of communicative competence according to Canale & Swain (1980)

1) Grammatical competence (Chomsky’s Linguistic competence): It’s the ability to recognize and produce the
distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them effectively in communication.

2) Sociolinguistic competence : (social context, purpose, participants) The knowledge of the socio-cultural
rules of language and of discourse.

3) Discourse competence (Interconnectedness within a text): The ability to connect sentences in stretches of
discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. (the odd-one out, scrambled
sentences, completing a dialogue, choosing the right response)

4) Strategic competence : the verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to
compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient
competence.
a) Initiate a communication: it’s a starter (hello, I think I know who you are )
b) Maintain a communication: to keep the communication going.
c) Repair a communication: if someone misunderstood you and you try to explain your position.
d) Terminate a communication: to stop to communicate (I have to go …..)

Strategic competence is the ability to keep the communication going.

Littlewood (1981)

Functional Communicative Activities : Social Interaction Avtivities :
Comparing pictures Conversation & Discussion
Determining likely sequence of events Dialogues & Role-plays
Discovering missing features Simulations & Skits
Following directions Improvisations
Solving problems Debates

Sample Lesson: Ogrt. bir handout dagitiyor. On yuzunde gazeteden alinmis bir spor haberi var. Kose yazari Dunya
Kupasini kimin kazanacagi konusunda tahminlerde bulunuyor. Ogr. yaziyi okuyor ve yazarin prediction yaptigi bolumlerin
altini ciziyor. Instructions are all in English. Daha sonra altini cizdiklerini okuyorlar. Ogrt. tartistiklari predictionlari
tahtaya yaziyor. Daha sonra yazarin hangi predictionlarda daha emin hissettigi, hangilerinde daha emin hissettigi
konusunda tartisiyorlar. Daha sonra ogrt. tahtadaki ilk cumleye bakmalarini ve onu baska sekilde soylemelerini istiyor.
Sts. tahminde bulunuyor. Ogrt. de bir tane offer ediyor. Daha sonra sayfanin arkasini ceviriyorlar ve scrambled sentences
(metinden) activity yapiyorlar. Sonra bes kisilik gruplara ayrilip oyun oynuyorlar. Her gruba 13 kartlik bir deste dagitiyor.
Her kartin uzerinde bir sport equipment resmi var. Ogr. isimlerini tek tek identify ediyor ve ogrt. de tahtaya yaziyor.
Kartlar karistiriliyor ve gruptaki ogr. her birine 3 adet kart dagitiliyor. Kalan tek kart grubun ortasina kapali olarak
konuyor. Ogr. ellerindeki kartlari kimseye gostermiyor. Gruptaki 5. Kisiye kart dagitilmiyor. O ogr. siniftaki belirli bir ogr.
gelecek haftasonu ne yapacagini bulmaya calisiyor. Bunun icin predictionlar iceren cumleler kuruyor. “Simon may go
skiing this weekend.” Eger grup arkadaslarinin elinde o kart var ise cevap veriyor “Simon can’t go skiing because I have
his skis.” Eger prediction yapan ogr. soyledigi spora ait malzeme kimsenin elinde yok ise o ogr. ortadaki kapali karti
aciyor ve bu defa daha kesin bir prediction yapiyor ve mesela “Simon will go skiing next weekend” diyor. Sts. take turns

so that each st. has a chance to make the predictions about how a classmate will spend his or her time. Daha sonra
ogrt.ulkelerin gelecegi ve dunya ile ilgili bir dizi predictions okuyor. The sts. are told to make statements about how
probable they think the predictions are and why they believe so. They are also asked how they feel about the prediction.
Bir ogr. dusuncelerini soylerken ungramm. cumle kuruyor ama ogrt. ignore ediyor. Daha sonra ogrt. ogr. 3 kisilik gruplara
boluyor. Gruptaki 1 ogr. picture strip story veriliyor. There are six pictures in a row on a piece of paper, but no words.
The pictures tell a story. Hikayeyi elinde tutatn ogr. grup arkadaslarina ilk resmi gosteriyor (digger resimleri cover
ederek). Grup arkadaslari takip eden resimde ne olacagini predict ediyorlar. Hikayeyi elinde tutan ogr. dogru olup
olmadiklarini soyluyor ve resmi aciyor. Tum resimler bitene kadar oyun devam ediyor. Bitince ogrt. yeni bir set picture
strip veriyor. Ogr. roller degiserek aktiviteye devam ediyorlar. Son aktivite olarak ogrt. role-play yapacaklarini soyluyor
ve ogr. 4 kisilik gruplara boluyor. Ayni sirketin employee’leri olduklarini hayal etmelerini istiyor. Iclerinden birini boss
olarak secmelerini ve bor toplantida olduklarini dusunmelerini istiyor. They are having a meeting to discuss what will
possibly occur as a result of their company merging with another company. Baslamadan once bazi possibilityleri sinifca
tartisiyorlar (possibility of losing their jobs, moving, changes in company policies, increase/decrease in salaries,ext.) Ogr.
aktiviteye baslamadan ogrt. bir hatirlatma yapiyor: “Remember, that one of you in each group is the boss. You should
think about this relationship if, for example, he or she makes a prediction that you don’t agree with. 15 dk. They perform
their role. Ogr. bu arada grup grup dolasiyor ve offers advice on what the sts. can discuss. Ogr. sorularini da yanitliyor.
Sonra sinifta statu olarak kendilerinden yuksek bir konumda olan patronlarinin disagree ettigi durumlarda
predictionlarini yaparken use of language’I nasil adjust edebeliceklerini tartisiyorlar. Mesela patron vacation policy’nin
degisecegi konusunda sizinle ayni fikirde degil ise, “The vacation policy will change” yerine “I think the vacation policy
may change” demenin daha dogru olmasi gibi. Son olarak ogrt. homework assignment veriyor. TV veya radio’da o aksam
yayinlanacak olan iki politikaci adayinin katildigi bir debate’I dinlemelerini ve Ingilizce olarak kimin kazanacagina dair
predictionlarini nedenlerini belirterek yazmalarini istiyor. Gelecek dersin basinda ogrencilere okuyacaklarini soyluyor.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Whenever possible, authentic language that is the T distributes a handout that has a copy of a sports
language used in real context should be introduced. column from a recent newspaper.

Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s Sts. underline the writer’s predictions and try to find
intentions is part of being communicatively out the ones that he is uncertain and less certain.
competent.
The target language is not only a subject to be T gives all the instructions in the target language.
studied. It is the means of communication.
One function can be expressed by using different Sts. try to state the reporter’s predictions in different
notions. The focus of the course is on real language words.
use so, a variety of linguistic forms are presented
together. The emphasis is on the process of
communication rather than just the mastery of
language forms.
Sts. should work with language at the discourse level. Sts. unscramble the sentences of the newspaper
They must learn about the properties of language article.
(cohesion and coherence) which bind the sentences
together.
Games have certain features in common with real Sts. play a language game.
communicative events. Also, the speaker receives
immediate feedback from the listener on whether or
not he or she has successfully communicated. In this
way, they can negotiate meaning.
Sts. should be given an opportunity to express their Sts. are asked how they feel about the predictions.
ideas and opinions.
Errors are tolerated and as seen as a sign of sts’ A student makes an error. The teacher and other sts.
developing competence in the target language. T ignore it.
doesn’t correct the st. during a fluency-based activity
but simply notes the errors and work on them at a
later point.
One of the major responsibilities of the T is to T gives each group a strip of story and a task to
establish situations that promote communication. perform. Sts. predict what the next picture in the strip
Communicative interaction encourages cooperative story will be.
relations among sts. Sts. find an opportunity to
negotiate meaning.
Learning to use language forms appropriately is an In a role-play activity one of the sts. acts as the boss
important part of communication competence. and T reminds sts. that they should remember this
when speaking to that st.

T acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative T moves form group to group offering advice and
activities. T also acts as an advisor during the answering questions.
activities.

The Audio-Lingual Method The Communicative Language Teaching

Attends to structure and form more than meaning. Meaning is paramount.

Structure-based dialogues are memorized. Dialogues center around communicative functions
and are not memorized.

Language learning is learning structures, sounds or Language learning is learning to communicate.
words.

Overlearning is sought. Effective communication is sought.

Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur but peripherally.

Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.

Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device that helps the learners is accepted.

Reading and writing are deferred until speech is Reading and writing can start from the first day, if
mastered. desired.

Linguistic competence is a desired goal. Communicative competence is a desired goal.

T controls the learners and prevents them from T help learners in any way that motivates them to
making errors. Language is seen as a habit formation work with the language. Errors are tolerated as they
process. Errors cause the formation of bad habits so are seen as signs of sts’ developing competence in the
they must be prevented at all costs. target language.

Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary Fluency and acceptable language are the primary
goal. goals, accuracy is judged in context.

Interaction between sts. is not allowed due to the risk Sts. are expected to interact with other sts. through
of error formation. pair and group work.

T makes use of totally controlled-activities. T cannot know exactly what language the sts. will use.

CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
Content-Based instruction and Task-based instruction are two other approaches that make communication
central. They draw on the principles of CLT. The only difference between these approaches is a matter of their
focus. The CLT instruction is centered on giving students opportunities to practice using of the communicative
functions of language. Content-Based instruction does not begin with the functions. Rather, there is a
predetermined linguistic content and the language is used to learn the content. Students learn the language as
a by-product of learning about real-world content.

Thus, CBI stands in contrast to traditional approaches to language teaching in which language form is the
primary focus of the syllabus and of classroom teaching.

It integrates the learning of language with the learning of some other content which is often an academic
subject matter. Learners get both content knowledge and increased language proficiency.

Students get “two for one” – both content knowledge and increased language proficiency.

CBI leads to integrated teaching of the four language skills. It employs authentic reading materials which
require students not only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a
forum in which students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognizes that academic
writing follows from listening and reading and thus requires students to synthesize facts and ideas from
multiple sources as preparation for writing.

There are other educational initiatives that also emphasize the principle of acquiring content through
language rather than the study of language for its own sake. These are;

Language Across the Curriculum
Immersion Education
Immigrant On-Arrival Programs
Programs for Students with Limited English Proficiency
Language for Specific Purposes

Immersion Education is a type of foreign language instruction in which the regular school curriculum is taught
through the medium of the foreign language. The foreign language is the tool for content instruction; it is not
the subject of instruction.

Immigrant on Arrival Programs typically focus on the language newly arrived immigrants in a country need for
survival. Such learners typically need to learn how to deal with differing kinds of kinds of real-world content as
a basis for social survival. In current on arrival programs, a competency based approach is often used in which
a teaching syllabus is developed around the competencies learners are presumed to need in different survival
situations.

Programs for Students with Limited English Proficiency are designed to provide instruction for any school-age
children whose language competence is insufficient to participate fully in normal school instruction.

Language for Specific Purposes is a movement that seeks to serve the language needs of learners who need
language in order to carry out specific roles (e.g., student, engineer, technician, nurse) and who thus need to
acquire content and real world skills through the medium of a second language rather than master the
language for its own sake. (its subfields are English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic
Purposes).

Approach

People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring
information rather than as an end itself.
Content-Based Instruction better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language.

Theory of Language

Language is Text-Discourse Based : CBI addresses the role of language as a vehicle for learning content. the
focus of teaching is how meaning and information are communicated and constructed through texts and
discourse. The linguistic units that are central are not limited to the level of sentences, clauses and phrases but
are those that account for how longer stretches of language are used and the linguistic features that create
coherence and cohesion within speech events and text types. This involves study of the texture and discourse
structure of written texts such as letters, reports, essays, descriptions or book chapters or of speech events
such as meetings, lectures and discussions.

Language use Draws on Integrated Skills: In a content-based class students are often involved in activities that
link the skills because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real world. Topic or theme-based
courses provide a good basis for an integrated skills approach because the topics selected provide coherence
and continuity across skill areas and focus on the use of language in connected discourse rather than isolated
fragments. They seek to bring together knowledge, language and thinking skills. Grammar can also be
presented through a content-based approach.

Language is Purposeful : language is used for specific purposes. When learners focus on the purpose of the
language samples they are exposed to, they become engaged in following through and seeing if the purpose is
attained and how their own interests relate to this purpose. In order to make content comprehensible for
learners teachers need to make adjustments and simplifications.

These modifications include;

Simplification (using shorter teacher units and clauses)
Well-formedness (using few deviations from standard usage)
Explicitness (speaking with non-reduced pronunciation)
Regularization (use of conocial word order)
Redundancy (highlighting important materials through simultaneous use of several linguistic
mechanisms).

Theory of Learning

People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as means of acquiring
information, rather than as an end itself.

o In formal educational settings, second languages are best learned when the focus is on mastery
of content rather than on mastery of language.
People learn a second language more successfully when the information they are acquiring is
perceived as interesting, useful and leading to a desired goal.

o For successful learning to occur, the language syllabus must take into account the eventual uses
the learner will make of the target language. The use of informational content which is
perceived as relevant by the learner is assumed by many to increase motivation in the language
course, and thus to promote more effective learning. Language learning is also believed to be
more motivating when students are focusing on something other than language, such as ideas,
issues and opinions. If content with a high level of interest is chosen, learners may acquire the
language more willingly.

Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others.

o For example geography is often the first choice of the subject matter as it is highly visual, spatial
and contextual. It includes the use of maps, charts and relia. In addition the language tends to
be descriptive in nature with use of the cognates and proper names.

Students learn best when instruction addresses students’ needs

o Authentic texts, both written and spoken, that students will encounter in the real world provide
the starting point for developing a syllabus, so relevance to learners’ needs is assured.

Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners

o CBI seeks to build on students’ current knowledge and previous knowledge. Students do not
start out as blank slates but are treated as bringing important knowledge and understanding to
the classroom.

Learners Roles

Students will support each other in collaborative modes of learning. CBI is in the learning by doing school of
pedagogy. This assumes an active role by learners in several dimensions. Learners are expected to be active
interpreters of input, willing to tolerate uncertainty along the path of learning, willing to explore alternative
learning strategies and willing to seek multiple interpretations of oral and written texts. Learners themselves
may be sources of content and joint participants in the selection of topics and activities.

The Role of Teachers

They must be knowledgeable in the subject matter and be able to elicit that knowledge from their students.
They are responsible for selecting and adapting authentic materials for use in class, they become student
needs analysts and they have to create truly learner-centered classrooms.

Stryker and Leaver suggest the following essential skills for any CBI instructor:

Varying the format of classroom instruction
Using group work and team-building techniques
Organizing jigsaw reading arrangements
Defining the background knowledge and language skills required for student success.
Helping students develop coping strategies
Using process approaches to writing
Using appropriate error correction techniques
Developing and maintaining high levels of student esteem

The Role of Materials

The materials are authentic. They are like the kinds of materials used in native-language instruction.
Authenticity refers to introduction of newspaper and magazine articles and any other media materials that
were not originally produced for language teaching purposes. CBI practitioners recommend the use of relia
such as tourist guidebooks, technical journals, railway timetables, newspaper adds, radio and TV broadcasts,
videotapes and audiotapes.

Materials may need modification in order to ensure maximum comprehensibility. This may mean linguistic
simplification or adding redundancy to text materials.

Contemporary Models of CBI

Theme-based language instruction refers to a language course in which the syllabus is organized around
themes or topics such as “pollution” or “woman rights”.

A topic might be introduced through a reading, vocabulary developed through guided discussion, audio or
video material on the same topic used for listening comprehension, followed by written assignments
integrating information from several different sources.

Sheltered-content instruction refers to content courses taught in the second language by a content area
specialist, to a group of ESL learners who have been grouped together for this purpose. The ESL students are
not in a class together with native speakers. The instructor will choose a text of suitable difficulty level for the
learners and adjust course requirements to accommodate the learners’ language capacities.

Adjunct language instruction refers to a kind of instruction in which students are enrolled in two linked
courses. Students enroll in a regular academic course. In addition, they take a language course that is linked
to the academic course. Then, during the language class, the language teacher’s focus is on helping students

process the language in order to understand the academic content presented by the subject teacher. The
language teacher also helps students to complete academic tasks such as writing term papers, improving their
note-taking abilities and reading academic textbooks assigned by the content teacher.

Team-teach approach is a variation on the adjunct approach. It focuses on lecture comprehension and the
writing of examination questions in fields such as transportation and plant biology. An example is from a
polytechnic program in Singapore. An English-for-occupational purpose writing course was designed to
prepare students for writing tasks they might have to carry out in future jobs in building maintenance and
management.

Skills-based approach focuses on a specific academic skill area (eg. Academic writing)

Courses at Elementary and Secondary Level

Theme-based approach: Topics (eg. consumer education, map skills, foods and nutrition, nuclear age, sports,
Green movement, street kids and teenage smoking) were chosen primarily cater to the widest variety of
students’ needs and interests. Linguistic appropriateness was another factor taken into account.

A sample content-based lesson I

The lesson is a Spanish lesson built around the viewing of the film El Norte.

Preliminary Preparation: Students read reference materials regarding US immigration laws as well as an
extract from Octavio Paz’s book.

1. Linguistic analysis: Discussion of grammar and vocabulary based on students’ analysis of oral presentations
done the day before.

2. Preparation for the film : Activities previewing vocabulary in the film including a vocabulary worksheet.

3. Viewing a segment of the movie.

4. Discussion of the film: The teacher leads a discussion of the film.

5. Discussion of the reading.

6. Videotaped interview: Students see a short interview in which immigration matters are discussed.

7. Discussion: A discussion of immigration reform.

8. Preparation of articles: Students are given time to read related articles and prepare a class presentation.

9. Presentation of articles: Students make presentations, which may be taped so that they can later listen for

self-correction.

A sample content-based lesson II

T ss’a “what is a globe” diye soruyor. Bazilari isaretle bazilari sozle cevap veriyor. T masanin altindan bir globe
cikariyor ve ss’a onunla ilgili ne bildiklarini soruyor. Cevaplari tahtaya yaziyor. Dil acisindan anlatmakta
zorlandiklarinda eksik bolumleri tamamlamalari icin destek oluyor. Daha sonra, seyredecekleri video
“Understanding Globes” uzerine hazirlanmis bir handout dagitiyor. Handoutun basinda “Some Vocabulary to
know” yaziyor. Listed are some key geographical terms used in the video. T kelimeleri okurken ss. dinliyor.
Paragraphi okumalarini ve tepede yazan kelimeleri kullanarak fill in the blanks yaomalarini istiyor. Bitirdikten
sonra video’yu izliyorlar. Videoyu izlerken kalan bosluklara uygun kelimeleri yaziyorlar. Daha sonra ss. pair up
to chech their answers. Daha sonra T dikkatlerini paragrafta cok gecen passive verb yapilara cekiyor. Passive’in
ne ise yaradigini anlatiyor (there’s no deductive teaching). Latitude ve longitude’un dunyadaki herhangi bir
yeri tespit etmekte nasil kullanildigini anlatiyor ve ornekler veriyor. In her examples, T integrates the present
passive and the content focus at the same time. Sonra ss. play a guessing game. Gruplara ayrilip bes sehir ismi
dusunuyorlar. Daha sonra bu sehirleri T ogrettigi sekilde globe uzerine yerlestiriyorlar ve latitude ve longitude
coordinatlarini yaziyorlar. Sonra sesli okuyorlar ve digger ogrencilerin sehrin ismini bilmesini bekliyorlar. Odev
olarak T onlara bir harita ve Australia’nin description’ini veriyor. Description’I okumalari ve major sehirleri ve
points of interest bolgeleri isaretlemelerini istiyor.

Critics

Most language teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill rather than to teach a content subject.
Thus, language teachers may be insufficiently grounded to teach subject matter in which they have not been
trained.

CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION

The subject matter content is used for language The class is studying geography.
teaching purposes.

Teaching should build on students’ previous The teacher asks the students what they know about
experience. a globe.

When learners perceive the relevance of their Sts. call out their answers enthusiastically as the
language use, they are motivated to learn. They know teacher writes them on the board.
that it is a means to an end, rather than an end itself.

T scaffolds the linguistic content. She helps learners T supplies the missing language when the sts. have
say what it is they want to say by building together trouble in explaining a concept in the target language.
with the sts. a complete utterance.
Language is learned most effectively when it is used Sts. unscramble the sentences of the newspaper
as a medium to convey informational content of article.
interest to the sts.
Games have certain features in common with real T reads the new vocabulary and then the sts. watch a
communicative events. Also, the speaker receives video entitled “Understanding Globes”.
immediate feedback from the listener on whether or
not he or she has successfully communicated. In this
way, they can negotiate meaning.
Vocabulary is easy to acquire when there are Sts. fill in the vocabulary words in the blanks in the
contextual clues to help convey meaning. modified cloze passage as they watch the video.

When they work with authentic subject matter, sts. T provides a number of examples using the present
need language support. For instance, the teacher may passive with latitude and longitude co-ordinates.
provide a number of examples, use comprehension
checks, etc.
Learners work with meaningful, cognitively Sts. are given the latitude and longitude coordinates
demanding language and content within the context and they have to come to the front of the classroom
of authentic material and tasks. to find the city on the globe.

Communicative competence involves more than using In a role-play activity one of the sts. acts as the boss
language in conversation. It also includes the ability to and T reminds sts. that they should remember this
read, discuss and write about content from other when speaking to that st.
fields.

THE WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH
Its philosophy has much in common with Content-Based Instruction. The language is regarded holistically,
rather than as pieces such as the vocabulary words, grammatical structures and pronunciation points. Whole
language educators believe that students do not learn best by learning the language piece by piece. They learn
best when they are working to understand the meaning of whole texts. In other words, students work from
the “top down” attempting first to understand the meaning of the overall text before they work on the
linguistic forms comprising it. It is thought that the learning process will work best when students are engaged
in purposeful use of language.

Whole language educators see errors as part of learning and they encourage students to experiment with
reading and writing to promote both their enjoyment and ownership. Whole Language educators embrace the
ideas of Vygotsky about the social nature of learning. As a social process, it is assumed that learning is best
served by collaboration between teacher and students and among students.

A Sample Lesson

Reading Skills: Sts. okumayi ogreniyorlar. T onlarin sirayla life experiences’larini ogreniyor ve bir kagida yaziyor
(in the target language). Sonra her st. T yardimiyla kendi hayat experience’ini okumaya calisiyor.

It applies the principles of whole-language as the text is about content that is significant to the students, it is
collaboratively produced, it is whole and since it is the student’s story, the link between text and meaning is
facilitated.

Writing Skills: do a bit of brainstorming about the topic during the pre-writing stage and then, have students
write about the topic. While they are writing assist them and let them communicate and assist each other.
Give feedback on their writing up to that point, make revisions. Based on the feedback they receive, let them
revise and continue their writing.

In this way, students learn to view their writing as someone else’s reading and to improve both the expression
of meaning and the form of their writing as they draft and redraft.

Another way is to have students keep dialogue journals. It is a widely used technique in the Whole Language
Approach. It involves students writing in class or for homework regularly, perhaps after each class or once a
week. There may be particular focus for the writing, such as the students’ expressing their feelings for how
and what they are learning. The writing might also be on anything that the students wish to communicate to
the teacher. The teacher reads the students’ journals and writes a response to it but does not correct its form.

TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
Content-Based instruction and Task-based instruction are two other approaches that make communication
central. They draw on the principles of CLT. The only difference between these approaches is a matter of their
focus. It refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in
language teaching.

Task is a form of technique that focuses on the authentic use of language for meaningful communicative
purposes.

David Nunan 1989 “…is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating ,
producing or interacting in the TL while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form”.

Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning.
Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.
Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

Recent researches revealed that the traditional type of grammar focused teaching activities do not promote
the cognitive development of learners. Engaging learners in task work provides a better context for the
activation of learning processes. Thus, provides better opportunities for language learning to take place. Tasks
are proposed as useful vehicles for applying these principles.

Language focus follows the completion of the task. The teacher may introduce a material and they may match
their task with that of the teachers. Then, they discuss on the language. The teacher and the students give
feedback.

Task types

Listing

Task: Make a list of vocabulary or make a list of good teaches. The student may list as following- a good
teacher is planned, honest, competent …..

Ordering sorting

Task: Order from the most important quality to the less important one.
Here the student is asked to arrange the adjectives which he had chosen before

Comparing

Task: They might be asked to compare and present two cities

Problem solving

Task: What can we do to prevent global warming? Homework

Sharing personal experiences

Task: Students are going to talk about their experiences.

Creative task

Task: Come up with come solutions about global warming
Jig-saw

The teacher gives each group a part of the information and the students need to complete the task. In this
jigsaw task students have to listen to different parts of a total set of information they need to complete a task.

Decision making

Kalp nakli için 6 kişiden 4 ünü seçmek

Opinion exchange and Problem solving (authentic speaking and listening)

The three types of tasks identified by Praphu

An information-gap activity: it involves the exchange of information among participants in order to complete a
task. For example, a student may describe a picture for another student to draw or students drawing each
other’s family trees after sharing information.

In the sample lesson described below, students had to exchange information within their groups in order to
complete the timetable.

A reasoning-gap activity: it requires sts. to derive some new information by inferring it from information they
have been given. For example sts. might be given a railroad timetable and asked to work out the best route to
get from one particular city to another or they might be asked to solve a riddle.

In the sample lesson described below, students were asked to use their findings to figure out how best to
discover their classmate’s three popular subjects.

Project Work

The language practiced in the classroom is not predetermined, but rather derives from the nature of a
particular project that students are required to do. For example students might decide to take on a project
such as publishing a school newspaper in the target language.

This project would follow three stages;

During the first stage, the students would work in their class, planning in collaboration with the teacher, the
content and scope of the project and specific language needs they might have. They might also devise some
strategies for how they will carry out the tasks, such as assigning each other specific roles to fulfill.

The second stage typically takes place outside the classroom and involves the gathering of any necessary
information. For example, if the students have decided to publish a school newspaper then, this stage might
involve their conducting interviews, taking photographs and gathering printed or visual material. It would also
include writing up their interviews and laying out and printing and distributing the first edition of their
newspaper. During this stage students may well use all four skills in a natural integrated fashion.

In the third and final stage students review the project. They monitor their own work and receive feedback
from the teacher on their performance. At each of these three stages, the teacher will be working with the
students acting as counselor and consultant, not as the project director.

Sample Lesson Plan

T derse “We are going to do a lesson on timetables” diyerek basliyor. Tahtaya columns and rows ciziyor ve ilk
column’a 09:30-10:15 yaziyor. Sts. ogretmenin gunun ilk ders saatinin suresini yazdigini anliyorlar ve devamini
getiriyorlar. T’nin tum columnlari doldurmasina sinifca yardim ediyorlar. T tahtaya voluntarily bir sts. cagiriyor
ve o da haftanin gunlerini yaziyor. Sasirdigi yerde sinif spelling’e yardim ediyor. “is that correct?” T asks and
sts. say “Yes”. T sinifi beser kisilik 8 gruba boluyor. Her gruba haftanin bir gununun schedule’ini iceren bir card
veriyor. The students’ task is to complete the week’s schedule by sharing the information on their cads with
each other. T moves around and listens to the sts. T also reminds them to speak in English. Bitiren grup
tahtaya gelip bos schedule’I hep beraber dolduruyor. Sonra T tum gruplarim timetable’larini okumak ve daha
sonra geri iade etmek uzere topluyor. Amaci content’in dogru olup olmadigina bakmak. Daha sonra sts’a grup
arkadaslari ile interview yapmalarini ve en sevdikleri dersi ogrenmelerini istiyor. Her gruptaki en sevilen 3 dersi
bulmalari gerekiyor. Bunun icin bir questionnaire hazirlamalari ve sinifta dolasarak digger arkadaslari ile de
interview yapmalari gerekiyor. Later, they have to summarize and report the results. They have to determine
how to do this. They may use percentages, a bar graph, a pie chart or some other visual display. Again, much
interaction takes place.

TASK-BASED INSTRUCTION

The class activities have a perceived purpose and a T tells the class that they are going to complete a
clear outcome. timetable.

A pre-task in which students work through a similar T begins by having the class help her begin to fill out a
task to one that they will later do individually, is a class schedule. This is done through whole-class
helpful way to have sts. see the logic involved in what interaction in the form of teacher question and
they are being asked to do. It will also allow the student response.
language necessary to complete the task to come into
play.
T breaks down into smaller steps the logical thinking T first has the sts. label the time periods and then the
process necessary to complete the task. The demand days.
on thinking made by the activity should be just above
the level which learners can meet without help.

T needs to seek ways of knowing how involved the T asks the sts. if a particular answer is right.
sts. are in the process, so she can make adjustments
in light of the learners’ perceptions of relevance and
their readiness to learn. Such teacher-class
negotiation ensures that as many students as possibly
in a mixed ability class grasp the nature of the activity.
T does not consciously simplify her language; she uses T asks “What about Saturday? Do we have school on
whatever language is necessary to have sts. Saturday?”
comprehend the current step in the pre-task. Here
she switched from a wh- question to a yes/no
question. This switch is natural strategy that
proficient speakers use when interacting with less
proficient speakers inside and outside of the
classroom.
This jigsaw task, where sts. have to listen to different Sts. then, do the task in groups, following T’s
parts of a total set of information they need to instructions. They are each given part of the
complete a task, gives them plenty of opportunity to information they need to complete the task.
engage in authentic speaking and listening and
provides opportunities to develop their
comprehension and speaking skills.
Sts. should receive feedback on their level of success Sts.’s papers were marked by the teacher on the basis
in completing the task. The overall focus is on of the content.
meaning.
Sts. have input into the design and the way that they Sts. are asked to design a way to survey the other sts.
carry out the task. This gives them more opportunity about their favorite subjects. They are to figure out a
for authentic and meaningful interaction. way to report their findings to the rest of the class.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Multiple Intelligences refers to a learner-based philosophy that characterizes human intelligence as having
multiple dimensions. MI is based on a work of Howard Gardner. Gardner notes that traditional IQ tests
measure only logic and language, yet the brain has other equally important types of intelligence. Gardner
claims that his view of intelligences is culture-free and avoids the conceptual narrowness usually associated
with traditional models of intelligence (IQ). People differ in the strengths and combinations of intelligences
Gardner posits eight different intelligences that can be enhanced through training and practice over a lifetime;

1. Verbal/Linguistic: The ability to use language in special and creative ways, which is something lawyers,
writers, educators and interpreters are strong in.

Skills include: listening, speaking, writing
Activities: note-taking, story telling

2. Logical/Mathematical : The ability to use numbers effectively to see abstract patterns and to reason
well, which is often found with doctors, engineers, programmers and scientists.

Activities: puzzles

3. Bodily/Kinesthetic : The ability to use one’s body to express oneself and to solve problems, something
found in athletes and crafts persons.

Skill include: dancing, physical coordination
Activities: hands-on activities, field trips, pantomime

4. Musical: The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sensitivity to the rhythm, pitch melody found in
strong singers and composers.

Activities: singing, playing music

5. Visual/Spatial: The ability to form mental models of the world, something architects, decorators,
sculptors and painters are good at.

Enjoy looking at maps, charts, picture….
Skills: puzzle building, reading, writing, videos

6. Interpersonal: The ability to be able to work well with people, which is strong in salespeople, politicians
and teachers.

Generally they try to maintain peace in group settings and encourage cooperation
Skills include: listening, using empathy counseling
Pair work, project work

7. Intrapersonal: The ability to understand oneself and to practice self-discipline.

Activities: self evaluation, journal keeping

8. Naturalistic: The ability to understand and organize the patterns of nature.

Teachers should recognize learner differences in teaching (learning styles, preferences, intelligences) and
plan their lessons accordingly.

Sample Lesson Plan

Step 1: Give students a riddle and ask them to solve it in pairs.

I have eyes but I see nothing, I have ears but I hear nothing. I have a mouth by I cannot speak. If
I’m young, I stay young; if I’m old, I stay old. What am I?

Answer: A person in a painting or a photograph
Intelligences: Interpersonal, Verbal/Linguistic

Step 2: (Guided Imaginary) Tell students to close their eyes and to relax; then describe a painting to
them. Ask them to imagine it. Play music while you are giving the students the description.

Intelligences: Spatial/Visual Intelligence, Musical

Step 3: Distribute to each person in a small group a written description of the same painting they have
just heard described. Each description is incomplete, however and no two in the group are
quite the same. For example, one description has certain words missing, the others have
different words missing. the students work together with the other members of the group to fill
in the missing words so that they all end up with a complete description of the painting.

Intelligences: Interpersonal, Verbal/Linguistic

Step 4: Ask students to create a tableau of painting by acting out the description.

Intelligence: Bodily/Kinesthetic

Step 5: Show the students the painting. Ask them to find five things about it that differ from their
tableau or from how they imagined the painting to look.

Intelligence: Logical/Mathematical

Step 6: (Reflection) Ask students if they have learned anything new about the target language.

Intelligence: Intrapersonal

LEARNING STYLES
Different people learn in different ways. Teachers should help people to find their own style.

Visual learners

Learn through seeing
Learn best from visual displays ( OHT, DAİGRAMS, VİDEOS)

Auditory learners

Learn through listening
Benefit from reading text aloud and use of CD players

Kinesthetic learners

Learn though, moving, doing and touching…
Learn best through a hands-on approach

Approaches

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