2. Topics and Questions
The history and
growth of
psychology
The big question:
Nature vs. Nurture
Biopsychosocial
levels of analysis
Psychology’s
subfields
Avoiding three
“common sense”
thinking errors
How do I explain
dreams? Anxiety? The
abilities and funny
behavior of babies?
The Scientific Attitude:
Curiosity, Skepticism,
Humility
The Scientific Method
Description, Correlation,
and Experimentation
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Applying psychology to
learning the text: SQ3R
3. From speculation to science:
The Birth of Modern Psychology
Aristotle (4th century BCE) had ideas
about how the body and mind work.
His method: making guesses.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) added
two key elements to help make
psychology a science:
1. carefully measured observations
2. experiments
4. Push a button when a ball
dropped (based on when they
heard the ball hit a platform):
1/10th of a second.
Push a button when
consciously aware of hearing
the ball hit the platform:
2/10ths of a second.
Wilhelm Wundt’s 1879 experiment
measured the time it took for people to:
Why were the
times different?
5. Structuralism
Edward Titchener, like his teacher Wundt, used data from
introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of
experience.
Structuralism: Using these introspective reports to build a
view of the mind’s structure
6. Functionalism: The school of thought that
Psychological processes have a function: helping us survive
as individuals, adapt as a species
The developer of
functionalism, William
James (1842-1910),
asked: How did the
human style of thinking
and behavior enable our
ancestors to live long
enough to reproduce?
James mentored another
pioneer
William
James
7. Mary Whiton Calkins
(1863-1930) became a
memory researcher and
the first female president
of the APA.
She studied with William
James but was denied a
Harvard PhD. Why?
Because of her gender.
Psychology Pioneers
Mary
Whiton
Calkins
9. Shifting definitions of “psychology”
Wilhelm
Wundt and
Edward
Titchener,
around 1900:
“The science
of mental life.”
John B.
Watson and
B.F. Skinner,
behaviorists,
1920’s: “The
scientific
study of
observable
behavior.”
Cognitive
psychologists,
1960’s,
studied
internal mental
processes,
helped by
neuroscience.
Now we combine
these definitions:
“The science of
behavior and
mental
processes.”
10. Behaviorists study and
experiment with
observable behavior.
Watson experimented
with conditioned
responses.
Skinner studied the way
consequences shape
behavior.
Like other behaviorists,
he saw little value in
introspection.
Trends in Psychological Science:
Behaviorism
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
11. Sigmund Freud, founder of
psychoanalysis:
He studied and helped people with a
variety of mental disorders.
More about Freud when we study
personality and therapy
Sigmund Freud
Trends in Psychology:
Freudian/Psychoanalytic Psychology
12. Humanists: Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers (1960s):
studied people who were thriving rather
than those who had psychological
problems.
developed theories and treatments to
help people to feel accepted and to reach
their full potential.
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Trends in Psychology:
Humanism
13. The Growth of
Psychology
Psychology’s pioneers have come
from many fields: physiology,
philosophy, medicine, and biology.
Advances in psychology also have
been made in many countries
Psychology has spread rapidly;
there are 71 member nations in
the IUPS.
The subjects studied in
psychology have
multiplied too… as we
shall see in this course.
14. The Big Issue in Psychology: N-N
To what extent are
our traits already set
in place at birth (our
“Nature”)?
And to what extent
do our traits
develop in
response to our
environment/
experience (our
“Nurture”)?
The Nature-
Nurture
Question:
15. vs.Nature Nurture
Plato:
Ideas such
as “the
good” and
“beauty”
are inborn.
Descartes:
Some ideas
are innate.
Charles Darwin: Some
traits become part of
our nature through
natural selection: they
help us survive long
enough to pass the traits
to the next generation.
Aristotle:
All knowledge
comes through
the senses.
John Locke:
The mind is a
blank slate (blank
chalkboard or
screen) “written
on” by experience.
17. “Nurture works on what Nature endows.”
The Roles of
Nature and
Nurture:
18. Biology Plus Environment..
are part of
psychology’s three
“biopsychosocial”
levels of analysis.
The deep level,
Biology:
genes, brain,
neuro-
transmitters,
survival,
reflexes,
sensation
The outer level,
Environment:
social Influences,
culture,
education,
relationships
In the middle,
Psychology:
thoughts,
emotions,
moods, choices,
behaviors, traits,
motivations,
knowledge,
perceptions
19. The three levels as influences on
some psychological phenomenon
Example: DepressionExample: IntelligenceExample: Enjoying SoccerExample: Shyness
20. Cognitive
perspective
Social-cultural
Behavioral
genetics
Neuroscience
Psychodynamic
Behaviorist
Evolutionary
There are many
perspectives for
describing
psychological
phenomena: From different angles, you ask different questions:
How reliable is memory? How can we improve our
thinking?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be
“downloads” from our culture?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be
genetically programmed instincts?
What role do our bodies and brains play in
emotions? How is pain inhibited? Can we trust our
senses?
Do inner childhood conflicts still plague me and
affect my behavior?
How are our problematic behaviors reinforced?
How do our fears become conditioned? What can
we do to change these fears and behaviors?
Why are humans prone to panic, anger, and
making irrational judgments?
22. Let’s play: “What’s my perspective?”
“Obsessive-
compulsive
disorder is a
problem in the
orbital cortex.”
“No, it’s a sign
of unresolved
childhood
issues.”“No, OCD is
an
inherited
condition.”
“Compulsions start as habits
and are rewarded by the
anxiety relief they bring.”
“OCD comes
from our
natural instinct
to control our
environment.”
“OCD thinking
and behavior is a
reaction to our
fast-paced, out-
of-control
lifestyles.”
“No, OCD is a matter
of mental habits and
errors that can be
corrected.”
23. Psychology’s Subfields
Applied
Clinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Basic research
Biological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
24. Psychology’s Subfields
Research Examples
Type of research
Biological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
Study how the stages of
cognitive and emotional
development vary in autism
Explore the structural problems
in the brain that may be part of
autism
Clarify the difficulties autistic
children have with
understanding sarcasm
Decide whether traits like
neuroticism need to be
measured differently in autism
Find how autistic children can
learn social skills as procedures
if not by intuition
Explore what motivates people
and contributes to life
satisfaction
25. Applied
Clinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields
Applied
Help someone achieve career
goals despite family conflict and
self-doubt
Use exposure therapy to
decrease phobic reactions in a
traumatized client
Evaluate aptitudes and
achievement to plan for a
student with learning problems
Figure out how a factory can
improve coordination of tasks,
roles, and personalities
Help coordinate a city’s efforts
to understand and prevent
elder abuse
Use exposure therapy to
decrease phobic reactions in a
traumatized client
26. Psychology in context with
other professions
Psychiatrists are
physicians, M.D.s or
D.O.s. They can prescribe
medication.
In addition to
psychologists,
professionals in social
work, counseling, and
marriage and family
therapy may be trained
to do psychotherapy.
27. The Need for Psychological Science:
Overview
Typical errors in hindsight, overconfidence, and
coincidence
The scientific attitude and critical thinking
The scientific method: theories and hypotheses
Gathering psychological data: description,
correlation, and experimentation/causation
Describing data: significant differences
Issues in psychology: laboratory vs. life, culture
and gender, values and ethics
28. When our natural thinking style fails:
Hindsight bias:
“I knew it all
along.”
Overconfidence
error:
“I am sure I am
correct.”The coincidence
error, or
mistakenly
perceiving order
in random events:
“The dice must be
fixed because you
rolled three sixes
in a row.”
29. Hindsight
bias is like a
crystal ball
that we use
to predict…
the past.
I knew this would
happen…
You were accepted
into this
college/university
Classic example:
after watching a
competition (sports,
cooking), if you don’t
make a prediction
ahead of time, you
might make a
“postdiction”: “I
figured that
team/person would
win because…”
When you see most
results of
psychological
research, you might
say, “that was
obvious…”
Hindsight Bias
30. These sayings all
seem to make sense,
in hindsight, after we
read them.
Out of sight, out of mind
S/He who hesitates is lost
No [wo]man is an island
Actions speak louder than words
You’re never too old to learn
Curiosity killed the cat
Opposites attract
There’s no place like home
Absence makes the heart grow fonder
Look before you leap
Good fences make good neighbors
The pen is mightier than the sword
You can’t teach an old dog new tricks
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence
Seek and ye shall find
Birds of a feather flock together
But then why do
these other
phrases also seem
to make sense?
31. Hindsight “Bias”
The mind builds its
current wisdom around
what we have already
been told. We are
“biased” in favor of old
information.
For example, we may
stay in a bad relationship
because it has lasted this
far and thus was “meant
to be.”
Why call it “bias”?
32. Overconfidence
Error:
Predicting performance
We overestimate our
performance, our rate of work,
our skills, and our degree of
self-control.
Overconfidence
Error:
Judging our accuracy
When stating that we
“know” something, our
level of confidence is
usually much higher than
our level of accuracy.
Overconfidence is a
problem in preparing for
tests. Familiarity is not
understanding
If you feel confident
that you know a concept,
try explaining it to
someone else.
Test for this: “how long do
you think it takes you to…”
(e.g. “just finish this one thing I’m
doing on the computer before I get
to work”)?
How fast can you unscramble
words? Guess, then try these:
ERSEGAHEGOUN
33. Result of this
error:
reacting to
coincidence
as if it has
meaning
Perceiving order in random events:
Example: The
coin tosses
that “look
wrong” if
there are five
heads in a
row.
Danger: thinking you can make a
prediction from a random series.
If there have been five heads in a
row, you can not predict that “it’s
time for tails” on the next flip
Why this error happens: because
we have the wrong idea about
what randomness looks like.
If one poker player
at a table got pocket
aces twice in a row,
is the game rigged?
34. Making our ideas more accurate by
being scientific
What did “Amazing Randi” do
about the claim of seeing
auras? He developed a
testable prediction, which
would support the theory if it
succeeded.
Which it did not.
The aura-readers were
unable to locate the aura
around Randi’s body without
seeing Randi’s body itself, so
their claim was not
supported.
35. Scientific Attitude Part 1: Curiosity
Hypothesis:
Curiosity, if not
guided by caution,
can lead to the
death of felines
and perhaps
humans.
Definition:
always asking new
questions
“That behavior I’m noticing in that guy… is that
common to all people? Or is it more common when
under stress? Or only common for males?”
36. Scientific Attitude Part 2: Skepticism
Definition:
not accepting a ‘fact’ as true without
challenging it; seeing if ‘facts’ can
withstand attempts to disprove them
Skepticism, like curiosity, generates
questions: “Is there another
explanation for the behavior I am
seeing? Is there a problem with how I
measured it, or how I set up my
experiment? Do I need to change my
theory to fit the evidence?”
37. Scientific Attitude Part 3: Humility
Humility refers to
seeking the truth
rather than trying to
be right; a scientist
needs to be able to
accept being
wrong.
“What matters is
not my opinion or
yours, but the
truth nature
reveals in
response to our
questioning.”
David Myers
38. Critical thinking refers to a
more careful style of forming
and evaluating knowledge
than simply using intuition.
Along with the scientific method,
critical thinking will help us develop
more effective and accurate ways to
figure out what makes people do,
think, and feel the things they do.
“Think critically” with psychological science…
does this mean “criticize”?
Why do I need to
work on my thinking?
Can’t you just tell me
facts about
psychology?
• The brain is
designed for
surviving and
reproducing, but it
is not the best tool
for seeing ‘reality’
clearly.
39. Critical thinking:
analyzing
information,
arguments, and
conclusions, to
decide if they make
sense, rather than
simply accepting it.
Look for
hidden
assumptions
and decide if
you agree.
Look for
hidden bias,
politics,
values, or
personal
connections.
Put aside
your own
assumptions
and biases,
and look at
the
evidence.
See if there
was a flaw in
how the
information
was
collected.
Consider if
there are
other
possible
explanations
for the facts
or results.
40. How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions:
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is the process of
testing our ideas about the world by:
Turning our theories
into testable
predictions.
Gather information
related to our
predictions.
analyzing whether
the data fits with
our ideas.
If the data doesn’t fit our ideas, then we modify our
hypotheses, set up a study or experiment, and try
again to see if the world fits our predictions.
41. Scientific Method:
Tools and Goals
Some research findings revealed by
the scientific method:
The brain can recover from
massive early childhood
brain damage.
Sleepwalkers are not acting
out dreams.
Our brains do not have
accurate memories locked
inside like video files.
There is no “hidden and
unused 90 percent” of our
brain.
People often change their
opinions to fit their actions.
The basics:
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational
Definitions
Replication
Research goals/types:
Description
Correlation
Prediction
Causation
Experiments
42. Theory: the big picture
Example of a theory:
“All ADHD symptoms
are a reaction to
eating sugar.”
A theory, in the
language of
science, is a set of
principles, built on
observations and
other verifiable
facts, that explains
some phenomenon
and predicts its
future behavior.
43. Hypotheses: informed predictions
“Testable” means that the
hypothesis is stated in a way
that we could make
observations to find out if it
is true.
A hypothesis is
a testable
prediction
consistent with
our theory.
What would be a
prediction from the “All
ADHD is about sugar”
theory?
One hypothesis: “If a kid gets sugar, the kid will act more
distracted, impulsive, and hyper.”
To test the “All” part of the theory: “ADHD symptoms
will continue for some kids even after sugar is removed
from the diet.”
44. Danger when testing hypotheses:
theories can bias our observations
We might select only the
data, or the interpretations
of the data, that support
what we already believe.
There are safeguards
against this:
Hypotheses designed to
disconfirm
Operational definitions
Guide for making useful
observations:
How can we measure
“ADHD symptoms” in
the previous example in
observable terms?
Impulsivity = # of
times/hour calling
out without raising
hand.
Hyperactivity = # of
times/hour out of
seat
Inattention = #
minutes
continuously on task
before becoming
distracted
45. The next/final step in the
scientific method:
Replication
You could introduce a small change in the study, e.g.
trying the ADHD/sugar test on college students instead
of elementary students.
Replicating research
means trying the methods
of a study again, but with
different participants or
situations, to see if the
same results happen.
47. Scientific Method:
Tools and Goals
The basics:
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational Definitions
Replication
Research goals/types:
Description
Correlation
Prediction
Causation
Experiments
Now that we’ve covered this
We can move on to this
48. Research goal and strategy:
Description
Strategies for gathering this
information:
Case Study: observing
and gathering information
to compile an in-depth
study of one individual
Naturalistic Observation:
gathering data about
behavior; watching but
not intervening
Surveys and Interviews:
having other people
report on their own
attitudes and behavior
Descriptive
research is a
systematic,
objective
observation of
people.
The goal is to
provide a
clear, accurate
picture of
people’s
behaviors,
thoughts, and
attributes.
49. Case Study
Examining one individual in
depth
Benefit: can be a source
of ideas about human
nature in general
Example: cases of brain
damage have suggested
the function of different
parts of the brain (e.g.
Phineas Gage seen here)
Danger:
overgeneralization from
one example; “Joe got
better after tapping his
foot, so tapping must be
the key to health!”
50. Observing “natural”
behavior means just
watching (and taking
notes), and not trying
to change anything.
This method can be
used to study more
than one individual,
and to find truths
that apply to a
broader population.
Naturalistic Observation
51. The Survey
Definition: A method of
gathering information
about many people’s
thoughts or behaviors
through self-report rather
than observation.
Keys to getting useful
information:
Be careful about the
wording of questions
Only question randomly
sampled people
Wording effects
the results you get
from a survey can be
changed by your
word selection.
Example:
Q: Do you have
motivation to study
hard for this course?
Q: Do you feel a
desire to study hard
for this course?
52. What psychology
science mistake was
made here?
Hint #1: Harry Truman won.
Hint #2: The
Chicago
Tribune
interviewed
people about
whom they
would vote
for.
Hint #3:
in 1948.
Hint #4:
by
phone.
53. Random Sampling
• If you want to find out
something about men, you
can’t interview every single
man on earth.
• Sampling saves time. You
can find the ratio of colors in
this jar by making sure they
are well mixed (randomized)
and then taking a sample. population sample
Random sampling is a
technique for making
sure that every individual
in a population has an
equal chance of being in
your sample.
“Random” means
that your
selection of
participants is
driven only by
chance, not by
any characteristic.
54. Correlation
General Definition: an
observation that two
traits or attributes are
related to each other
(thus, they are “co”-
related)
Scientific definition: a
measure of how closely
two factors vary
together, or how well
you can predict a change
in one from observing a
change in the other
In a case study: The
fewer hours the boy
was allowed to sleep,
the more episodes of
aggression he
displayed.
A possible result of
many descriptive
studies:
discovering a correlation
In a naturalistic
observation:
Children in a
classroom who were
dressed in heavier
clothes were more
likely to fall asleep
than those wearing
lighter clothes.
In a survey: The
greater the number
of Facebook friends,
the less time was
spent studying.
55. Correlation Coefficient
• The correlation coefficient is a number representing how closely
and in what way two variables correlate (change together).
• The direction of the correlation can be positive (direct relationship;
both variables increase together) or negative (inverse relationship:
as one increases, the other decreases).
• The strength of the relationship, how tightly, predictably they vary
together, is measured in a number that varies from 0.00 to +/- 1.00.
Close to
+1.0
(strong negative
correlation)
(no relationship,
no correlation)
Guess the Correlation Coefficients
(strong positive
correlation)
Height vs. shoe
size
Years in school
vs. years in jail
Height vs.
intelligence
Close to
0.0
Close to
-1.0
56. If we find a correlation,
what conclusions can we
draw from it?
Let’s say we find the following
result:
there is a positive correlation
between two variables,
ice cream sales, and
rates of violent crime
How do we explain this?
57. Correlation is not Causation!
“People who floss
more regularly have
less risk of heart
disease.”
“People with bigger
feet tend to be taller.”
If this data is from a
survey, can we
conclude that
flossing might
prevent heart
disease? Or that
people with heart-
healthy habits also
floss regularly?
Does that mean
having bigger feet
causes height?
59. So how do we find out about
causation? By experimentation
Testing the theory
that ADHD = sugar:
removing sugar from
the diet of children
with ADHD to see if it
makes a difference
The depression/self-
esteem example:
trying interventions
that improve self-
esteem to see if they
cause a reduction in
depression
Experimentation:
manipulating one
factor in a
situation to
determine its
effect
60. The Control Group
• If we manipulate a variable in an experimental group
of people, and then we see an effect, how do we
know the change wouldn’t have happened anyway?
• We solve this problem by comparing this group to a
control group, a group that is the same in every way
except the one variable we are changing.
Example: two groups of children have ADHD, but
only one group stops eating refined sugar.
By using random
assignment:
randomly selecting
some study
participants to be
assigned to the
control group or the
experimental group.
How do make
sure the control
group is really
identical in every
way to the
experimental
group?
61. To clarify two similar-sounding
terms…
First you sample,
then you sort
(assign)
Random
assignment of
participants to
control or
experimental
groups is how
you control all
variables except
the one you’re
manipulating.
Random
sampling is how
you get a pool of
research
participants that
represents the
population
you’re trying to
learn about.
62. Placebo effect
Placebo effect:
experimental effects
that are caused by
expectations about
the intervention
How do we make sure that the
experimental group doesn’t
experience an effect because they
expect to experience it?
How can we make sure both
groups expect to get better, but
only one gets the real
intervention being studied?
Working with the
placebo effect:
Control groups may be
given a placebo – an
inactive substance or
other fake treatment in
place of the experimental
treatment.
The control group is
ideally “blind” to
whether they are
getting real or fake
treatment.
Many studies are
double-blind – neither
participants nor
research staff knows
which participants are
in the experimental or
control groups.
63. The variable we are able to manipulate
independently of what the other variables are
doing is called the independent variable (IV).
• If we test the ADHD/sugar hypothesis:
• Sugar = Cause = Independent Variable
• ADHD = Effect = Dependent Variable
The variable we expect to experience a change
which depends on the manipulation we’re doing is
called the dependent variable (DV).
• Did more hyper kids get to choose to be in the sugar group?
Then their preference for sugar would be a confounding
variable. (preventing this problem: random assignment).
The other variables that might have an effect on the
dependent variable are confounding variables.
Naming the variables
64. An experiment is a type of
research in which the
researcher carefully
manipulates a limited number
of factors (IVs) and measures
the impact on other factors
(DVs).
*in psychology, you
would be looking at
the effect of the
experimental change
(IV) on a behavior or
mental process (DV).
Filling in our definition of
experimentation
65. Correlation vs. causation:
the breastfeeding/intelligence question
• Studies have found that
children who were breastfed
score higher on intelligence
tests, on average, than those
who were bottle-fed.
• Can we conclude that breast
feeding CAUSES higher
intelligence?
• Not necessarily. There is at
least one confounding
variable: genes. The
intelligence test scores of the
mothers might be higher in
those who choose
breastfeeding.
• So how do we deal with this
confounding variable? Hint:
experiment.
66. Ruling out confounding variables:
experiment with random assignment
An actual study in the text: women were randomly selected to
be in a group in which breastfeeding was promoted
+6 points
67. Comparing Research Methods
Research
Method
Basic Purpose How
Conducted
What is
Manipulated
Weaknesses
Summary of the types of Research
Descriptive To observe and
record behavior
Perform case
studies,
surveys, or
naturalistic
observations
Nothing No control of
variables; single
cases may be
misleading
Correlational To detect naturally
occurring
relationships; to
assess how well
one variable
predicts another
Compute
statistical
association,
sometimes
among survey
responses
Nothing Does not specify
cause-effect; one
variable predicts
another but this
does not mean
one causes the
other
Experimental To explore cause-
effect
Manipulate
one or more
factors;
randomly
assign some
to control
group
The
independent
variable(s)
Sometimes not
possible for
practical or ethical
reasons; results
may not
generalize to
other contexts
68. Drawing conclusions from data:
are the results useful?
After finding a pattern
in our data that shows a
difference between one
group and another, we
can ask more questions.
Is the difference
reliable: can we use
this result to
generalize or to
predict the future
behavior of the
broader population?
Is the difference
significant: could the
result have been
caused by random/
chance variation
between the groups?
How to achieve reliability:
Nonbiased sampling: Make sure the
sample that you studied is a good
representation of the population you are
trying to learn about.
Consistency: Check that the data
(responses, observations) is not too
widely varied to show a clear pattern.
Many data points: Don’t try to generalize
from just a few cases, instances, or
responses.
When have you found statistically
significant difference (e.g. between
experimental and control groups)?
When your data is reliable AND
When the difference between the groups
is large (e.g. the data’s distribution curves
do not overlap too much).
69. Question: How can a result from an experiment,
possibly simplified and performed in a laboratory,
give us any insight into real life?
FAQ about Psychology
Laboratory vs.
Life
Diversity
Answer: By isolating variables and studying them
carefully, we can discover general principles that
might apply to all people.
Question: Do the insights from research really
apply to all people, or do the factors of culture
and gender override these “general” principles of
behavior?
Answer: Research can discover human universals
AND study how culture and gender influence
behavior. However, we must be careful not to
generalize too much from studies done with
subjects who do not represent the general
population.
70. Question: Why study animals? Is it possible to
protect the safety and dignity of animal research
subjects?
FAQ about Psychology
Ethics
Ethics
Answer: Sometimes, biologically related
creatures are less complex than humans and thus
easier to study. In some cases, harm to animals
generates important insights to help all creatures.
The value of animal research remains extremely
controversial.
Question: How do we protect the safety and
dignity of human subjects?
Answer: People in experiments may experience
discomfort; deceiving people sometimes yields
insights into human behavior. Human research
subjects are supposedly protected by guidelines
for non-harmful treatment, confidentiality,
informed consent, and debriefing (explaining the
purpose of the study).
71. Question: How do the values of psychologists
affect their work? Is it possible to perform value-
free research?
FAQ about Psychology
The impact of
Values
Answer: Researchers’ values affect their choices
of topics, their interpretations, their labels for
what they see, and the advice they generate from
their results. Value-free research remains an
impossible ideal.
72. An Application of Psychology:
Improving your test performance
Scientific studies show us that:
• The retrieval practice effect/testing effect
Testing yourself boosts retention of material.
• Put it in your own words, make connections
Actively processing material helps master it.
• Spread studying over multiple days
Spaced rehearsal, interspaced with other
subjects, is more efficient than cramming.
• If the concept looks familiar… not good enough
People tend to overestimate their mastery.
73. Applying this knowledge:
Use SQ3R to master a textbook
Survey
Scan/Skim what you are about to
read, especially chapter outlines
and section heads.
Question Ask questions that the text
might answer; write guesses.
Read
Look for the answer to your
questions, reading a
manageable amount at a time.
Rehearse
Recall what you’ve read in
your own words. Test
yourself with quizzes.
Review
Look over text and
notes and quickly
review the main ideas
of the whole chapter.
Hinweis der Redaktion
Click to reveal all bullets.Instructor: Of course, it would be good to see what questions your students have. You can ask what their favorite item was from the examples given by Myers, some of which are implied in the more general questions above.Another question relating to the nature/nurture debate: How much of my identity, my traits, my moods, and my behavior is influenced by my genes? How much of these are produced by conditioning and other experiences?
Click to reveal information about Aristotle.Instructor: a comment you can make along with this slide:Obviously, people thought about the nature of behavior and the mind in the 2,000 years between Aristotle and Wilhelm Wundt. However, in this class, we are mostly concerned with psychological thinkers and ideas of the last two centuries.Click to reveal information about Wundt.Instructor: Below are these two points stated in more detail:1) Carefully measured observations are detailed enough to measure “the atoms of the mind” (basic human mental processes). 2) Experiments refer to controlled activities allowing psychologists to study one “atom” (mental process) well.
Click to reveal two parts of experiment and again for the question.Instructor: You could try to get discussion going on whether our conscious choice of pushing a button is just an illusion of choice that happens after the fact. However, the real issue is that the delay is caused by the time it takes, however small, to consciously form an idea that a sound has been heard. Still, you can use this to highlight the limited value of introspection… coming up next.
Click to reveal bullets.Instructor: You might add that “Unfortunately, Titchener’s structuralism was built on unreliable data that might not generalize to all people. And he couldn’t build the whole mind from these parts.”
Click to reveal bullets.Instructor: The functionalist approach, closely related to evolutionary thinking and sometimes presented as the evolutionary approach, will come up many times in the text. Examples: Anxiety may have helped ancestors avoid dangers and plan to prevent future dangers. Getting conditioned to phobically avoid food after one experience is good for not getting poisoned. The bullet points with more detail:William James developed functionalism: studying human thoughts, feelings and behaviors and asking: What function might it serve? How might it have helped our ancestors to survive long enough to pass on these traits?He spent 12 years writing Principles of Psychology, a summary of the new science (1890, but ideas still used).
Click to reveal bullets.Calkins studied with William James but was denied a Harvard PhD because of her gender. She declined a degree offered by Radcliffe College. She taught at Wellesley College from 1891 to 1929.APA = American Psychological Association. The “experimental psychology organization” was similar in mission to today’s Association for Psychological Science.
Click to reveal bullets.
Click to show each stage, then click again to show the combined definition.Mention that there will be more on these later, especially behaviorists when we study Learning.
Click to reveal information about Watson and then Skinner.You can remind your students that we will be learning more about behaviorist study of human behavior in Chapter 7 on Learning.
Click to reveal more information about Freud.Instructor: you could mention that there will be more info on these later in the course, both in the study of personality and the study of psychotherapy.
Click to reveal more information about Maslow and Rogers.Instructor: You could mention that there will be more info on these later in the course, both in the study of personality and the study of psychotherapy.
Click to reveal bullets.First bullet details: physiology (Wilhelm Wundt, Ivan Pavlov), philosophy (William James), medicine (Sigmund Freud), and biology (Jean Piaget).Second bullet: National origins of the same men: Switzerland, America, Austria, RussiaIUPS = the International Union of Psychological Science.
Click to reveal text.
Click to reveal five bubbles of different perspectives.
Click to reveal the new nature and nurture bubbles.This interplay of nature and nurture may be more complex in humans than any other species.Another way of looking at this, suggested in the text: Behaviors can be seen as “pushed” (constrained, really) by biology, and “pulled” (influenced) by the environment.
No animation.
Click to reveal three levels.
Click to start animation example.
Click to reveal each box of questions.
No animation.Instructor: This slide illustrates the results of taking only one perspective on an issue.The image refers to the “Six Blind Men and the Elephant,” a poem by John Saxe (1816-1887) based on an ancient Indian folktale. The parable illustrates how people with limited perspective can be mistaken if they feel they have the whole picture, seeing the elephant as a rope, wall, tree trunk, fan, spear, and snake. Image (c) Jason Hunt naturalchild.org/jason
Automatic animation.Instructor: This would be “The Seven Psychologists and the client with OCD.” Ask the students if they can identify the perspective used in making the comments.I have created a different example than the “anger” one found in the book.I have color-coded the statements so students can call out suggestions by color, “the orange one is…”The answers: Orange: Neuroscience, Magenta: Psychodynamic, Blue: Behavior Genetics, Black: Behaviorist, Brown: Evolutionary, Gray: Social-Cultural, Green: Cognitive.
Click to reveal two bubbles.Instructor: Below is the content of this slide in more detail, for your lecture/discussion: Psychiatrists are physicians, M.D.s or D.O.s. Unlike psychologists in most states, psychiatrists can prescribe medication.In addition to psychologists, the marriage and family therapy, counseling, andsocial work professions include people with a Master’s degree who can diagnose and treatmental disorders, although they are usually not trained to do intelligence testing.
Click to reveal all bullets.Instructor: Note that we will start the chapter with an overview, doing our “surveying” as the SQ3R technique recommends.
Click to show three circles.Instructor: There is a series of slides explaining these concepts, not all of which are necessary.The middle error on this slide can also be described as “mistakenly thinking that a random sequence of events is a meaningful pattern.”
Optional slide.Click to reveal a sequence of four “messages” in the crystal ball.Once you saw this term explained in the book, you might have said, “I knew that’s what that meant.” However, if you haven’t done the reading, does it seem obvious?”“ ‘that was obvious…’ This is why psychological science involves predictions, and then gathering information to test our predictions.“Next slide: Let’s test our hindsight bias with some ’facts’….”
Optional slide.Automatic animation.Instructor: The point being made here: If students feel that the saying on one side makes intuitive sense, then when they see the opposing saying, you can show them that even opposing statements can each seem true in hindsight.
Optional slide.Click to reveal second graphic and text box.Further explaining the bias: We are “biased” in favor of old information; we give old knowledge more weight than new information because we feel as if we have always known it to be correct.Explaining the target image: Hindsight bias is like watching an arrow land and then drawing a target around it, saying “that was what we were aiming at.”
Optional slide.Click to reveal all bullets in each column.Instructor: Overconfidence Error 1: The example in the text of unscrambling the anagrams is a version of “performance overestimation.” “Still think you’d unscramble the words faster than it says in the book? And you peeked at the answer for “COSHA”? How about : HEGOUN (Enough) or “ERSEGA” (Grease)…” [I made those up, so I doubt they’ll have seen them]Overconfidence Error 2:Familiarity error: You may feel you know a concept from the psychology text because it looks familiar. However, then you might get surprised on the exam when it’s hard to choose between two similar answers. I suggest asking students, “do you understand?” The call on someone who nodded/raised hand to explain the concept.”Demonstration of misjudging our accuracy: Any trivia quiz in which the answers are numbers (the diameter of the earth, the age of a famous historical figure when they died, etc.) allows you to test overconfidence; give students a chance to create a 90 percent confidence interval (90 percent sure that the correct answer is between x and y), and they may still get a lot wrong, showing overconfidence. Here’s a sample online: http://tim-richardson.net/misc/estimation_quiz.html
Optional slide.Click through examples and answers.Another example: If the ball in the roulette wheel has landed on an even number four times in a row, it does not increase the likelihood that it will land on an odd number on the next spin.I have called this the “coincidence error” on another slide: the error of assuming that there is some meaning in someone winning two lotteries in one day. That error applies more to the example two slides after this one.Explaining the author’s term: The word “perceiving” is used to highlight that it is a perception, not necessarily an accurate view of reality; you PERCEIVE that the order is there in the randomness.About expecting an odd after 4 evens, Key insight: events based on luck do not even out, but over a zillion coin flips, they average out (become close to 50-50). An experiment you could do in class to demonstrate that people have the wrong idea of what randomness looks like: If there are X students in this room and we distributed X +2 pieces of candy to the class one at a time by picking names at random (where chosen names go back in the “hat”), what is the most common number of pieces students will receive?Candy example: Students may assume that most people will get one piece, but if the method is truly random, starting fresh after each piece (with names that go back into the hat after being selected), the most common number might be zero, with lots of 1’s, 2’s, even someone with 8 or more. Poker example: “No, it has to happen sometime for some player, at some table; if everyone gets the same number of AA’s then the game must be rigged. Or, if you had been able to predict in advance which player got the AA/AA, then you might be accused of being the one cheating.”One more example: Your dream tonight might not come true tomorrow. However, simply by chance, it is certain that someone’s dream, sometime this year, sometime in the world, will come true. If it’s “one chance in a billion,” this is 2000 times a year (365 days x 7 [billion]), somewhere in the world.
Click through to demonstrate “seeing and aura” when a face is covered and when a body is covered.Randi’s prediction: “If you can see my aura, then you should be able to identify my location even if my body is concealed.”The aura-readers were unable to locate the aura around Randi’s body without seeing Randi’s body itself, so their claim was not supported.Randi shows here how to apply the scientific method to serve a part of the scientific attitude we’ll refer to in a moment: skepticism.
Click through to reveal all text boxes.More thoughts and questions that might emerge from curiosity: guessing at WHY something happens. wondering if two events or traits tend to go together, or even one causes the other. wondering if there are predictable patterns in people’s behavior or traits. Comment you can add: “These guesses and wonderings sometimes take the form of ‘hypotheses,’such as: “Curiosity, if not guided by caution, can lead to the death of felines and perhaps humans.” The hypothesis refers to “curiosity killed the cat.” The human example: “what could possibly go wrong?”
Click through to reveal text boxes.Instructor: The Amazing Randi is of course an example of a skeptic; he didn’t just accept confirming evidence but thought of a situation which might really test whether people could see auras.
Click through to reveal text boxes.Instructor: Scientists put all three traits together when they doubt and challenge their own theories.Some of the enemies of humility are overconfidence, confirmation bias, and belief perseverance.
Click to reveal two text boxes.Instructor: A comment you could make before or after mentioning the scientific method, “Although our personal experiences give us many ideas about the people around us, psychological science will help us evaluate and test those ideas in order to have more accurate knowledge about mind, feelings, and behavior.”In the magenta sidebar: Optional Material. Could just be part of lecture material instead. Added comments:“We’ll see more about how our minds are not the most accurate scientific tool when we get to topics such as Memory, Sensation and Perception, and Social Thinking and Influence.”Instructor: Although the text does not bring up the phenomenon of confirmation bias at this point, I suggest mentioning it here, because it fits well with issues and examples in this chapter.
Click to reveal five circles.
Automatic animation.
Click to reveal bullets.The last bullet on the left refers to cognitive dissonance theory and explains the “foot in the door” phenomenon.Scientific Method Tools and Goals follow in next clicks.
Automatic animation.Theories are not guesses; they are the result of carefully testing many related guesses.Learn to say, when making a guess about something: “I have a theoryhypothesis…”
Click to reveal all text.If students need elaboration on this term: “Predictions” can simply be that two factors in our theory go together in the way that we suggested.Below is more detail about the sample predictions that will appear on screen, after you have the students give it a try:Example from our ADHD-sugar theory, the type of hypothesis generated by our confirmation bias: “If a kid gets sugar, the kid will act more distracted, impulsive, and hyper.” Problem: the theory could still be wrong even if we saw this result; it could be coincidence.Even better is a disconfirming hypothesis like the Amazing Randi’s test, to test the “All” part of the theory. “All” is an extremely strong word; try to find a case in which this is not true: “ADHD symptoms will continue for some kids even after sugar is removed from the diet.”
Click to reveal all bullets.
Automatic animation.“If we have planned our research well, others will readily be able to confirm the results.”
No animation.Instructor: Optional slide. If you use it, consider critiquing this example from the book as I have done below.Problem with this example, as we soon will see; the procedure described in part (3) only tells us whether self-esteem and depression vary together, but does not tell us whether low self-esteem “feeds” (implication: causes or worsens) depression. The result might be explained by depression “feeding” low self-esteem!We would come closer if there was a test of self-esteem in non-depressed people, and then the low self-esteem group later became more depressed, or if interventions that changed self esteem only were found to have an impact on depression. And of course, this implies that a “depression scale” and a “test of self-esteem’ is a meaningful and accurate (in all cases and at all times) measure of ‘depression’ and ‘self-esteem.’
Automatic animation.
Click to reveal three strategies for gathering information.“Attributes” here refers to age, gender, income, and other labels that might sort people into categories in our studies. Note that all categories are culturally determined.
Click to reveal bullets.“The plural of anecdote is not evidence” quote in the book has appeared in many versions, including the original quote that the plural of anecdote IS data. The key is whether data is collected and analyzed systematically. That’s where the next two topics take steps in the right direction..
Click to reveal bullets.
Click to reveal all bullets on right.Something to say before clicking-in the second bullet: “A survey generally covers more people than naturalistic observation, so it may find truths that apply to an even broader population, IF you do it right.”The next slides are about doing it right.Click to reveal sidebar.“The wording effect can be manipulated: use your critical thinking to catch this. Someone wanting to make students look ambitious would choose the first question, while someone wanting to make students look lazy could choose the second.”
Click to reveal bullets and example.If this is done right, a few thousand people, randomly selected, can be an adequate predictor of the population of a country of 350 million people. Click to reveal definition of random sampling. (two parts)You can add: “If the red balls were larger than the other colors, it would be harder to get a random sample by shaking the jar (counterintuitively, the larger ones would rise to the top….)”
Optional: Click for 3 fictional examples.
Click to reveal bullets and example. Click again to reveal answers.
Optional Slide, introducing the concept on the next slide, “correlation does not mean causation.”Click to reveal bullets.Possible explanations for this correlation:“Does ice cream cause crime? Does violence give people ice cream cravings?Is it because daggers and cones look similar?Perhaps both are increased by a third variable: hot weather.”
Optional slide. Click to reveal two examples and questions.Not even if one event or change in a variable precedes another can we assume that one event or variation caused the other; the correlation between the two variables could still be caused by a third factor.If the data is from a survey, we are presuming that the respondents answered accurately and/or truthfully.
No animation.If a low self-esteem test score “predicts” a high depression score, what have we confirmed?that low self-esteem causes or worsens depression?that depression is bad for self-esteem?that low self-esteem may be part of the definition of depression, and that we’re not really connecting two different variables at all?
Click to reveal bullets.About the definition: sometimes you might manipulate more than one variable, but always a limited number of variables, manipulated in a controlled way.
Click to reveal bullets.You could add/explain: “It’s called a “control” group rather than just a “comparison” group because using such a group is like being able to control the factors in the situation except the one you are manipulating. If the experimental group showed a reduction in ADHD symptoms, but the control group did also, we don’t have evidence that eliminating sugar made a difference (maybe they all got better because they were being watched, got other help, got older, etc).Click to reveal two text boxes about random assignment.Example: “If you let the participants choose which group they will be in-=-such as the mothers who decided to use breast milk vs. those who chose to use formula---then there may be some difference between the two groups.”It is important here to review the difference between random assignment and random sampling, because by test time this gets confused. You can use the next slide, but it would be better continuity to delete it and just remind them, below: “Random sampling, from the population you’re trying to learn about, refers to how you get your pool of research participants; random assignment of people to control or experimental groups is how you control all variables except the one you’re manipulating.”
Automatic animation. Optional Slide.
Click to reveal bullets, bubble and sidebar.Note: the placebo effect even occurs for non-psychotropic medications and interventions.In cases of psychotherapy, the control group can get chatty conversation or education instead of treatment.The function of double-blind research (see if they can guess): to control for the effect of research expectations on the participants. Obviously, this works better for pills than psychotherapy.
Click to reveal three types.Principle: try not to let the confounding variables vary! How to prevent the confounding variables from varying in the ice cream example: you could do all your data collection only on days in which the high temperature is 70 degrees (but why 70 degrees? why not 60 or 80 degrees? Or make the temperature a third variable? But then what about humidity?).
Click to reveal second bubble.
Click to reveal bullets.These questions set up the next slide about bottle vs. breast feeding experiments.These slides contrast the difference in what we can conclude from descriptive research vs. experimental research.
No animation.Note: for ethical and practical reasons, it is problematic to have researchers actually make the choice of nutrition for the babies, as the graphic seems to indicate. Thus I’ve added a note about how the study in the book was conducted. In that study, intelligence tests were administered at age 6, not age 8; the diagram here refers to a different study, by Lucas in 1992.Result of the study: 43 percent of women in the breastfeeding promotion group chose breastfeeding, but only 6 percent in the control group (regular pediatric care) chose breastfeeding (this was in Belarus, perhaps a part of the world influenced more than the United States by advertisements for buying formula). Result: The kids in the group breastfeeding promotion group had intelligence scores 6 percentage points higher on average (not clear from the book if this figure included those who still chose not to breastfeed; it appears so).
Click to reveal row for each research method.
Click to reveal bullets, then click to reveal an additional text box about reliability and one about significant.Remember: a result can have STATISTICAL significance (clearly not a difference caused by chance), but still not signify much.
Click to reveal each question and answer.Re: Diversity: There may be many human universals, but it is hard to be sure we have found them when so many studies in psychology are based on the responses of largely upper-middle-class, mostly white, 18-22 year olds.
Click to reveal each question and answer.
Click to reveal each question and answer.
Click to reveal each study result and advice that goes with it.
Click to reveal explantion of each step.4th, Bonus “R”: wRiting new concepts, answers, reactions, connections.