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1. Boise State UniversityCognitive Development's Influence on Educational TechnologyDepartment of Educational TechnologyJoshua A. Worsham, Graduate Student5/12/2010<br />Abstract<br />The purpose of this paper is to synthesize how the use of cognitive development has impacted educational technology in the areas of health and physical education. The goal of this synthesis will be to show how educators can use Cognitive Development Learning Theory to improve the design and implementation of lessons within the health and physical education field. While some connections were made to Piaget’s Theory, few direct links were uncovered between this theory and the educational technology applications occurring in health and physical education. There was evidence of a direct connection in a pilot program designed to help students with deafness learn concepts related to practical vocabulary. It was also noted that because of the prerequisite computer skills required for students to benefit from using many forms of technology, several of the technology based lessons or units were intended only for students in the formal operational stage.<br />quot;
Instructors are compelled to incorporate educational technology in the classroom, but often these technologies are used as productivity tools to deliver information rather than as cognitive means to support learningquot;
(Juniu, 2006, p. 68).<br />The purpose of this paper is to synthesize how the science of cognitive development has impacted Educational Technology. The focus within cognitive development will be on Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development. More specifically, this author's research focused on finding examples of the application of Piaget’s Theory related to the field of secondary health and physical education whenever possible. The ultimate goal of the synthesis is to show how educators can use this learning theory to improve design and implementation of lessons within the health and physical education field. The lessons addressed are either technology based or aided by the integration of internet and or software. <br />Cognitivism has had a powerful influence on how the value and use of information and communication technologies, especially within education, are understood (Friesen, 2007). The specific leaning theory chosen as focus of this synthesis was Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development. Interestingly, Piaget and his theory were not always popular in American education.<br />Piaget continued to produce prodigious amounts of research, on infants, on the growth of logicomathematical thought, and gradually articulated a fully-developed stage theory of child development. None of his books were translated into English between 1933 and 1949 however, during the war years when Atlantic crossings declined unless psychologists themselves relocated to America, as many, unlike Piaget, did (Zimmerman, 1982). <br />This was only temporary however. When his theory was reintroduced to the United<br />States in the late 1950s, much had changed: in the country, in education, in psychology, and in Piaget’s psychology (Zimmerman, 1982). The Stage theory has greatly impacted both developmental psychology and twentieth-century education, but how has it influenced educational technology? During the author's research of this theory, it was noted that Piaget gave no credit to anyone else for collaboration on the development of the Stage Theory. Several sources for this paper noted the importance of this theory to multiple fields of study. Because he was the sole developer however, many critics responded harshly CITATION Lou96 1033 (Lourenco, 1996). The research Piaget founded this theory on concluded that children process new information in four different ways depending on their stage of cognitive development. The four stages are: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations CITATION Web80 1033 (Webb, 1980). During the sensorimotor period, which starts at birth and last until approximately two years of age, a child uses her senses and develops motor skills to explore her surrounding environment CITATION Web80 1033 (Webb, 1980). quot;
During the preoperational stage, from about two to seven years, the child is perceptually bound; he is unable to reason logically concerning concepts that are discrepant from visual cluesquot;
CITATION Web80 94 1033 (Webb, 1980, p. 94). The last two stages, concrete operational and formal operational will be discussed in depth later in this paper. Piaget insisted that these stages must occur progressively from sensorimotor through formal operations. This is due to the building upon and restructuring of each stage as a child advances to the next. The development of cognitive structures, or learning, is an active and ongoing process CITATION Hin07 1033 (Hinde, 2007). One would conclude that this theory fits well in constructivism. <br />It is this author's finding that the Stage theory has made the greatest impact on the field of educational technology at the design level. For example, Piaget's theory of cognitive development has resonated in the minds and practice of teachers for over 50 years CITATION Hin07 1033 (Hinde, 2007). Elementary school teachers often use this theory to plan and implement curriculum. It can also help teachers who must make accommodations for special needs students old enough to be in the concrete operational stage, but are cognitively preoperational. Because of the prerequisite computer skills required for students to benefit from using many forms of technology, several of the technology based lessons or units were intended for students in the formal operational stage (Parton, 2008). These prerequisite skills include effectively using a mouse, keyboard, navigating the internet, and using productivity software. <br />The formal operational stage is characterized by abstract thinking and the ability to manipulate concepts using propositions and hypotheses CITATION Web80 1033 (Webb, 1980). For example, Susana Juniu (2006) wrote about a curriculum unit based on the constructivist learning model and the use of educational technology as a Mindtool. The curriculum was designed for Measurement and Evaluation in Health and Physical Education class for undergraduate students. Juniu states quot;
The instructor motivates students by proposing a topic or presenting a case with emphasis on the bug conceptquot;
(2006, p.68). Due to the constructivist nature of this unit and computer literacy necessary, students who are below the formal operational stage would be ill-equipped to succeed. The unit contains multiple goals and objectives that are to be acquired through generative learning while using numerous software platforms as Mindtools, or computer applications that require students to engage in cognitive processing and critical, higher order thinking about content (Juniu, 2006). One of these goals is application of the concepts learned through a Performance Assessment course, such as conducting statistical tests, interpreting and evaluating results, and making recommendations based on results (Juniu, 2006). One can understand how technology can be integrated as both a productivity tool and a cognitive tool in this instance. The technology in this example is intended to drive the curriculum, rather than be integrated into it (Juniu, 2006). This will help the students who are teachers in training gain mastery of the concepts and the software used in the curriculum, making their transition to the classroom smoother. There is an indirect connection between Piaget and the educational technology approach used in this unit via constructivism. <br />A second example of technology based education designed for students at the formal operations stage, comes from a study which tested the effectiveness of web based instruction, compared to that of standard school curriculum. Both instructional approaches addressed the topic of healthy eating habits for adolescents (Long, 2004). This study was conducted because of a growing obesity epidemic in the United States. This author has witnessed both the growing number of obese students and the state health curriculum being taught in public schools. Using technology as a means to effectively communicate to American youth about taking responsibility for their own diet is very logical. <br />Among the cultural phenomenon shaping adolescent experiences is the extensive use of technology in school and leisure activities. Technology based recreational activities abound and their popularity among young people is seen in the success of Nintendo, video arcade games, and use of the WWW (President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology,1997) as cited in (Long, 2004).<br />The study chose two groups of students to be subjected to materials intended to promote self -efficacy for healthy eating in adolescents. The intervention group was given five hours of web-based (WebQuests, gaming and related websites) instruction along with 10 hours of classroom curriculum. The web-based instruction was made up of three modules. quot;
Each module was instructionally designed with a goal, educational objectives, and interactive questions specifically tailored to adolescents quot;
(Long, 2004, p. 135). The comparison group used only standard school (science teachers using traditional activities) curriculum for a one month period. The study concluded that the intervention group displayed significantly higher scores for self -efficacy for healthy eating compared to the control group. Although not specifically stated in the article, this author deducts that in the quasi-experimental design of this instruction, the designer took into account the developmental level of the target audience. <br />Yet another example of educational technology directed at students in the formal operational stage is the pilot testing of an online system to educate high school students about osteoporosis at an age where positive health changes could make a difference in their quality of life (Schoenfeld, 2008). The pilot used the TWEEDS or Tailored Web-Education System. TWEEDS, which is copyrighted by the Research Foundation of State University of New York, is a program that quickly produces a website for viewing educational materials in an interactive manner. The study concluded that using the tailored interactive Web site approach to osteoporosis education is desirable. It is noted that high school students are accustomed to educational computing and Web-based health education can be an attractive, cost-effective method of providing this service for them. <br />Another article that supports the idea that interactive methods of health education could improve effectiveness is: A board game with safe-sex appeal. This article details an interactive board game created by Barbara Hastings-Asatourian. She designed the game specifically to meet the needs of clear education on safer sex and the prevention of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases for South African teenagers (Primary Health Care, 2005). quot;
It has proved highly successful in reaching out to those people who are resistant to traditional teaching methods by overcoming the embarrassment often associated with this important subject. It is based on a wealth of teaching experience and healthcare researchquot;
(Primary Health Care, 2005, p.21). As a health educator, access to this resource and implementation in the classroom could be a great accessory for teaching a difficult subject. One can understand the embarrassment involved in discussions about sex for teenage students in a large group, and any tool that would alleviate this awkwardness would be welcomed. <br />While the research previously noted in this paper has clearly shown that educational technology design caters to those in Piaget's formal operational stage, this author did find an excellent example of how students in the concrete operational stage can benefit from educational technology. At age seven, the child moves into the concrete operational stage and will stay there until age eleven. During this stage, the child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences (Webb, 1980). In contrast to traditional computer interactions, radio frequency identification can be used in such a way as to provide young children with computer based instruction that includes tangible manipulative (Parton, 2008). RFID technology has shown potential in connecting the physical environment and virtual artifacts. Museums were among the first to take advantage of this technology by providing guests with handheld scanners that would allow them to access supplemental information on exhibits by scanning barcodes (Parton, 2008). Becky Sue Parton and Robert Hancock decided to set up a pilot study to find out if this technological concept could help educate preschool students who were deaf. This project linked age appropriate, high frequency vocabulary with a multimedia presentation of five different stimuli that helped the child to understand the significance of the object (Parton, 2008). The presentation included a human signing the name of the object, three to five pictures, animated characters next to the object, the written English translation and an audio file for students with limited hearing (Parton, 2008). This was done by selecting a representative object and placing a barcode, or RFID tag, on it. When the tag was scanned, the multimedia presentation would be displayed on a computer. At the conclusion of this study, RFID technology was found to be well suited for use with children in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development (Parton, 2008). It was also noted that the children were engaging with the manipulatives in a natural way and were not distracted by the technology (Parton, 2008). <br />In conclusion, this author has determined that Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive development has impacted educational technology in a general sense. Only one article on the topic of educational technology, When Physical and Digital Worlds Collide: A Tool for Early Childhood Learners, specifically mentioned Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development. The other addressed the target audience of their design, but did not make direct references to which stage the students were associated with. During research, many more examples of how technology can be used with learners in the formal operational stage than the previous stages were found. There was not a wealth of peer reviewed articles on the stage theory relating to educational technology though some connections between the theory and educational technology were made. The identification of the formal operational stage may be responsible for the opportunity and availability of online graduate courses. Without the general agreement by the educational community that adults are able to participate in abstract thinking and the ability to manipulate concepts using propositions and hypotheses, one could deduct that distance and online courses would not be available. More research is warranted on the influence of Piaget's formal operational stage on adult education, specifically online and distance courses. One solid example of how educational technology can benefit students in the concrete operational stage, students with disabilities, or both has been provided. The influence of this theory on health and physical education is less direct. Many of the applications of technology within the field of health and physical education have a constructivist approach. This is an indirect link to the Stage theory, as Piaget and his research were important in building foundations in the field of constructivism. It is clear to this author that designers and teachers from all content areas take into account the developmental stage of their target audience before designing curriculum. The Stage Theory of Cognitive development can be used in the health and physical fitness subject area to strengthen design lesson implementation. <br /> <br />References<br />Canham, D. (2006). Using technology to promote self-efficacy for healthy eating in adolescents. Journal of School Nursing (Allen Press Publishing Services Inc.), 22(1), 60. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.<br />Friesen, N., & Feenberg, A. (2007). ‘Ed Tech in Reverse’: Information technologies and the cognitive revolution. Educational Philosophy & Theory, 39(7), 720-736. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00314.x.<br />(2005). A board game with safe-sex appeal. Primary Health Care, 15(9), 21-22. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.<br />Hinde, E. R. (2007). Elementary Teachers' Application of Jean Piaget's Theories of Cognitive Development during Social Studies Curriculum Debates in Arizona. Elementary School Journal, 63-79.<br />Juniu, S. (2006). Use of Technology for Constructivist Learning in a Performance Assessment Class. Measurement in Physical Education & Exercise Science, 10(1), 67-79. doi:10.1207/s15327841mpee1001_5.<br />Lourenco, O. M. (1996). In defense of Piaget's theory: A reply to 10 common criticisms. Psychological Review, 143-164.<br />Parton, B., & Hancock, R. (2008). When Physical and Digital Worlds Collide: A Tool for Early Childhood Learners. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 52(5), 22-25. doi:10.1007/s11528-008-0191-4.<br />Schoenfeld, E.R., Ng, P., Henderson, K., Wu, S. (2008). Using the Internet to Educate Adolescents About Osteoporosis: Application of a Tailored Web-Education System. Health Promotion Practice, 11(1), 104-111. doi:10.1177/1524839908321730<br />Webb, P. K. (1980). 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