4. Normal levels of calcium in the body (blood) assist with: bone maintenance. muscle contraction. hormone release. brain and nerve function. * too much or too little calcium can interfere with the above functions.
5. Endocrine system glands that regulate healthy calcium levels: parathyroid - produces more parathyroid hormone (PTH) when calcium levels fall or less when levels are too high. thyroid - produces calcitonin which slows the release of calcium from the body.
6. * Image of parathyroid and thyroid gland placement in the cervical (neck) area.
7. Causes of hypercalcemia overactive parathyroid (main cause). cancer. certain medications. certain diseases. excessive use of calcium or vitamin D supplements.
8. Overactive parathyroid will increase parathyroid hormone ( PTH) release, therefore: the bones will release excess calcium into blood. the digestive system will absorb excess calcium. the kidneys will excrete less calcium and activate vitamin D (calcitriol). Vitamin D is crucial to proper calcium absorption.
9. * diagram of normal PTH interaction with the body systems.
10. Types of cancer associated with hypercalcemia: lung. breast. multiple myeloma (cancer of plasma cells in bone marrow). tumors can cause paraneoplastic sydrome, where a protein that acts like PTH is released, initiating calcium release.
11. Medications associated with hypercalcemia Lithium - used to treat bipolar disorder. Increases release of PTH. Thiazide diuretics - used to treat hypertension and edema - decreases amount of calcium urinated.
12. Diseases associated with hypercalcemia: tuberculososis (TB) - infectious inflammatory disease most commonly affecting the respiratory system. sarcoidosis - inflammatory autoimmune disease of the lymph system. * both of the above are considered granulomatous disease because they are related to granuloma, or areas of inflamed tissue, that cause excess release of vitamin D (calcitriol). familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia - a rare genetic defect results in faulty calcium receptors.
13. Hypercalcemia complications osteoporosis - bones release too much calcium. kidney stones - crystals form from excess calcium. kidney failure - excess calcium affects kidneys ability to cleanse blood. nervous system - confusion, dementia, confusion. heart arrythmias - too much calcium can affect normal electrical impulses in the heart.
14. Hypercalcemia symptoms nausea/vomiting. loss of appetite. excess thirst. frequent urination. constipation. abdominal pain. muscle weakness. muscle/joint aches. confusion. fatigue.
15. Diagnostic tests for hypercalcemia: Blood tests - look for high calcium levels in blood or for excess PTH levels. Mammogram. Chest x-ray. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). CT (computerized tomography) scan. * above 4 tests test for lung or breast cancer, or granulomatous diseases.
17. Two main categories of causes for glycosuria hyperglycemia - blood glucose levels are so high that the renal tubules cannot absorb all of the gluscose (can't keep up). renal glycosuria - renal tubules cannot absorb glucose even when blood glucose levels are at normal to low levels (due to a defect in nephron ).
19. Conditions associated with glycosuria diabetes mellitus (most common) -insulin shortage results in inefficient breakdown of glucose. hyperthyroidism - leads to poor absorption of glucose from body's waste fluids. liver problems - conditions such as cirrhosis impair liver's ability to process carbohydrates. kidney disease - infections or disease impair glucose filtration. pregnancy - sugar "leaks" from kidney to urine common in pregnancy.
21. Glycosuria diagnostics a urine sample is collected. a color sensitive "dipstick" changes color and is used to determine amount of glucose in urine.
