Wave patterns in the ocean are created by wind blowing across the water's surface. Waves move forward in an orbital motion, with the water itself moving very little. As waves approach land, their shape changes due to interactions with the sea floor and shoreline. Waves can break when their steepness exceeds a 1:7 ratio, spilling or plunging onto the beach. Wave refraction, reflection, and diffraction alter a wave's direction as it encounters changing depths, coastlines, and obstacles.

1. STEAL FROM YOUR MOTHER
An Illustrated Publication By James Alworth

2. WORTH IT PUBLICATIONS
President and Publisher:
James Alworth
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Lane Kinkade
Emi Tiramisu
Joey Mannchild
Alen Catolico
ASSOCIATE ART DIRECTORS
Lane Kinkade
Emi Tiramisu
Joey Mannchild
Alen Catolico
Natalia Konovalovaonovalova
Library of Congress
Catalog Card Number 99-0787432
ISBN 1-886578-78-2
Printed by
M&M PRINTING
8626 S. Sepulveda Boulevard, LA
(310) 417-3875
Copyright © 2011
WORTH IT PUBLICATIONS, INC.
All rights reserved.
Manufactured in Singapore.

3. STEAL FROM YOUR MOTHER
An Illustrated Publication By James Alworth

5. CONTENTS
Chapter 1 / page 10
Wave Patterns
Chapter 2 / page 22
Fungal Patterns
Chapter 3 / page 34
Snowflake Patterns
Chapter 4 / page 46
Bamboo Patterns
Chapter / page 58
Urchin Patterns

7. INTRODUCTION
The natural world in all its glory has a myriad of new meaning. Just recently whilst walking on the beach I was at-
examples for us to photograph but we can start with the common tracted to the patterns of sand left behind as the water retreated
things that we tend to overlook. Simply because of their familiar- down the beach with each wave. The patterns that were created
ity they offer the very best opportunity for observation. Here we suggest energy and motion reflecting both the fluidity and conti-
can find patterns in nature that can be circular, linear and random nuity of the ebbing tide. This happens twice a day and has been
or indeed a combination of all three. Sometimes they are obvious doing so for countless years in the natural world but it is interest-
and sometimes they require a little effort and imagination to ing that almost identical patterns can be found after each tide. I
search out. Nature is full of patterns that interact and play off of find this repetition intriguing as it shows a consistency throughout
each other that are well worth seeing. the ages. However, even though the patterns in nature may
reoccur, the colours and reflections change dramatically with the
They offer a different view on our world, that if we are honest, changing light, time of day and weather conditions.
with our ever-increasing hectic lifestyle we often take for granted.
With a discerning eye for detail, pattern and colour we can look So even a visit to the same place will always provide something
at any natural object as simply a series of shapes composed of new and fresh to contemplate and challenge the mind.nature-
lines, curves and circles. Then consider ways in which these patterns 3 Patterns are not only confined to small objects but are
shapes and patterns relate with one another. Often it is this also there to be found in the grand scenic view and again it is
interaction that provides such a rich and diverse array of patterns the ability to really see that is all that is required. or straight and
that can satisfy even the most inquisitive amongst us and provide irregular are all combinations that reveal patterns. It is possible to
the opportunity for unique photo subjects. nature-patterns. find patterns in nature by simply isolating part of a larger scene.
Finding patterns in nature is not all that difficult. Though to derive For example a lonely section of mountainside adorned with the
the most pleasure it requires an open mind, an almost childlike golden flames of a single autumn tree can offer a very simple and
curiosity and imagination. Let us take for example the ubiquitous often starkly dramatic pattern. Or it may be the randomly fallen
nasturtium that is so common in our summer gardens. It is such leaves that decorate the woodland floor creating an abstract
an attractive plant and yet one that is so often taken for granted. pattern whilst golden shafts of sunlight penetrate through the
Why not find a little time to take a closer look and consider some wooded canopy above to enhance their beauty.
of the intriguing patterns that are revealed.
There are also many patterns within the world’s fauna; a giraffe
In the case of the nasturtium leaf I see it resembling a wheel or zebra for example clearly exhibit very striking patterns. In these
with the raised leaf veins representing the spokes radiating examples there are patterns with a purpose namely for camou-
from the centre. It portrays a solid and unified structure. One flage and defence. Closer to home, however, a simple feather can
that is not dissimilar to the mechanics of a spider’s web with all show wonderful linear patterns with the shaft, barb and barbules
the components working together for each other. Furthermore and their interlocking hooks combining together to provide both
the interplay of light can create further patterns, accentuating strength and flexibility. In particular the feathers of the much-
textures and other intricacies within the leaf adding more defini- maligned magpie have an iridescent sheen and offer wonderful
tion to the subtleties and nuances contained therein. A similar colours to enhance the strong diagonal pattern.
pattern can also be found in a single rose. The rose has long
been recognised as an emblem of simplicity and one of our most So, with renewed vision and childlike wonder the natural world
loved and beautiful flowers. The pattern emerges as the petals is without doubt a beautiful place that only requires time and an
radiate spirally outwards from the centre and one is almost drawn inquisitive mind to fully appreciate. With all the negatives that
into its glorious depths. With this power it is little wonder it is the abound it is reassuring to know that satisfaction and contentment
flower of love. can be provided by the most simple of things.
Very often natural objects contain patterns within patterns that
are only revealed by looking further and further into the subject.
Indeed, nature is very generous and only too pleased to welcome
us in to see all her glory. You can be assured that she will allow
the very closest of inspections and will not disappoint. With this
renewed awareness a simple nature photography walk takes on

9. Chapter 1
Wave
Patterns

10. Chapter 1
Wave
PATTERNS
10

11. Wave Patterns
WAVE LIFE
The ocean surface is in continual motion. Waves are a football stadium doing “the wave,” individual particles to contact the sea floor and the huge wave’s profile
the result of disturbance of the water surface; waves of water move up and then down, but do not follow the begins to change. This friction slows the circular orbital
themselves represent a restoring force to calm the moving wave form. The complete motion of the water motion of the wave’s base, but the top continues at its
surface. The standard example is the rock-in-the-pond particles is a circle, so that a small object floating on top original speed. In effect, the wave begins leaning forward
scenario. The rock provides the disturbing force, and of the wave actually describes a circle as the wave goes on its approach to shore. When the wave’s steepness
generates waves that radiate outward, eventually los- underneath it. ratio reaches 1:7, the wave’s structure collapses on top
ing their momentum and dissipating their energy so Wave period is the length of time it takes for a wave to of itself, forming a breaker.
that the pond returns to calm. pass a fixed point (crest to crest). The speed of a wave A spilling breaker is the classic rolling wave coming up a
is equal to the wavelength divided by the wave period. gradually sloping sandy beach. The long incline drains the
Characteristics of Waves Wave steepness is defined as the ratio of the wave energy of the wave over a large area.
Waves with constant wavelength Waves touch bottom
Wave characteristics include a crest at the top and a height to the wave length. When the wave builds and A plunging breaker approaches a steeper beachfront and
trough at the bottom. The difference in elevation be- reaches a steepness greater than a ratio of 1:7, the wave forms a curling crest that moves over a pocket of air. The
tween the crests and trough is the wave height. The breaks and spills forward. The wave has actually become curling water is traveling faster
distance between the crest or the troughs of waves too steep to support itself and gravity takes over. Break- The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-
is termed the wavelength. The ratio of wave height to ers are normally associated with shorelines, where they wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction
wavelength is the wave’s steepness. are known as surf, but can occur anywhere in the ocean. slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to
continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in
A cohesive force, termed capillarity, holds the water The passage of a wave only affects the water down to this manner.
molecules of the ocean surface together, allowing the wave base, which is half the wave length. Below that The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world-
insects and debris to be supported. Capillarity is depth there is negligible water movement. This is the part wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction
the initial restoring force for any body of water. The of the water column that submarines use for “clear sail- slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to
major disturbing force in the open ocean is wind. As ing.” Waves in water deeper than half their wavelengths continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward in
winds begin to blow across the surface, they create are known as deep water waves. Their speed in meters this manner.
pressure and stress. Small, rounded waves, called per second can be approximated by the equation Speed than the slowing wave base, and the water outruns itself
capillary waves, begin to form. These “ripples” have = gT/2π, where T is the wave period and g is the accel- with nothing beneath for support.
very short wavelengths, less than 1.74 centimeters eration due to gravity (9.8 meters per second squared).
(0.7 inch). For these small waves, capillarity is the Along oceanfronts with steep inclines or cliffs, a wave’s
restoring force that smoothes the surface. Shallow water waves are those moving in water less energy is expelled in a very short distance, often with
than one-twentieth the depth of their wavelength. Waves great force. These surging breakers develop and break
As winds increase, capillary wave development approaching shallow water at a shoreline are in this right at the shoreline, proving dangerous and sometimes
increases and the sea surface becomes rough. This category. In these waves, the orbits of water particles fatal to unsuspecting beachgoers. The tremendous
presents perfect conditions for the wind to catch are flat ellipses rather than circles. Shallow water wave energy dissipated at the ocean-level interface results in
more surface area of the wave, transferring increased movements can be felt at the bottom, and their interac- enormous erosion and deposition.
energy to the water. As the young wave grows in tion with the bottom affects both wave and sea floor. Wave Refraction, Reflection, and Diffraction
height, gravity replaces capillarity as the restoring Shallow water waves include both seismic sea waves
force, and the wave becomes a gravity wave with (tsunamis) generated by earthquakes at sea, and tide Seldom do wave fronts approach the shore parallel to
wavelengths exceeding 1.74 centimeters. These waves generated by the attraction of the Moon and the the beach. Rather, their direction of approach varies
waves now exhibit the standard profile of a progres- Sun on the ocean. Both of these wave types have such according to the prevailing winds and the contour of the
sive wave. long wavelengths that average ocean depths are easily oceanfront. As a wave approaches a straight shoreline
less than one-twentieth that value. The speed of shallow at an angle, one part of the wave base may begin to feel
Waves at the surface of the ocean and lakes are water waves decreases as the water depth decreases; the bottom first and begins to slow before the rest of the
orbital progressive waves. This type of wave forms at it is equal to 3.1 times the square root of depth. Transi- wave. This causes the wave crest to bend towards the
the boundary of two liquids of different density, in this tional waves have wave lengths between 2 and 20 times shore, termed refraction, allowing waves to break more
case air and water. The wave form moves forward the water depth; their speed is controlled in part by closely parallel to the beachfront than was their original
with a steady velocity, so it is called “progressive.” water depth and in part by wave period. direction. Along irregular shorelines, waves also refract,
The water itself moves very little: Like the crowd in As waves approach landmasses, the wave base begins but tend to converge on headlands, causing erosion of
11

12. Chapter 1
12

13. Wave Patterns
13

14. Chapter 1
Shallow water wave movements can be felt at the bot- great force. These surging breakers develop and break
tom, and their interaction with the bottom affects both right at the shoreline, proving dangerous and sometimes
wave and sea floor. Shallow water waves include both fatal to unsuspecting beachgoers. The tremendous
seismic sea waves (tsunamis) generated by earthquakes energy dissipated at the ocean-level interface results
at sea, and tide waves generated by the attraction of the in enormous erosion and deposition. Wave Refraction,
Moon and the Sun on the ocean. Both of these wave Reflection, and Diffraction
types have such long wavelengths that average ocean Seldom do wave fronts approach the shore parallel to
depths are easily less than one-twentieth that value. The the beach. Rather, their direction of approach varies
speed of shallow water waves decreases as the water according to the prevailing winds and the contour of the
depth decreases; it is equal to 3.1 times the square root oceanfront. As a wave approaches a straight shoreline
of depth. Transitional waves have wave lengths between at an angle, one part of the wave base may begin to feel
2 and 20 times the water depth; their speed is controlled the bottom first and begins to slow before the rest of the
in part by water depth and in part by wave period. wave. This causes the wave crest to bend towards the
Breaking Waves. shore, termed refraction, allowing waves to break more
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_-_-Z1peKOwM/TT6WmvW2EyI/ closely parallel to the beachfront than was their original
As waves approach landmasses, the wave base begins direction. Along irregular shorelines, waves also refract,
to contact the sea floor and the wave’s profile begins but tend to converge on headlands, causing erosion of
to change. This friction slows the circular orbital motion sediments; they disperse in bays, causing deposition.
of the wave’s base, but the top continues at its original
speed. In effect, the wave begins leaning forward on its As waves contact the oceanfront, not all their energy is
approach to shore. When the wave’s steepness ratio expelled. The wave will tend to reflect back to sea at an
reaches 1:7, the wave’s structure collapses on top of angle equal to its approach. The reflected waves may
itself, forming a breaker. form wave interference patterns with the original incom-
ing wave fronts.
A spilling breaker is the classic rolling wave coming up
a gradually sloping sandy beach. The long incline drains Wave diffraction is the creation of a wave around an ob-
the energy of the wave over a large area. stacle and depends on the interruption of the obstacle to
provide a new point of departure for the wave. As waves
A plunging breaker approaches a steeper beachfront approach a chain of islands, some of the approaching
and forms a curling crest that moves over a pocket of air. wave’s energy is directed through the spaces between
The curling water is traveling faster the islands. These spaces serve as a starting point for
The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world- new waves that spread across the ocean surface beyond
wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction the island chain.
slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to
continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water.
in this manner. Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-
The classic curl of a breaking wave is associated world- flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier.
wide with surfing. As a wave approaches shore, friction Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water
slows the bottom of the wave while allowing the top to to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix,
continue moving, which causes the top to lean forward U.S. Virgin Islands.
in this manner. Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water.
than the slowing wave base, and the water outruns itself Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re-
with nothing beneath for support. flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier.
Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water
Along oceanfronts with steep inclines or cliffs, a wave’s to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix,
energy is expelled in a very short distance, often with U.S. Virgin Islands.
14

15. Wave Patterns
Formation of Waves at Sea waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these
large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell
Most waves are formed by wind, usually by storm sys- Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical
tems. Unlike storm systems that are observed over land, waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin. waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin.
ocean storm systems can be quite large, some exceeding Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas
805 kilometers (500 miles) in diameter. These systems of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm
break up as they approach land, but over the ocean there systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and
is little to affect them. The wind transfers its energy to the the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength.
water through wave-building directly under the storm sys- Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon
tem in an area of mixed wave types simply termed “sea.” outrun the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The outrun the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The
Factors that affect the amount of energy transferred to long-wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights long-wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights
the waves depend on wind speed, the duration of time but move out of the generating area first, with wave but move out of the generating area first, with wave
the wind blows in one direction, and the “fetch,” the groups of progressively shorter wavelengths following. groups of progressively shorter wavelengths following.
distance over which the wind blows in one direction. This procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can This procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can
travel long distances, breaking on distant shores. travel long distances, breaking on distant shores.
Sea-wave heights determine the amount of energy
transferred. Normal sea-wave heights average less than As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell
2 meters (6.6 feet) but have been observed reaching 10 will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium
meters (33 feet.) Once the wave steepness reaches the size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the
critical 1:7 ratio of wave height to wavelength, the wave storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and
breaks and openocean breakers are formed, termed fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf. fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf.
whitecaps. Interference. Interference.
At a given wind speed, there is a maximum wind duration As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans, As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans,
and fetch which allow the waves to be fully developed. waves from different storm systems will eventually meet waves from different storm systems will eventually meet
This “fully developed sea” is in equilibrium and is defined and collide, causing interference and interesting wave and collide, causing interference and interesting wave
as the maximum size to which waves can grow under behavior. When swell wave trains collide they can pro- behavior. When swell wave trains collide they can pro-
given conditions of wind speed, duration, and fetch. At duce several types of interference. duce several types of interference.
this point, the waves of a fully developed sea will gain
as much energy from the wind as they lose to gravity as Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave
breaking whitecaps. trains have the same wavelength and they combine in- trains have the same wavelength and they combine in-
Storm-Generated Waves: Swell phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height
increases. increases.
The most intense wave generating activity is where the
winds are strongest, directly under the storm system. As Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest
waves radiate out from the center, the of one swell combines with the wave trough of another. of one swell combines with the wave trough of another.
Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand- The energy from these swells cancels each other out .w The energy from these swells cancels each other out .w
waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these
off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell
and ranging. Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical
Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand- waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin.
waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas
off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection of the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm
and ranging. systems. Wave dispersion begins to take effect and
winds decrease near the margins of the storm system. the swell waves becomes grouped by their wavelength.
The waves soon begin to outpace the wind speeds; Waves with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon
15

16. Chapter 1
16

17. Wave Patterns
Rivers/Wate
In the flow of riv
the source is a bran
structure connectin
central and larger
of water. Here, the
of the land , a contex
geomorpholog
provides a
structural temp
form that
shapes the flow of w
then the river path in t
becomes shaped by th
flow function of water and o
processes.Form and function be
Through the interplay o
function, a pattern in
formed. Running
ecosystems illustrate
principles governin
interaction of landsca
and ecological function
called “functional ecom
Of particular note are e
level interactions betwe
form and biog eoch
processes integr
by the flow
of water.
17

18. ERFALLS
Chapter 1
ers,
ching
g to a
flow
shape
t called
y,
ate
ater. But,
he terrain
e dynamic
other ecological
come interrelated.
f form and
nature is
water
several
g the
pe form
sometimes
orphology”. sediments; they disperse in bays, causing deposition. 2 meters (6.6 feet) but have been observed reaching 10
meters (33 feet.) Once the wave steepness reaches the
cosystem- As waves contact the oceanfront, not all their energy is critical 1:7 ratio of wave height to wavelength, the wave
en geologic expelled. The wave will tend to reflect back to sea at an breaks and openocean breakers are formed, termed
emical angle equal to its approach. The reflected waves may whitecaps.
form wave interference patterns with the original incom-
ted ing wave fronts. At a given wind speed, there is a maximum wind duration
and fetch which allow the waves to be fully developed.
Wave diffraction is the creation of a wave around an ob- This “fully developed sea” is in equilibrium and is defined
stacle and depends on the interruption of the obstacle to as the maximum size to which waves can grow under
provide a new point of departure for the wave. As waves given conditions of wind speed, duration, and fetch. At
approach a chain of islands, some of the approaching this point, the waves of a fully developed sea will gain
wave’s energy is directed through the spaces between as much energy from the wind as they lose to gravity as
the islands. These spaces serve as a starting point for breaking whitecaps.
new waves that spread across the ocean surface beyond Storm-Generated Waves: Swell
the island chain.
The most intense wave generating activity is where the
Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. winds are strongest, directly under the storm system. As
http://www.heatingoil.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/wave-power- Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re- waves radiate out from the center, the
rocks, flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-
Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey
to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection
U.S. Virgin Islands. and ranging.
Waves refract (bend) as they approach shallow water. Evidence of wave action is seen in these giant sand-
Waves also can diffract (bend) around an obstacle, or re- waves as viewed from a helicopter during a Lidar survey
flect (bounce back) when encountering a vertical barrier. off Florida’s coast. Lidar is an acronym for light detection
Wave refraction patterns are visible in the shallow water and ranging.
to the left of this point, which is Point Udall in St. Croix, winds decrease near the margins of the storm system.
U.S. Virgin Islands. The waves soon begin to outpace the wind speeds;
Formation of Waves at Sea waves with the longest wave lengths travel fastest; these
large waves traveling away from a storm are called swell.
Most waves are formed by wind, usually by storm
systems. Unlike storm systems that are observed over Swell waves are long-crested, uniformly symmetrical
land, ocean storm systems can be quite large, some waves that have traveled outside the area of their origin.
exceeding 805 kilometers (500 miles) in diameter. These Swell waves expel little energy and travel vast areas of
systems break up as they approach land, but over the the ocean, fanning out from approaching storm systems.
ocean there is little to affect them. The wind transfers its Wave dispersion begins to take effect and the swell
energy to the water through wave-building directly under waves becomes grouped by their wavelength. Waves
the storm system in an area of mixed wave types simply with longer wavelengths travel faster and soon outrun
termed “sea.” Factors that affect the amount of energy the slower waves with shorter wavelengths. The long-
transferred to the waves depend on wind speed, the wavelength waves do not have steep wave heights but
duration of time the wind blows in one direction, and the move out of the generating area first, with wave groups
“fetch,” the distance over which the wind blows in one of progressively shorter wavelengths following. This
direction. procession is termed a “swell wave train” and can travel
long distances, breaking on distant shores.
Sea-wave heights determine the amount of energy
transferred. Normal sea-wave heights average less than As storm systems approach shore from far at sea, swell
18

19. Wave Patterns
will begin to break, forming long, low rolling surf. Medium 100 meters (330 feet) and may be formed by tidal move- basin will slosh back and forth at a particular resonant
size swell follows with taller, curling breakers. As the ment, turbidity currents, wind stress, or passing ships. frequency. The frequency will alter with changes in the
storm system nears shore, the swell comes in high and The surface expression of the waves is minimal, but if amount of water and the size and shape of the confined
fast with plunging breakers and crashing surf. the crests approach the surface they affect the reflection space. This is one type of standing wave rather than a
Interference. of light from the water. Excellent photographs of internal moving progressive wave. Seiche wave periods can last
waves have been taken from the space shuttle. As for a few minutes to more than a day and have extremely
As swell wave trains fan out across the Earth’s oceans, internal waves approach a landmass, they build up and long wavelengths. Even so, damage from seiche waves
waves from different storm systems will eventually meet expend their energy as turbulent currents. is rare because wave height in the open ocean generally
and collide, causing interference and interesting wave be- Kelvin Waves. is only a few inches.
havior. When swell wave trains collide they can produce
several types of interference. Kelvin waves in the western Pacific Ocean are internal Large waves generated by hurricanes and other natural
waves that form near Indonesia and travel east toward events can wreak havoc along the coast and cause flood-
Constructive interference occurs when two swell wave the Americas whenever the west-to-east trade winds ing far from shore. Despite the sometimes spectacular
trains have the same wavelength and they combine in- diminish. A typical Kelvin wave is 10 centimeters high, damage caused along the coast, inland flooding causes
phase. There is no affect on wavelength, but wave height hundreds of kilometers wide, and a few degrees warmer approximately half of the hurricane-related deaths in the
increases than surrounding waters. Scientists pay careful attention United States. These boats in a marina were tossed
to these Kelvin waves because they may be precursors about by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, whose storm
Destructive interference occurs when the wave crest of of the next El Niño. surge inundated areas from the northwestern Bahamas,
one swell combines with the wave trough of another. The Tsunamis (Seismic Sea Waves). through the southern Florida peninsula, up to the coast
energy from these swells cancels each other out and the of Louisiana.
surface becomes calmer. Seismic waves are formed when a severe shock such Large waves generated by hurricanes and other natural
as an earthquake affects the ocean. The largest seismic events can wreak havoc along the coast and cause flood-
Commonly, however, swell wave trains combine in mixed sea wake known from geologic history is the one created ing far from shore. Despite the sometimes spectacular
interference, producing unpredictable and complex wave by the impact of the K-T meteor 65 million years ago. damage caused along the coast, inland flooding causes
patterns and heights. This type of interference may pro- The 10-mile-wide asteroid hit Earth at 72,000 kilometers approximately half of the hurricane-related deaths in the
duce rogue waves, extremely large unpredictable waves (45,000 miles) per hour and created a wave estimated to United States. These boats in a marina were tossed
that can be very dangerous to ships. be 914 meters (3,000 feet) high that traveled throughout about by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, whose storm
Earth’s oceans. Seismic waves are also referred to as surge inundated areas from the northwestern Bahamas,
On rare occurrences in the open ocean, an unusually tsunamis, their Japanese name. Sometimes they are through the southern Florida peninsula, up to the coast of
large wave may develop. These rogue waves are mas- incorrectly called tidal waves; they are not associated Louisiana.Storm Surge.
sive, single waves that can reach extreme heights of 15 with the tides.
to 30 meters (50 to 100 feet) or more. It is believed that Another phenomenon, storm surge, is associated with
one cause for rogue waves is overlap of multiple waves Tsunamis typically have wave lengths of 200km, which weather and is very dangerous. The air pressure over a
that produce an extremely large wave; they tend to oc- makes them shallow water waves even in the ocean. section of the ocean affects the sea level. Sea level under
cur most frequently downwind of islands and shoals. If They travel extremely fast in open water, 700 km/h (435 a strong high-pressure system is pushed downward
storm winds push waves against a strong ocean current, m/h). These waves have insignificant wave heights at to a level several centimeters below normal sea level.
rogue waves can develop. In the Agulhas Current off sea, but in shallow coastal waters they can exceed Conversely, under an area of extreme low pressure,
the southeastern coast of Africa, Antarctic storms push 30m (100 ft). They may travel thousands of kilometers such as a hurricane or tropical storm, a mound of water
waves northeast into the oncoming current. Rogue waves across the ocean nearly unnoticed until they reach land. develops and is pushed along by the storm front. As the
have destroyed many ships in this region, capsizing them, Earthquakes in the Aleutian Trench regularly send large storm system approaches land, the mound of seawater
smashing bow or stern, or lifting them amidships to snap seismic waves across the Pacific Ocean, affecting Ha- becomes a mass of wind-driven, elevated water, usually
the keel. waii and the coastlines of the North Pacific Ocean. associated with large storm waves.
Seiche Waves.
Storm surges are most dangerous when they coincide
Internal waves are disturbances that occur at the bound- The seiche phenomenon relates to the rocking of water with high tides. They are responsible for the majority of
ary between two water masses of different density. The in a confined space at a resonant frequency. When flooding and destruction associated with hurricanes.
wave heights can be quite large, sometimes exceeding disturbed, water in a pan, bathtub, lake, harbor, or ocean
19

20. Chapter 1
20

21. Chapter 2
Fungal
21
Wave Patterns
Patterns

22. Chapter 2
Fungal
PATTERNS
22

23. FungalPatterns
FUNGUS
Dr. Wheelwright contributed the fungal pattern to From a treatment perspective, I knew that it would be More information at apple-a-daypress.com.
Sclerology in 1974. When fungus proliferation is the fruitless to “attack” fungus as the medical model did.
primary stress on a tissue, it can register as faint, feath- If the fungus was resistant to powerful drugs, it would Fungus will become involved in the tissues that have a
ery, wispy, disorganized lines in the affected area. Even probably also be resistant to anti-fungal herbs. As a favorable terrain for its proliferation. Thus a tissue that is
so, the fungus markings only appear in the sclera for a Naturopath, I knew the secret to winning this case and weak due to constitutional reasons, injury, congestion,
few days or weeks and then change into an organized her life was to 1) change the terrain, 2) strengthen the accumulation of heavy metals and metabolic wastes, will
pattern such as a “Y” line or a “pocket line with a faint immune system’s response, as well as 3) inhibit the be susceptible to fungus and other pathogens such as
pinkish hue” as the body defines and attempts to limit fungal activity to hasten the results. This was done with bacteria, virus, and parasites. The susceptibility appears
fungal expression. [Examples of this pattern are taught in classical homeopathy and three of Dr. Wheelwright’s first and establishes a line or marking in the sclera, or
the International Sclerology Institute’s Art & Science of bio-energetic herbal formulas. Here I saw the incredible establishes the bio-energetic matrix in the sclera for a line
Sclerology Certification Course. See: www.sclerology- beauty of Sclerology combined with the laws of natural to easily form.
institute.org for more information.] cure.
Thus, once the constitutional stress-pattern is made
Thus, the opportunity to specifically pinpoint fungus So the point here is, if you do see the true fungal mark- evident by a certain line in the sclera, other opportunis-
by a line or marking in the sclera is extremely remote. ings in the sclera, you are dealing with a life and death tic stressors such as bacteria or fungus, will generally
While many people have fungal challenges affecting their situation. Otherwise, to evaluate that fungus is a con- “tag along” on the pre-existing line and not register a
health, the fungal involvement is not the primary stress cern or should be addressed in a treatment program, separately unique line configuration. If the unique fungal
pattern in the tissue. It is only a contributing stress and the Sclerologist must look at the whole picture in both pattern emerges, the concern is great as it actually
is often preceded by 1) constitutional weakness, 2) toxic the eyes and find the syndrome. Then, an anti-fungal overrides the prior stress pattern. The same is true of a
terrain such as heavy metal accumulation, 3) pH imbal- program will benefit the patient and the practitioner can bacterial stress pattern where a simple lung line changes
ance; and accompanied by 4) bacteria, 5) parasites, and avoid putting people on anti-fungal programs and finding into a high stress pattern such as bronchitis.
6) viral involvements. These other contributors also exert that the case was not cured.
a stress-registration in the sclera. Thus, the fungal stress Generally, when a fungus affects a susceptible tissue,
is but one of several stressors that are reflected and The Fungus Syndrome it further stresses that already-weakened tissue. The
registered as a particular stress pattern in the sclera. fungus is doing its job according to the terrain that al-
So, let’s look deeper at how fungus affects people and lowed it to proliferate, but its waste products are causing
In 20-years of clinical practice, I have seen five cases of undermines their health, and how we can use Sclerology greater concern. This most often results in 1) the already-
true fungal lines appearing in the sclera. These were not to recognize this. Since it is highly unlikely we will ever existing line registering a greater stress by darkening,
people with a little candida overgrowth. Three were in a see the true fungus registration in the sclera, let’s avoid 2) a “secondary stress line” evolving, or 3) an additional
hospice situation, one was a medically-diagnosed fungus the practice of the inexperienced health practitioner and “Y” fork line developing. Thus most of the time, fungus
in a diabetic due to have an amputation, and one was in blame everything on fungus or candida. Such specious involvement (or other pathogens) is a reason that a
a patient with a lung disease. These were people whose “diagnosing” has already brought much discredit to the “simple stress line” evolves into a medium or high stress
lives were being threatened by a pathogenic fungal natural health movement. Instead, let’s learn how to look line thus revealing a greater degree of stress. So, fungal
challenge. at the whole picture, and like a smart detective, discover involvement is not a new, uniquely distinguishable line,
when fungus or candida is truly a predisposing condition just an elevation of the existing stress pattern.
For example, a 64-year old lady from South Texas was and a treatment priority.
medically diagnosed with a rare fungal proliferation in her Further, fungus stress is similar to the effects of bacteria
lungs. The fungus was resistant to drugs and her doctors Fungus is most often a systemic condition. Candida and other parasites and often all three are involved
were concerned that it would soon take her life. (yeast overgrowth that converts to fungal pathogens) together in a less than optimal terrain. They all feed off
in the bowel is a systemic concern as it can effect debris and excrete waste. Sometimes they feed off the
The sclera revealed a large pocket in the lung zone the immune system and its by-products can cross the tissue. So an inexperienced Sclerologist could easily
encompassing 8:45 to 10:30 in her right sclera, as well blood/brain barrier. Even external athlete’s foot fungus assign the wrong name to the stress pattern and make
as a smaller complimentary pocket in the left sclera. In is a symptom that the immune system is not address- a specious diagnosis by erroneously claiming "fungus"
these pocketed areas were the faint, feathery wisp mark- ing fungal pathogens adequately. [The book, Conquer when really it is bacteria, general toxicity, micro-parasites,
ings that Dr. Wheelwright discovered were reflective of a Candida and Restore Your Immune System provides a alkalosis, or a combination of concerns.
primary fungal offensive. questionnaire based on lifestyle and symptoms to help
determine if candida and fungus are primary concerns. Fungus does have a unique vibratory characteristic – a
23

24. Chapter 2
24

25. FungalPatterns
25

26. Chapter 2
step above virus and a step below bacteria, so we proliferating in the patient's terrain. Here, other modali-
might assume it could have a unique registration in the ties (such as kinesiology, electro-acupuncture, biological
sclera. But since the real issues are 1) a weak immune terrain analysis) may be helpful to quickly differentiate
system, 2) a favorable terrain, and 3) toxic by-products; fungus.
the Sclerologist must look at a syndrome of markings,
not a special line. This syndrome includes the thymus Fortunately, Dr. Wheelwright developed herbal blends
zone (immune stress registration), intestinal dysbiosis that many doctors find to be most effective in addressing
and pH imbalance (both terrain registrations), and the fungus, bacteria, parasites and virus. [More information
effects of fungal toxicity on the lymphatic system and on Dr. Wheelwright’s herbology is at www.jacktips.com.
liver (effects of toxic by-products). In natural medicine, Natural health practitioners can easily help their patients
we treat causes, not effects if we are true to our craft. A overcome the CAUSE of fungus by changing the terrain
practitioner who treats fungus is only treating an effect through natural therapies, as well as specifically helping
and would benefit people more by obtaining a deeper the body rid itself of opportunistic pathogens.
understanding of the natural healing arts.
Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding
Wheelwright once stated, “Finding a fungus-specific of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomyce-
marking is a one-in-a-million registration of many wispy- tes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are
squiggly lines in a tissue reflex zone. The markings only produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder
http://museumca.org/files/exhibitions/7/Red_Fungus.jpg appear when the person is desperately ill. When the from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic
immune system is compromised almost to the point of level the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then
death, fungus-specific markings can be seen. Fungus- fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result,
specific markings are not seen in a person with a viable for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed
immune system, but that person still can have grave gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflect-
fungal concerns.” Thus the Sclerologist must learn how ing the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is
to determine fungus from looking at the whole chart, not formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of
just one line or zone.How to identify fungal involve- the powdery print, called a spore print, is used to help
ment.So to evaluate "fungus involvement," instead classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore
looking for a "line" you must look for a syndrome - a print colors include white (most common), brown, black,
group of markings. In addition to the three areas already purple-brown, pink, yellow, and cream, but almost never
mentioned, the patient's case history (such as prior use blue, green, or red.[1]
of antibiotics), lifestyle, and overt symptoms that spell
"pathogenic involvement" will provide more insight. While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly
becoming molecular, the standard methods for identifica-
This is why it is important to chart the eyes on one piece tion are still used by most and have developed into a fine
of paper, not just look at each eye or photos individually. art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era,
To detect fungus, the Sclerologist must take in the whole combined with microscopic examination. The presence
chart. When a Sclerologist sees an immune-compromise of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors,
marking (8:50 in the right eye), lymphatic congestion tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all
(right eye 8:00 – 9:00), spleen line (left eye, 4:45), dys- considered by both amateur and professional mycolo-
biosis pattern (both eyes, 6:00); then a strong stress line gists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own
in a specific tissue such as the liver or lymphatic system hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical
takes on new meaning – a meaning that may include tests are also used for some genera.[2]
fungal concern.
In general, identification to genus can often be ac-
Once this overview state is reached, the Sclerologist complished in the field using a local mushroom guide.
can then narrow down the possibilities to consider that Identification to species, however, requires more effort;
pathogenic organisms, some of which are fungus, are
26

27. FungalPatterns
one must remember that a mushroom develops from a in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common and were never precisely defined, nor was there con-
button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter fairy-ring mushroom (Marasmius oreades), shiitake, sensus on application. The term “toadstool” was often,
can provide certain characteristics needed for the identi- enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics, and other amanitas, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mushrooms or
fication of the species. However, over-mature specimens magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe, paddy straw to those that have the classic umbrella-like cap-and-stem
lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc. form. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, the terms tadstoles,
have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles,
spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol,
on lamella edges for colored spored prints. [edit] Clas- a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody toadstoole, and paddockstooles sometimes were used
sificationTrametes versicolor, a polypore mushroom Main of a Russula or Lactarius, colored and deformed by the synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, muscheron,
articles: Sporocarp (fungi), Basidiocarp, and Ascocarp mycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces lactifluorum.[3] mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns.[6]
Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of Other mushrooms are not gilled and then the term The word has apparent analogies in Dutch padde(n)
the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and “mushroom” is loosely used, so it is difficult to give a stoel (toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German
type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris. full account of their classifications. Some have pores Krötenschwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther
However, in modern molecularly-defined classifica- underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have cap). Others have proposed a connection with German
tions, not all members of the order Agaricales produce spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other “Todesstuhl” (lit. “death’s chair”).[7] Since Tod is a direct
mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, tooth fungi, and so on. “Mushroom” has been used for cognate to death, in that case it would be a German
collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, borrowing. However, there is no common word akin to
the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term is more one “Todesstuhl” used in German referring to mushrooms,
in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles like Gomphus of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting poisonous or not.
are in the Gomphales, milk mushrooms (Lactarius) bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning.
and russulas (Russula) as well as Lentinellus are in the There are approximately 14,000 described species of The term “mushroom” and its variations may have been
Russulales, while the tough leathery genera Lentinus mushrooms.[4][edit] Toadstools Amanita muscaria, the derived from the French word mousseron in reference
and Panus are among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus most easily recognised “toadstool”, is frequently depicted to moss (mousse). The toadstool’s connection to toads
is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is often associ- may be direct, in reference to some species of poison-
genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera, are in the ated with gnomes.[5] ous toad,[8] or may just be a case of phono-semantic
Hymenochaetales. Within the main body of mushrooms, The terms “mushroom” and “toadstool” go back centuries matching from the German word.[9] However, there is
27

28. Chapter 1
2
28

29. FungalPatterns
Wave Patterns
FUNGUS
Fungi are ubiquitous and diverse;
estimates of global fungal diversity range upwa
1.5 million species (Hawksworth, 2001, 2004). At
cal scale, fungal diversity has important
consequences for plant communities and
ecosystems (van der Heijden et al., 2008).
For example, higher saprotrophic fungal
diversity increases decomposition rates
(Setala and McLean, 2004; Tiunov and
Scheu, 2005), and higher
mycorrhizal richness incre -
ases plant diversity,
ecosystem productivity
and nutrient capture
(van der Heijden et al., 1998).
Despite theirimportance for
ecosystems, few studies
have considered
which factors generate
and maintain fungal diversity.
In general, fungal diversity or composition is though
fluenced by nitrogen availability (Allison et al., 2007)
supply (Waldrop et al., 2006), atmospheric CO2 conc
(Klamer et al., 2002) and
soil depth. 29

30. ous and diverse;
Chapter 2
diversity range upward of
orth, 2001, 2004). At a lo-
rsity has important
nt communities and
Heijden et al., 2008).
aprotrophic fungal
ecomposition rates
2004; Tiunov and
and higher
hness incre -
diversity,
roductivity
t capture
n et al., 1998).
portance for
ew studies
sidered
s generate
ngal diversity.
mposition is thought to be in-
(Allison et al., 2007), resource
mospheric CO2 concentration
2002) and
Humanity's use of mushrooms extends back to Paleolithic bic describes those individuals and cultures where fungi
pth. times. Few people-even anthropologists-comprehend how are looked upon with fear and loathing. Mycophobic
influential mushrooms have been in affecting the course of cultures are epitomized by the English and Irish. In con-
human evolution. Mushrooms have played pivotal roles in trast, mycophilic societies can be found throughout Asia
ancient Greece, India and Mesoamerica. Try to their be- and eastern Europe, especially amongst Polish, Russian
guiling nature, fungi have always elicited deep emotional and Italian peoples. These societies have enjoyed a long
responses: from adulation by those who understand them history of mushroom use, with as many as a hundred
to outright fear by those who do not. common names to describe the mushroom varieties they
loved.
The historical record reveals that mushrooms have been
used for less than benign purposes. Claudius II and Pope The use of mushrooms by diverse cultures was
Clement VII war both killed by enemies who poisoned intensively studied by an investment banker named R.
them with deadly Amanitas. Buddha died, according to Gordon Wasson. His studies concentrated on the use
legend, from a mushroom that grew underground. Bud- of mushrooms by Mesoamerican, Russian, English, and
dha was given the mushroom by a peasant who believed Indian cultures. With the French mycologist, Dr. Roger
it to be a delicacy. In ancient verse, that mushroom was Heim, Wasson published research on Psilocybe mush-
http://gliving.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/magic-mushrooms-superfood-011.jpg
linked to the phrase "pig's foot" but has never been rooms in Mesoamerica, and on Amanita mushrooms in
identified. (Although truffles grow underground and pigs Euro-Asia/Siberia. Wasson's studies spanned a lifetime
are used to find them, no deadly poisonous species are marked by a passionate love for fungi. His publications
known.) include: Mushrooms, Russia, & History;The Wondrous
Mushroom;Mycolatry in Mesoamerica;Maria Sabina and
The oldest archaeological of mushroom use discovered her Mazatec Mushroom Velada;and Persephone's Quest:
so far is probably a Tassili image from a cave which dates Entheogens and the Origins of Religion. More than any
back 3,500 years before the birth of Christ. The artist's other individual of the 20th century, Wasson kindled inter-
intent is clear. Mushrooms with electrified auras are est in ethnomycology to its present state of intense study.
depicted outlining a dancing shaman. The spiritual inter- Wasson died on Christmas Day in 1986.
pretation of the image transcends time and is obvious. No
wonder that word "bemushroomed" has evolved to reflect One of Wasson's most provocative findings can be
the devout mushroom lover's state of mind. found in Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality (1976)
where he postulated that the mysterious SOMA in
In the winter of 1991, hikers in the Italian Alps came the Vedic literature, a red fruit leading to spontaneous
across the well preserved remains of a man who died enlightenment for those who ingested it, was actually a
over 5,300 years ago, approximately 200 years later than mushroom. The Vedic symbolism carefully disguised its
the Tassili cave artist. Dubbed the "Iceman" by the news true identity: Amanita muscaria, the hallucinogenic Fly
media, he was well equipped with a knapsack, flint axe, a Agaric. Many cultures portray Amanita muscaria as the
string of dried Birch Polypores (Piptoporus betulinus) and archetypal mushroom. Although some Vedic scholars
another yet unidentified mushroom. The polypores can be disagree with his interpretation, Wasson's exhaustive
used as tinder for starting fires and as medicine for treat- research still stands. (See Brough (1971) and Wasson
ing wounds. Further, a rich tea with immuno-enhancing (1972)).
properties can be prepared by boiling these mushrooms. Aristotle, Plato, and Sophocles all participated in
Equipped for traversing the wilderness, this intrepid ad- religious ceremonies at Eleusis where an unusual temple
venturer had discovered the value of the noble polypores. honored Demeter, the Goddess of Earth. For over two
Even today, this knowledge can be life-saving for anyone milennia, thousands of pilgrims journeyed fourteen
astray in the wilderness. miles from Athens to Eleusis, paying the equivalent of a
month's wage for the privilege of attending the annual
Fear of mushroom poisoning pervades every culture, ceremony. The pilgrims were ritually harassed on their
sometimes reaching phobic extremes. The term mycopho- journey to the temple, apparently in good humor.
30

31. FungalPatterns
no clear-cut delineation between edible and poisonous others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the The most important microscopic feature for identifica-
fungi, so that a “mushroom” may be edible, poisonous, stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the tion of mushrooms is the spores themselves. Their color,
or unpalatable. The term “toadstool” is nowadays used stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus. There shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction
in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect are a great number of variations between the extremes to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identifica-
mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Ama- of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. tion. Spores often have a protrusion at one end, called
nita muscaria.[edit] Morphology manita jacksonii buttons Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the
emerging from their universal veilsAn image of the gills of of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore, from which the
Lactarius indigo. stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join hypha emerges when the spore germinates.[12]
the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward [edit] Growth
A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between Mushroom popping up through macadam in summer
than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since near Paris
which is typically found on or near the surface of the gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or
substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of with different environmental conditions.[11] Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear over-
threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primor- [edit] Microscopic features night, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is
dium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven Morchella elata asci viewed with phase contrast micros- the source of several common expressions in the English
hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a “button”. copy language including “to mushroom” or “mushrooming”
The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and “to pop up like a
veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells mushroom” (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In real-
expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a that covers the surface of gills. In the non-gilled mush- ity all species of mushrooms take several days to form
cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval rooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand
patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine rapidly by the absorption of fluids.
and therefore do not have either a volva or volval patches. fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota,
Often there is a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, spores develop within a microscopic elongated, saclike The cultivated mushroom as well as the common field
covering the bladelike gills that bear spores. As the cap cell called an ascus, which typically contains eight spores. mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred
expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil The Discomycetes—which contains the cup, sponge, to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly
may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the brain, and some club-like fungi—develop an exposed expanded they are called buttons, once again because
stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. layer of asci, as on the inner surface of cup fungi or within of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are
The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its
collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or merely the fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells
faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of dung, leaf litter, decaying wood, as well as other fungi, that took several days to form in the primordia.
filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the produce minute flask-shaped structures called perithecia,
genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms that lack a partial veil do within which the asci develop.[12] Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms,
not form an annulus.[10] Austroboletus mutabilis spores viewed using electron like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that
microscopy literally appear overnight and may disappear by late
The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.[13] The primordia
and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center In the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the
and/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions bal-
In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the from a club-shaped cell called a basidium. The fertile por- loon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then
polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a tion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become collapse. They “mushroom” to full size.
stalk but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns.
like truffles, jellies, earthstars, bird’s nests, usually do not Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very
have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary called paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia often slowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing from
exists to describe their parts. occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For ex-
types of cystidia exist and assessing their presence, ample Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because
The way that gills attach to the top of the stalk is an impor- shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of of this combined with human collection, it is now critically
tant feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the a mushroom.[12] endangered.[14]
genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus, among
31

32. Chapter 1
32

33. Chapter 3
Snowflake
33
Wave Patterns
Patterns

34. Chapter 3
Snowflake
PATTERNS
34

35. Snowflake Patterns
FLAKER
In mountainous regions, topographic structure and veg- effects, reliably simulated the topographic and vegetation plates, dendrites and stars. The type of crystals depends
etation control patterns of snow deposition, climate condi- influences on snow distribution, the energy balance, and on the amount of humidity and temperature present
tions, and snowmelt. A topographically distributed snow the hydrology of snow and wind-dominated mountainous when they are forming. That’s why when it’s very cold and
accumulation and melt model (ISNOBAL) was coupled to regions. snowing, the flakes are small, and when it’s closer to 32 F.
a wind field and snow redistribution model to simulate the flakes are larger.
the development and ablation of the seasonal snowcover The word “crystal” comes as from Greek word krystallos Catch Some Snowflakes
over a small mountainous catchment, the Reynolds meaning ice, crystal. At one time people believed that all What you will need:
Mountain East basin (0.38 km) in southwestern Idaho, crystals were made up of water that was frozen so hard it
USA. The model was driven by hourly terrain and canopy would never melt. * black velvet or black construction paper
corrected data grids derived from meteorological data * Magnifying Glass
from two stations located within the catchment for four Don’t expect to easily find a perfect six-sided snowflake. * Snow
water years (1986, 1987, 1989 and 1997). In the preceding They occur more less than 25% of the time. Why? Because
paper, Winstral and Marks (this issue) detail how terrain a snowflake has a bumpy and difficult journey on it’s way Since snowflakes melt so quickly you need to freeze your
and vegetation data were used to distribute station data to to earth. Each flake is buffeted by wind, water and other cloth or paper. Have it ready frozen and ready to go for
simulate snow redistribution and create hourly images of snowflakes. the next snowfall, and go outside and let some snowflakes
the snowcover energy and mass balance. The catchment land on the dark surface. Quickly, before they melt, exam-
was divided into four shelter classes based on terrain and snow: the solid form of water that crystallizes in the atmo- ine the flakes with a magnifying glass. Many snowflakes
vegetation that were used for an analysis of how the mass sphere and, falling to the Earth, covers, permanently or are “broken” and so you don’t see the whole six-sided
and energy balance of the snowcover varies over the basin temporarily, about 23 percent of the Earth’s surface. crystal, but with persistence you’ll see some beautiful
as a function of terrain and forest characteristics for each examples.
of the selected years. If you are lucky you might be able to see some rare
Keep Some Snowflakes
snowflakes, like these on Sarah’s scarf, without needing
What you will need:
As shown by the simulations and verified by detailed anything special. These near perfect flakes were formed
point measurements and the late season areal pho- on a cold, (7° F), day with little wind. * Piece of glass
tographs of snow covered area (SCA), in all years the * Hairspray (aerosol, NOT pump)
* Snow
wind-exposed areas developed thinner snowcovers and When cloud temperature is at freezing or below and
were essentially bare of snow prior to the onset of spring the clouds are moisture filled, snow crystals form. The You can have a permanent record of your caught snow-
meltout in wind-sheltered areas. The meltout of the wind- ice crystals form on dust particles as the water vapor flakes if you freeze a piece of glass and the hairspray
before the next snowfall. (Both may be stored in the
sheltered drift and canopy-enclosed regions occurred in condenses and partially melted crystals cling together to freezer until you need them.) When you’re ready to collect
conjunction with the springtime increase in solar radiation form snowflakes. It is said that no two snowflakes are the some snowflakes, spray your chilled glass with the chilled
generating the bulk of springtime runoff. Melt contribu- same, but they can be classified into types of crystals. All hairspray and go outside and let some snowflakes settle
on the glass. When you have enough flakes bring the
tions from the drifts may continue into the late spring and snow crystals have six sides. The six-sided shape of the ice glass indoors and allow it to thaw at room temperature for
early summer. This research uses a unique set of point and crystal is because of the shape and bonding of the water about 15 min. Now you have a permanent record of your
spatial verification data to show that a snow accumula- molecules. Basically there are 6 different types of snow snowflakes!
tion and ablation model, adjusted for wind redistribution crystals: needles, columns, plates, columns capped with Note: I received this e-mail from a Finnish meteorologist
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36. Chapter 1
36

37. Wave Patterns
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