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I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178
1174 | P a g e
Performance Testing Of a Truncated Pyramid Solar Thermal Cooker
I.L. Mohammed*
, U. J. Rumah*, A.T. Abdulrahim**
*Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria.
** Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of performance
testing of a truncated pyramid solar thermal
cooker developed in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna,
Nigeria. The truncated pyramidal geometry
concentrates the incident solar energy radiations
towards the absorber placed at the bottom, and the
glass glazing material at the top facilitates the
trapping of energy inside the cooker. During
testing, the highest plate stagnation temperature
achieved, under no-load condition and reflector
covered with black cloth, was 145 o
C. In full-load
condition the temperature of 5.2 kg of water inside
the cooker rose from 60 o
C to 90 o
C in 72 minutes.
The First Figure of Merit, F1, was calculated to be
0.120 and the Second Figure of Merit, F2, was
found to be 0.410, thus meeting the standard
prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for
box-type solar cookers. The relatively high
absorber plate temperature developed during
testing demonstrates that the cooker can be used
for all the four major methods of cooking, viz:
boiling/ steaming, baking, roasting/grilling, and
frying (of eggs).
Keywords – Cooker, performance, pyramid, solar,
testing, thermal, truncated
I. INTRODUCTION
Cooking with energy from the sun is an old concept.
There are many landmarks in the history of the
design and application of solar cookers. The first
reported solar cooker application worldwide was by a
Swiss, Nicholas de Saussure (1740 – 1799) who built
a black insulated box cooker with several glass
covers. Even without reflectors, he reported to have
successfully cook fruits at that time reaching a
temperature of 88 o
C [1]. Over the years de Saussure
and others focused their cooker design work on
variations on shape, size, sidings, glazings,
insulations, reflectors, and the composition and
reflectance of the surfaces. Today there are over 60
major designs and more than hundreds of variations
[2], [3]. Increasing awareness of the growing global
need for alternative cooking fuels has resulted in an
expansion of solar cooker research and development.
For improving the thermal performance of solar
collectors, Tiwari and Yadav [4], as cited by Abed
[5], developed a Bottom-loading solar thermal
cooker. Such a design ensures reduction of heat loss
due to escape of hot gases when cookers are opened
for intermediate operations of cooking. Aman [6]
analysed the plate temperature of a box-type cooker,
augmented by a booster mirror, as a function of
properties of material phase change and melt depth.
Mullick et al [7] developed method of evaluating
box-type solar cookers using two figures of merit.
Hence a method of cross comparison of different
models became available; single cooker design could
also be evaluated for their thermal capability and
accuracy. Mullick et al [8] also conducted
experiments to study the effect of the number of pots,
and the load, on the Second Figure of Merit. Funk
and Larson [9] and Funk [10] developed parametric
models for testing box-type and paraboloidal-type
cookers, and they tested several types of
commercially available cookers.
This paper discusses the thermal performance of a
Truncated Pyramid Solar Thermal Cooker (TPSTC)
using test procedures described by the Bureau of
Indian Standards [11], [12].
Solar cookers are divided into four main categories
[13]:
(i) box cookers (ii) concentrator cookers (iii) solar
ovens, and (iv) indirect solar cookers. The TPSTC is
a hybrid cooker, in the sense that it is a box cooker as
well as a concentrator cooker.
II. DESCRIPTION OF SOME PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL
PROPERTIES OF THE TPSTC
The pictorial view of the TPSTC is shown in Fig. 1.
The casing of the cooker is of mild steel sheet, which
has better weatherproof ability and longer lifespan
than cardboard or hardboard solar cookers. The
overall outer dimensions of the box are 89 cm length
(l) x 84 cm breath (b) x 70 cm height (h). A mild
steel sheet of dimensions 52 cm (l) x 46 cm (b) and
thickness 2 mm is used as the absorbing surface. The
upper surface of the absorber plate is painted black.
A single piece of transparent glass of dimensions 83
cm (l) x 78 cm (b) and thickness 2 mm is used as the
glazing material. The distance between the inner
surface of the glazing and upper surface of the
absorber is 65 cm. The cooking chamber is accessed
through a door of dimensions 30 cm (l) x 37 cm (h)
situated on the front side of the cooker. The sidewalls
of the cooking chamber are made from silver-coated,
highly reflective glass material of thickness 2 mm.
The sidewalls are separated from the outer casing by
27mm – thick insulation made of cotton. The
absorber is also well insulated with cotton, before
I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178
1175 | P a g e
being covered by the outer casing. Two plane glass
mirrors of total length 86 cm and height 81 cm, fixed
in metal frame of mild steel sheet, serve as a reflector
as well as a cover for the sing le glazed top. The
entire body of the box is mounted on four wheels so
that the cooker can be handled/transported
conveniently.
Figure 1: Photograph of the TPSTC
The optical design of the cooker uses the concept of
concentrating solar energy to achieve high
temperatures; to trap the collected energy as is done
in solar box cookers, and to retain high temperatures
over a considerable period of time. Due to the
geometry of the design, solar rays impinging on the
inner sidewalls are reflected downward, so as to
create a region of high temperature at the bottom. In
such geometries, a higher value of the ratio of
aperture area to absorber area leads to higher
concentration ratio and hence higher absorber plate
temperature. The booster reflector, set on top of the
back side of the cooker, captures stray solar
radiations and reflects them through the aperture of
the cooker to heat the shaded parts of front sidewall
and absorber surface.
III. FIRST AND SECOND FIGURES OF MERIT
For the evaluation of thermal performance of solar
cookers, and to compare the performance of different
solar cookers, standard test procedure has been
described by the Bureau of Indian Standards [11],
[12] which has been further revised by Mullick [14].
The test procedure provides performance
characteristics of solar cookers, more or less
independent of climatic variables. There are two
thermal performance parameters called figures of
merit (F1 and F2) associated with testing box-type
solar cookers as per BIS. The First Figure of Merit,
F1, is determined from a stagnation test under no-load
condition while the Second Figure of Merit, F2, is
determined from test under full-load condition, taking
water as the load.
III.1 FIRST FIGURE OF MERIT (F1)
The First Figure of Merit, F1, is defined as the ratio of
optical efficiency, ηo, to the overall heat loss
coefficient, UL. it is mathematically defined as:
L
o
U
F

1 (1)
Experimentally,
s
asps
H
TT
F

1 (2)
Where Tps is the plate stagnation temperature (o
C),
Tas is the ambient temperature at stagnation (o
C), and
Hs is the solar radiation intensity at stagnation
(W/m2
).
The stagnation (steady state) condition is defined as
the 10-minute period when
(i) variation in absorber plate temperature is less than
±1 o
C.
(ii) variation in solar radiation is ± 20 W/m2
.
(iii) variation in ambient temperature is ± 0.2 o
C.
The permissible solar radiation condition during
testing is that it should always be greater than 600
W/m2
.
III.2 SECOND FIGURE OF MERIT (F2)
The Second Figure of Merit, F2, takes into account
the heat exchange efficiency of cookers and is
obtained through the sensible heating of specified
load of water (8 kg/m2
of aperture area). F2 is
evaluated through the following expression:
 

















 






 


H
TT
F
H
TT
F
A
CMF
F
aw
aw
ww
2
1
1
11
2
1
1
1
1
ln

(3)
where F1 is the First Figure of Merit, Mw is the mass
of the water, Cw is the specific heat of water, Tw1 is
the initial temperature of water (≡ 60 o
C), Tw2 is the
final temperature of water (≡ 90 o
C), τ is the
measured time difference in which the water
I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178
1176 | P a g e
temperature rises from Tw1 to Tw2, Ta is the average
ambient temperature over the time period τ, H is the
average solar radiation intensity incident on the
aperture of the cooker, and A is the aperture area of
the solar cooker.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The stagnation test was conducted by placing the
empty cooker on a leveled horizontal ground with the
glass mirror reflector covered with black cloth. The
orientation of the cooker towards the sun was
adjusted using the four wheels so that maximum solar
radiation intensity was received at the aperture. The
temperature of centre of the absorber plate was
measured continuously using a thermocouple probe
with analogue temperature indicator (0 o
C – 250 o
C).
The ambient temperature was measured using a
mercury-in-glass thermometer while the solar
radiation intensity was measured using a
pyranometer/solarimeter (LI-18 Radiation Indicator).
All measurements were made at intervals of 5
minutes. The orientation of the cooker was adjusted
after every 40 minutes to keep track of the sun, until
stagnation condition was achieved.
For the full load test, 5.2 kg of water was equally
divided and put in two black-painted, identical
aluminium pots each of mass 0.2 kg. The two pots
containing the water were placed inside the cooker
and the glass mirror reflector was covered with black
cloth. The temperature probe of the thermocouple
was placed in one of the cooking pots with the
measuring tip submerged in the water. The
temperature probe lead was sealed where it left the
pot and the cooker. Then the entire solar cooker was
placed in the sun and orientated to receive maximum
solar radiation to heat the water contents of the pots.
The ambient temperature, water temperature, and
solar radiation intensity were measured at intervals of
5 minutes throughout the test. The orientation was
adjusted after every 40 minutes. The data recording
was continued until the water temperature exceeded
95 o
C. Initial and final temperature/time data pairs
were chosen as 60 o
C and 90 o
C respectively. The
average ambient temperature and the average solar
radiation intensity over the time corresponding to
these two data points were then calculated.
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The stagnation test was conducted at Kaduna
Polytechnic Kaduna (latitude 10.5o
N) on 23rd
January, 2013. The test started at 10.55 a.m. till the
maximum absorber plate temperature was reached
after 2 hours 15 minutes. The summary of the result
of the test is given in Table 1.
The stagnation plate temperature attained was 145 o
C.
The corresponding ambient temperature and solar
radiation were 36 o
C and 910 W/m2
respectively. F1
was calculated as per Eq. (2) and was found to be
0.120. This figure qualifies the TPSTC as Grade-A
cooker, in accord with the criteria set by BIS.
The temperature profile of the absorber plate and
ambient condition leading up to stagnation point are
shown in Fig. 2. The trend of the curve shows that as
time of the day progresses, plate temperature also
increases (with increasing solar radiation intensity).
The maximum plate temperature attained is 145 o
C,
which coincide with the stagnation temperature Tps.
Table 1: Stagnation Test Result for Determination of F1
Local
Time
(Hr:min)
Ambient
Temperature
(o
C )
Plate
Temperature
(o
C )
Solar
Radiation
(W/m2
)
10.55
11.00
11.05
11.10
11.15
11.20
11.25
11.30
11.35
11.40
11.45
11.50
11.55
12.00
12.05
12.10
12.15
12.20
12.25
12.30
12.35
12.40
12.45
12.50.
12.55
13.00
13.05
13.10
13.15
13.20
31
32
33
33
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
31
48
55
60
68
75
80
87
95
98
101
105
110
112
115
118
121
123
125
127
130
133
135
137
139
141
143
145
145
145
650
730
750
780
800
810
810
820
830
830
840
860
865
865
870
900
900
890
880
900
900
890
890
890
895
890
890
910
910
910
Plate temperature rises from 30 o
C to a little over 100
o
C in just about 50 minutes. It remains above 100 o
C
and moves up to 145 o
C in about 1 hour 35 minutes.
The temperature range (100 o
C – 145 o
C ) maintained
by the plate of the TPSTC for this length of time
indicates that the cooker is suitable for applications in
all the four major areas of cooking, viz:
boiling/steaming, baking, roasting, and shallow-
frying (of raw chicken eggs). It also indicates that the
cooker can be employed, with minor modifications,
as a dryer. Fig.2 also shows that during the testing
period the ambient temperature increases (with
increasing solar radiation intensity) as the time of day
progresses.
I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178
1177 | P a g e
The full-load test was conducted on 25th January,
2013. The test started at 10.45 a.m. and was
completed after 2 hours 55 minutes, when the
temperature of the water exceeded 95 o
C. The result
of the test is given in Table 2.
The result shows that it took 72 minutes to raise the
temperature of the water from 60 o
C to 90 o
C. The
average ambient temperature Ta and the average solar
radiation H for the 72-minute period were found to be
34.5 o
C and 914.1 W/m2
respectively. F2 was
calculated as per Eq. (3) and was found to be 0.410,
a figure above the minimum value of 0.4 set by BIS
for proper assessment of solar box cookers.
The temperature profiles of the water and ambient
condition during the test are shown in Fig. 3. The
trend of the water- temperature curve shows that as
time of day progresses water temperature also
Table 2: Full-load Test Result for Determination of F2
Local
Time
(Hr:min)
Ambient
Temperature
(o
C )
Water
Temperature
(o
C )
Solar
Radiation
(W/m2
)
10.45
10.50
10.55
11.00
11.05
11.10
11.15
11.20
11.25
11.30
11.35
11.40
11.45
11.50
11.55
12.00
12.03
12.05
12.10
12.15
12.20
12.25
12.30
12.35
12.40
12.45.
12.50
12.55
13.00
13.05
13.10
13.15
13.20
13.25
13.30
13.35
13.40
31
31
32
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
33
33
33
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
36
36
36
36
31
33
36
36
37
38
39
40
42
44
49
50
52
55
58
59
60
62
65
68
70
72
74
76
79
80
82
84
85
86
88
90
91
93
95
95
96
750
780
800
850
860
740
760
770
790
750
820
835
845
855
870
870
890
880
880
885
900
890
900
925
925
930
940
940
950
950
940
900
830
890
850
840
830
increases (with increasing solar radiation intensity),
up to 13:10 p.m. when water temperature rises with
downward trend in solar radiation intensity. It takes
78 minutes for the water temperature to reach 60 o
C,
and it takes another 97 minutes before the
temperature reaches 96 o
C. This latter time and the
temperature range is sufficient to cook foods of soft
load such as yams and potatoes. The full-load test
result, combined with the stagnation test result,
indicates that the cooker is capable of cooking, from
cold start, 2 kg of dry and harder foods such as rice
within the total time (2 hours 55 minutes) it takes the
water temperature to reach 96 o
C. This is in
comparison to solar cooking test results reported in
other works: [15], [16].
Figure 2: Temperature profiles of absorber plate
and ambient condition during the stagnation test.
Figure 3: Temperature profiles of water and
ambient condition during the full-load test.
I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178
1178 | P a g e
On 22nd March, 2013 the TPSTC, with reflector
exposed to solar radiation, was tested by cooking 2
kg of parboiled rice using 4.9 kg of water. The rice
and water were equally divided and distributed in
four identical aluminium pots painted black. The rice
was well cooked in 2 hours 45 minutes, thus
confirming the thermal capability of the solar cooker.
VI. CONCLUSION
The performance of the solar cooker has met the
standard set by the Bureau of Indian Standards for
box-type solar cookers. The First and Second Figures
of Merit are reliable design and performance rating
criteria for solar cookers. The stagnation and full-
load test results demonstrate that the cooker can be
used for methods of cooking such as boiling/
steaming, baking, roasting, and frying (of eggs); and
with minor modifications, the cooker can be
employed for solar drying, thereby making it a
multipurpose device. The results also form a useful
database for validation of theoretical models, in
addition to their intrinsic value of characterising the
cooker
REFERENCES
[1]. Kimambo C.Z.M. “Development and
Performance Testing of Solar Cookers”.
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, Vol
18, No 3, 2007, pp 41-51.
[2]. Kundapur A. “Review of Solar Cooker
Designs”. TIDE, 8 (1), 1988, pp 1-37.
[3]. Kundapur A. and Sudhir C.V. “Proposal for
New World Standard for Testing Solar
Cookers”. Journal of Engineering Science
and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009, pp
272-281.
[4]. Tiwari G.N. and Yadav Y.P. “A New Solar
Cooker Design”. Energy Conversion and
Management, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1986, pp 41-
42.
[5]. Abed F.M. “Experimental Investigation of
Thermal Performance of Solar Cooker with
Reflector”. European Journal of Scientific
Research, Vol. 56, No. 1, 2011, pp 112-123.
[6]. Aman D. “An Analytical Study of a Solar
Cooker Augmented with a Booster Mirror
Using PCM as Storage “Energy
Conversion and Management, Vol. 25, No.
3, 1985, pp 255-261.
[7]. Mullick S.C., Kandpal T.C., and Saxena
A.K. “Thermal Test Procedures for Box-
Type Solar Cookers”. Solar Energy, Vol. 39,
No. 4, 1987, pp353-360.
[8]. Mullick S.C., Kandpal T.C., and Kumar S.
“Testing of Boxtype Solar Cooker Second
Figure of Merit F2 and its Variation with
Load and Number of Pots”. Solar Energy,
Vol. 57, No. 5, 1996, pp 409-413.
[9]. Funk P.A. and Larson D.L. “Parametric
Model of Solar Cooker Performance”. Solar
Energy, Vol. 62, No. 1, 1998, pp 63-68.
[10]. Funk P.A. “Evaluating the International
Standard Procedure for Testing Solar
Cooker Performance”. Solar Energy, Vol.
68, No.1, 2000, pp 1-7.
[11]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) IS 13429:
1992.
[12]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) IS 13429:
2000.
[13]. Sharma S.K. “Solar Cookers”. Encyclopedia
of Energy, Vol. 5, 2004. Elsevier Inc.
[14]. Mullick S.C. “Evaluation of Solar Cooker
Performance – An Overview”. Proceedings
of International Conference on Recent
Advances in Solar Energy Conversion
Systems, Eds: Nema R.K. and Bhagoria J.L.,
28 - 29th Sept. 2002, pp 45-47.
[15]. Nahar N.M. “Design and Development of a
Large Size Non-Tracking Solar Cooker”.
Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009, pp 264-
271.
[16]. Suharta H., Abdullah K., and Sayigh A.
“The Solar Oven: Development and Field-
testing of User-made Designs in
Indonesia”. Solar Energy, Vol. 64, Nos 4-6,
1998, pp 121-132.

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Gk3411741178

  • 1. I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178 1174 | P a g e Performance Testing Of a Truncated Pyramid Solar Thermal Cooker I.L. Mohammed* , U. J. Rumah*, A.T. Abdulrahim** *Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria. ** Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of performance testing of a truncated pyramid solar thermal cooker developed in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria. The truncated pyramidal geometry concentrates the incident solar energy radiations towards the absorber placed at the bottom, and the glass glazing material at the top facilitates the trapping of energy inside the cooker. During testing, the highest plate stagnation temperature achieved, under no-load condition and reflector covered with black cloth, was 145 o C. In full-load condition the temperature of 5.2 kg of water inside the cooker rose from 60 o C to 90 o C in 72 minutes. The First Figure of Merit, F1, was calculated to be 0.120 and the Second Figure of Merit, F2, was found to be 0.410, thus meeting the standard prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for box-type solar cookers. The relatively high absorber plate temperature developed during testing demonstrates that the cooker can be used for all the four major methods of cooking, viz: boiling/ steaming, baking, roasting/grilling, and frying (of eggs). Keywords – Cooker, performance, pyramid, solar, testing, thermal, truncated I. INTRODUCTION Cooking with energy from the sun is an old concept. There are many landmarks in the history of the design and application of solar cookers. The first reported solar cooker application worldwide was by a Swiss, Nicholas de Saussure (1740 – 1799) who built a black insulated box cooker with several glass covers. Even without reflectors, he reported to have successfully cook fruits at that time reaching a temperature of 88 o C [1]. Over the years de Saussure and others focused their cooker design work on variations on shape, size, sidings, glazings, insulations, reflectors, and the composition and reflectance of the surfaces. Today there are over 60 major designs and more than hundreds of variations [2], [3]. Increasing awareness of the growing global need for alternative cooking fuels has resulted in an expansion of solar cooker research and development. For improving the thermal performance of solar collectors, Tiwari and Yadav [4], as cited by Abed [5], developed a Bottom-loading solar thermal cooker. Such a design ensures reduction of heat loss due to escape of hot gases when cookers are opened for intermediate operations of cooking. Aman [6] analysed the plate temperature of a box-type cooker, augmented by a booster mirror, as a function of properties of material phase change and melt depth. Mullick et al [7] developed method of evaluating box-type solar cookers using two figures of merit. Hence a method of cross comparison of different models became available; single cooker design could also be evaluated for their thermal capability and accuracy. Mullick et al [8] also conducted experiments to study the effect of the number of pots, and the load, on the Second Figure of Merit. Funk and Larson [9] and Funk [10] developed parametric models for testing box-type and paraboloidal-type cookers, and they tested several types of commercially available cookers. This paper discusses the thermal performance of a Truncated Pyramid Solar Thermal Cooker (TPSTC) using test procedures described by the Bureau of Indian Standards [11], [12]. Solar cookers are divided into four main categories [13]: (i) box cookers (ii) concentrator cookers (iii) solar ovens, and (iv) indirect solar cookers. The TPSTC is a hybrid cooker, in the sense that it is a box cooker as well as a concentrator cooker. II. DESCRIPTION OF SOME PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE TPSTC The pictorial view of the TPSTC is shown in Fig. 1. The casing of the cooker is of mild steel sheet, which has better weatherproof ability and longer lifespan than cardboard or hardboard solar cookers. The overall outer dimensions of the box are 89 cm length (l) x 84 cm breath (b) x 70 cm height (h). A mild steel sheet of dimensions 52 cm (l) x 46 cm (b) and thickness 2 mm is used as the absorbing surface. The upper surface of the absorber plate is painted black. A single piece of transparent glass of dimensions 83 cm (l) x 78 cm (b) and thickness 2 mm is used as the glazing material. The distance between the inner surface of the glazing and upper surface of the absorber is 65 cm. The cooking chamber is accessed through a door of dimensions 30 cm (l) x 37 cm (h) situated on the front side of the cooker. The sidewalls of the cooking chamber are made from silver-coated, highly reflective glass material of thickness 2 mm. The sidewalls are separated from the outer casing by 27mm – thick insulation made of cotton. The absorber is also well insulated with cotton, before
  • 2. I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178 1175 | P a g e being covered by the outer casing. Two plane glass mirrors of total length 86 cm and height 81 cm, fixed in metal frame of mild steel sheet, serve as a reflector as well as a cover for the sing le glazed top. The entire body of the box is mounted on four wheels so that the cooker can be handled/transported conveniently. Figure 1: Photograph of the TPSTC The optical design of the cooker uses the concept of concentrating solar energy to achieve high temperatures; to trap the collected energy as is done in solar box cookers, and to retain high temperatures over a considerable period of time. Due to the geometry of the design, solar rays impinging on the inner sidewalls are reflected downward, so as to create a region of high temperature at the bottom. In such geometries, a higher value of the ratio of aperture area to absorber area leads to higher concentration ratio and hence higher absorber plate temperature. The booster reflector, set on top of the back side of the cooker, captures stray solar radiations and reflects them through the aperture of the cooker to heat the shaded parts of front sidewall and absorber surface. III. FIRST AND SECOND FIGURES OF MERIT For the evaluation of thermal performance of solar cookers, and to compare the performance of different solar cookers, standard test procedure has been described by the Bureau of Indian Standards [11], [12] which has been further revised by Mullick [14]. The test procedure provides performance characteristics of solar cookers, more or less independent of climatic variables. There are two thermal performance parameters called figures of merit (F1 and F2) associated with testing box-type solar cookers as per BIS. The First Figure of Merit, F1, is determined from a stagnation test under no-load condition while the Second Figure of Merit, F2, is determined from test under full-load condition, taking water as the load. III.1 FIRST FIGURE OF MERIT (F1) The First Figure of Merit, F1, is defined as the ratio of optical efficiency, ηo, to the overall heat loss coefficient, UL. it is mathematically defined as: L o U F  1 (1) Experimentally, s asps H TT F  1 (2) Where Tps is the plate stagnation temperature (o C), Tas is the ambient temperature at stagnation (o C), and Hs is the solar radiation intensity at stagnation (W/m2 ). The stagnation (steady state) condition is defined as the 10-minute period when (i) variation in absorber plate temperature is less than ±1 o C. (ii) variation in solar radiation is ± 20 W/m2 . (iii) variation in ambient temperature is ± 0.2 o C. The permissible solar radiation condition during testing is that it should always be greater than 600 W/m2 . III.2 SECOND FIGURE OF MERIT (F2) The Second Figure of Merit, F2, takes into account the heat exchange efficiency of cookers and is obtained through the sensible heating of specified load of water (8 kg/m2 of aperture area). F2 is evaluated through the following expression:                                H TT F H TT F A CMF F aw aw ww 2 1 1 11 2 1 1 1 1 ln  (3) where F1 is the First Figure of Merit, Mw is the mass of the water, Cw is the specific heat of water, Tw1 is the initial temperature of water (≡ 60 o C), Tw2 is the final temperature of water (≡ 90 o C), τ is the measured time difference in which the water
  • 3. I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178 1176 | P a g e temperature rises from Tw1 to Tw2, Ta is the average ambient temperature over the time period τ, H is the average solar radiation intensity incident on the aperture of the cooker, and A is the aperture area of the solar cooker. IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The stagnation test was conducted by placing the empty cooker on a leveled horizontal ground with the glass mirror reflector covered with black cloth. The orientation of the cooker towards the sun was adjusted using the four wheels so that maximum solar radiation intensity was received at the aperture. The temperature of centre of the absorber plate was measured continuously using a thermocouple probe with analogue temperature indicator (0 o C – 250 o C). The ambient temperature was measured using a mercury-in-glass thermometer while the solar radiation intensity was measured using a pyranometer/solarimeter (LI-18 Radiation Indicator). All measurements were made at intervals of 5 minutes. The orientation of the cooker was adjusted after every 40 minutes to keep track of the sun, until stagnation condition was achieved. For the full load test, 5.2 kg of water was equally divided and put in two black-painted, identical aluminium pots each of mass 0.2 kg. The two pots containing the water were placed inside the cooker and the glass mirror reflector was covered with black cloth. The temperature probe of the thermocouple was placed in one of the cooking pots with the measuring tip submerged in the water. The temperature probe lead was sealed where it left the pot and the cooker. Then the entire solar cooker was placed in the sun and orientated to receive maximum solar radiation to heat the water contents of the pots. The ambient temperature, water temperature, and solar radiation intensity were measured at intervals of 5 minutes throughout the test. The orientation was adjusted after every 40 minutes. The data recording was continued until the water temperature exceeded 95 o C. Initial and final temperature/time data pairs were chosen as 60 o C and 90 o C respectively. The average ambient temperature and the average solar radiation intensity over the time corresponding to these two data points were then calculated. V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The stagnation test was conducted at Kaduna Polytechnic Kaduna (latitude 10.5o N) on 23rd January, 2013. The test started at 10.55 a.m. till the maximum absorber plate temperature was reached after 2 hours 15 minutes. The summary of the result of the test is given in Table 1. The stagnation plate temperature attained was 145 o C. The corresponding ambient temperature and solar radiation were 36 o C and 910 W/m2 respectively. F1 was calculated as per Eq. (2) and was found to be 0.120. This figure qualifies the TPSTC as Grade-A cooker, in accord with the criteria set by BIS. The temperature profile of the absorber plate and ambient condition leading up to stagnation point are shown in Fig. 2. The trend of the curve shows that as time of the day progresses, plate temperature also increases (with increasing solar radiation intensity). The maximum plate temperature attained is 145 o C, which coincide with the stagnation temperature Tps. Table 1: Stagnation Test Result for Determination of F1 Local Time (Hr:min) Ambient Temperature (o C ) Plate Temperature (o C ) Solar Radiation (W/m2 ) 10.55 11.00 11.05 11.10 11.15 11.20 11.25 11.30 11.35 11.40 11.45 11.50 11.55 12.00 12.05 12.10 12.15 12.20 12.25 12.30 12.35 12.40 12.45 12.50. 12.55 13.00 13.05 13.10 13.15 13.20 31 32 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 31 48 55 60 68 75 80 87 95 98 101 105 110 112 115 118 121 123 125 127 130 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 145 145 650 730 750 780 800 810 810 820 830 830 840 860 865 865 870 900 900 890 880 900 900 890 890 890 895 890 890 910 910 910 Plate temperature rises from 30 o C to a little over 100 o C in just about 50 minutes. It remains above 100 o C and moves up to 145 o C in about 1 hour 35 minutes. The temperature range (100 o C – 145 o C ) maintained by the plate of the TPSTC for this length of time indicates that the cooker is suitable for applications in all the four major areas of cooking, viz: boiling/steaming, baking, roasting, and shallow- frying (of raw chicken eggs). It also indicates that the cooker can be employed, with minor modifications, as a dryer. Fig.2 also shows that during the testing period the ambient temperature increases (with increasing solar radiation intensity) as the time of day progresses.
  • 4. I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178 1177 | P a g e The full-load test was conducted on 25th January, 2013. The test started at 10.45 a.m. and was completed after 2 hours 55 minutes, when the temperature of the water exceeded 95 o C. The result of the test is given in Table 2. The result shows that it took 72 minutes to raise the temperature of the water from 60 o C to 90 o C. The average ambient temperature Ta and the average solar radiation H for the 72-minute period were found to be 34.5 o C and 914.1 W/m2 respectively. F2 was calculated as per Eq. (3) and was found to be 0.410, a figure above the minimum value of 0.4 set by BIS for proper assessment of solar box cookers. The temperature profiles of the water and ambient condition during the test are shown in Fig. 3. The trend of the water- temperature curve shows that as time of day progresses water temperature also Table 2: Full-load Test Result for Determination of F2 Local Time (Hr:min) Ambient Temperature (o C ) Water Temperature (o C ) Solar Radiation (W/m2 ) 10.45 10.50 10.55 11.00 11.05 11.10 11.15 11.20 11.25 11.30 11.35 11.40 11.45 11.50 11.55 12.00 12.03 12.05 12.10 12.15 12.20 12.25 12.30 12.35 12.40 12.45. 12.50 12.55 13.00 13.05 13.10 13.15 13.20 13.25 13.30 13.35 13.40 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 31 33 36 36 37 38 39 40 42 44 49 50 52 55 58 59 60 62 65 68 70 72 74 76 79 80 82 84 85 86 88 90 91 93 95 95 96 750 780 800 850 860 740 760 770 790 750 820 835 845 855 870 870 890 880 880 885 900 890 900 925 925 930 940 940 950 950 940 900 830 890 850 840 830 increases (with increasing solar radiation intensity), up to 13:10 p.m. when water temperature rises with downward trend in solar radiation intensity. It takes 78 minutes for the water temperature to reach 60 o C, and it takes another 97 minutes before the temperature reaches 96 o C. This latter time and the temperature range is sufficient to cook foods of soft load such as yams and potatoes. The full-load test result, combined with the stagnation test result, indicates that the cooker is capable of cooking, from cold start, 2 kg of dry and harder foods such as rice within the total time (2 hours 55 minutes) it takes the water temperature to reach 96 o C. This is in comparison to solar cooking test results reported in other works: [15], [16]. Figure 2: Temperature profiles of absorber plate and ambient condition during the stagnation test. Figure 3: Temperature profiles of water and ambient condition during the full-load test.
  • 5. I.L. Mohammed, U. J. Rumah, A.T. Abdulrahim / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 4, Jul-Aug 2013, pp.1174-1178 1178 | P a g e On 22nd March, 2013 the TPSTC, with reflector exposed to solar radiation, was tested by cooking 2 kg of parboiled rice using 4.9 kg of water. The rice and water were equally divided and distributed in four identical aluminium pots painted black. The rice was well cooked in 2 hours 45 minutes, thus confirming the thermal capability of the solar cooker. VI. CONCLUSION The performance of the solar cooker has met the standard set by the Bureau of Indian Standards for box-type solar cookers. The First and Second Figures of Merit are reliable design and performance rating criteria for solar cookers. The stagnation and full- load test results demonstrate that the cooker can be used for methods of cooking such as boiling/ steaming, baking, roasting, and frying (of eggs); and with minor modifications, the cooker can be employed for solar drying, thereby making it a multipurpose device. The results also form a useful database for validation of theoretical models, in addition to their intrinsic value of characterising the cooker REFERENCES [1]. Kimambo C.Z.M. “Development and Performance Testing of Solar Cookers”. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, Vol 18, No 3, 2007, pp 41-51. [2]. Kundapur A. “Review of Solar Cooker Designs”. TIDE, 8 (1), 1988, pp 1-37. [3]. Kundapur A. and Sudhir C.V. “Proposal for New World Standard for Testing Solar Cookers”. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009, pp 272-281. [4]. Tiwari G.N. and Yadav Y.P. “A New Solar Cooker Design”. Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1986, pp 41- 42. [5]. Abed F.M. “Experimental Investigation of Thermal Performance of Solar Cooker with Reflector”. European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 56, No. 1, 2011, pp 112-123. [6]. Aman D. “An Analytical Study of a Solar Cooker Augmented with a Booster Mirror Using PCM as Storage “Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1985, pp 255-261. [7]. Mullick S.C., Kandpal T.C., and Saxena A.K. “Thermal Test Procedures for Box- Type Solar Cookers”. Solar Energy, Vol. 39, No. 4, 1987, pp353-360. [8]. Mullick S.C., Kandpal T.C., and Kumar S. “Testing of Boxtype Solar Cooker Second Figure of Merit F2 and its Variation with Load and Number of Pots”. Solar Energy, Vol. 57, No. 5, 1996, pp 409-413. [9]. Funk P.A. and Larson D.L. “Parametric Model of Solar Cooker Performance”. Solar Energy, Vol. 62, No. 1, 1998, pp 63-68. [10]. Funk P.A. “Evaluating the International Standard Procedure for Testing Solar Cooker Performance”. Solar Energy, Vol. 68, No.1, 2000, pp 1-7. [11]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) IS 13429: 1992. [12]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) IS 13429: 2000. [13]. Sharma S.K. “Solar Cookers”. Encyclopedia of Energy, Vol. 5, 2004. Elsevier Inc. [14]. Mullick S.C. “Evaluation of Solar Cooker Performance – An Overview”. Proceedings of International Conference on Recent Advances in Solar Energy Conversion Systems, Eds: Nema R.K. and Bhagoria J.L., 28 - 29th Sept. 2002, pp 45-47. [15]. Nahar N.M. “Design and Development of a Large Size Non-Tracking Solar Cooker”. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009, pp 264- 271. [16]. Suharta H., Abdullah K., and Sayigh A. “The Solar Oven: Development and Field- testing of User-made Designs in Indonesia”. Solar Energy, Vol. 64, Nos 4-6, 1998, pp 121-132.