1. About Copper & Energy Efficiency
There's no better solution than copper when it comes to improving the energy efficiency
of electrical products.
Copper is one of the most reliable and efficient media for transmitting electric power.
Electricity flowing through copper wires meets far less resistance than it would in
aluminum or steel wires of the same width. In fact, copper is a better electrical conductor
than any other metal except silver, making it the most economical and efficient electrical
conductor available. Using copper wires results in lower electrical transmission losses,
thus conserving energy and reducing demand on generating capacity, which ultimately
benefits us all!
As demands for electrically operated machines grow, consumers worldwide will naturally
seek more energy efficient devices. Apart from saving on electricity bills, extensive use
of copper in home construction will maximize safety, security and efficient energy
management.
Conserve for tomorrow
Wasted energy needlessly depletes natural resources. It is expensive. It negatively
impacts on the pocket books of people, companies, and national economies.
And it requires fossil-fueled power plants to work harder, thereby emitting more
greenhouse gases and contributing to climate change. For all of these reasons, it is critical
to find new ways to improve energy efficiency.
Switching to energy-efficient equipment, such as high- and premium-efficiency motors,
high-efficiency transformers, and appliances requires only a modest additional
investment. But that investment will more than pay for itself in reduced energy bills,
usually within a short time.
Outstanding conductivity aside, copper possesses a number of other advantageous
qualities as well. Copper is easy to work with and far more corrosion resistant than
aluminum.
Electronics
IBM and others are replacing aluminum with copper in the computer chips they
manufacture. Because of copper's superior electrical conductivity, this breakthrough
technology enables conductor channel lengths and widths to be significantly reduced. The
result is much faster operating speeds and greater circuit integration - up to 200 million
transistors can be packed onto a single chip. Power requirements are now reduced to less
than 1.8 volts, and the chips run cooler than ever before. The use of copper conductors in
the chip is the last link in a now unbroken copper chain comprising the electronic data
path between user and computer. From external cables and connectors to bus ways to
printed circuit boards, sockets and lead frames, it's all copper.

2. Since their invention early in this century, electron tubes have depended on copper and
copper alloys for their internal components. In spite of the dominance of semiconductors,
some $2 billion worth of vacuum tubes are manufactured annually. They include the
cathode ray tubes used in TVs and computer monitors, voltage rectifiers, audio and video
amplification and broadcast applications, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens.
Radio and television signals are carried to transmission antennas by hollow conduits
called wave-guides. Wave-guides made of oxygen-free, high conductivity copper are
30% to 40% more efficient than their aluminum counterparts.
The National Security Agency buildings at Ft. Meade, Maryland, are sheathed with
copper to prevent unauthorized snooping. Even the windows are fitted with copper
screens. The copper blocks radio waves from penetrating into or escaping from the spy
operation. Copper sheathing is also used in hospitals to enclose rooms containing
sensitive equipment like CAT scan, MRI and X-ray units to prevent problems related to
the entrance or emission of errant electromagnetic radiation.
On a smaller scale, copper strip is used to shroud electron tubes, transistors, integrated
circuits and even complete electronic chassis to prevent radio frequency (RF)
interference.
Electricity & EnergyWeight for weight, outside of precious metals, copper is the best
conductor of electricity and heat, it is hardly surprising that about 60% of total copper use
is for these purposes.
Copper is used in high, medium and low voltage power networks, and copper
conductivity is considered to be the standard to which other conductors are compared.
Blister copper is 96-99% pure, but there is a way to purify it further, through a technique
called electrolysis. The unique combination of strength, ductility and resistance to creep
and corrosion establishes this non-ferrous metal as the preferred and safest conductor for
wiring in buildings. As an essential component of energy-efficient motors and
transformers, it is used in a multiplicity of applications in manufacturing industries, all
forms of transport and the domestic environment.
Wire & CablesAluminum cables are being replaced with copper ones, because copper
conductivity is twice that of aluminum, making copper cables extremely energy efficient,
thus helping reduce energy consumption on a global level.
Copper wire has long been the preferred conductor material in the majority of cables used
for power and telecommunications. Having high conductivity combined with a ductility
that makes it easy to draw down to close-tolerance diameters, it can also be readily
soldered to make economic, durable connections. It is compatible with all modern
insulation materials but its good oxidation resistance means that it can also be used
without any surface protection.
Insulation can be of lacquer or enamel types used for winding wires or of polymers for
energy cables. Lacquers permit close spacing of windings to give best efficiency in the
coils of motors, transformers and chokes.

3. BusbarsBusbars are robust conductors that function as electrical manifolds to distribute
power from a single source to several users. Because of its good conductivity, strength,
ductility and resistance to oxidation, copper is the most obvious material to specify for
the manufacture of busbars.
High conductivity copper billets are hot extruded into a regular cross section, followed by
drawing down to the necessary finished size.
Transformer and motor windingsCopper used for the manufacture of transformer
windings is in the form of wire for small products and strip for larger equipments.
For small products, such as magnet wire, the wire must be strong enough to be wound
without breakage, yet flexible enough to give close-packed windings. Strip products must
be of good surface quality so that insulating enamels do not break down under voltage.
Good ductility is essential for the strip to be formed and packed while good strength is
needed to withstand the high electro-mechanical stresses set up under occasional short-
circuit conditions.
The properties needed for motor windings are similar to those needed for transformers,
but with the additional requirement to withstand mechanical vibration and centrifugal
forces at working temperatures.
Heat exchangersWith thermal conductivity allied to high electrical conductivity, copper
is ideal for the manufacture of heat exchangers of all types. It is easily fabricated, easily
joined and has excellent corrosion resistance. Typical applications include radiators, air
coolers and air conditioning units in transport; heat sinks for electrical equipment;
calorifiers for domestic and industrial water heating and refrigeration units.
Electronic equipmentWhile this sector is relatively small in terms of tonnage, copper
plays a vital role in a number of small, high-tech applications.
Copper or copper-base alloys are used in Printed Circuit Boards, in electronic connectors
and leadframes. In addition, it has long been used in the area of telecommunications, and
is now increasingly used in IT, notably for the manufacture of microchips and in semi-
conductor applications.
Copper heat sinks allow dispersion of heat from high-frequency microprocessor and logic
devices.
Other electrical engineering usesCopper is also used for manufacturing commutators,
welding electrodes, contacts, contact springs, high vacuum and other electronic devices.
Power losses in electrical equipment are due to electrical resistance in conductors and
losses in the magnetic material which occur primarily in motors, transformers and in all
cabling. Copper is one of the key materials to be considered when work is being done to
improve the energy efficiency of electrical equipment. High conductivity is one of its
most important properties and 60% of copper currently produced is used in electrical
applications. Copper magnetic wire is widely used in the motor industry, while
electronics is successfully developing copper-based semi-conductors.

4. Identifying opportunitiesThe identification of energy saving opportunities must be carried
out in a systematic manner so that it can be shown that the initiatives proposed are those
which will yield the greatest benefits.
Major opportunities will arise during the planning of new buildings, where the
incremental cost of high efficiency equipment will be easy to determine, the lifetime will
be longest and there will be no, or little, difference in installation costs.
MotorsSince its invention in the 1880s, the electric motor has had a long history of
development, with early efforts aimed at improving power and torque and reducing cost.
It is only more recently (1970s according to the CDA UK) that the need for higher
efficiency became apparent.
Most motors operate at less than their design loading. It is important that high-efficiency
motors retain their energy efficiency at these loads. The justification for the initial
premium is simple: an electric motor can consume electricity to the equivalent of its
capital cost within the first 500 hours of operation-a mere three weeks of continuous use.
The lifetime cost of losses is several times the purchase price of the motor.
Clearly the lowest overall cost will not be achieved unless both capital and running costs
are considered together.
More about motors
Power CablesWhile the installation and use of improved energy-efficient equipment is
underway, the energy losses in undersized power cables are frequently ignored. High
conductivity copper is usually efficient enough to significantly reduce losses, however
attention must be paid to the cables’ function and purpose. If cables are installed with a
conductor size that is the minimum permissible to avoid overheating, energy losses can
be very significant.
In a medium voltage power cable, the cost of losses over the lifetime of the equipment
can be 10 times higher than the initial purchase cost, including installation.
If the energy demand of a system subsequently increases to a level above the safe cable
rating, the installation of extra power cables can be a significant expense. The initial
specification of cables that are an optimum economic size is therefore a recommended
practice, notably encouraged by an IEC Standard.
TransformersTransformers are among the most efficient machines ever designed by
mankind, and are usually built of copper or aluminum. As copper has a conductivity
almost twice that of aluminum, it is often preferred in transformer construction. The
largest power transformers have efficiencies at full load of 99.75%. Distribution copper-
based transformers are smaller, less efficient and more lightly loaded. Transformers in
urban distribution (typically 250-1,000kVa) may lose 1-2% of energy transformed as
heat. For smaller transformers in rural areas (50-100kVa), efficiency in operation can be
as low as 95%.
In a constantly developing environment, energy consumption is an issue to be urgently
dealt with. In EU, over 4 million distribution transformers have been installed, i.e. 1 unit
for every 80 citizens. It takes 7-8 of the largest nuclear power stations to compensate the

5. energy losses in these transformers. All the wind-turbine capacity that has been installed
in the year 2000 covers only 10% of these losses in distribution transformers.
Clearly, energy efficiency in distribution transformers is a key factor in sustainable
electrification.
Electrical
Copper is the standard benchmark for electrical conductivity. It conducts electrical
current better than any other metal except silver.
Copper is routinely refined to 99.98% purity (even more pure than Ivory Soap) before it
is acceptable for many electrical applications.
Number 12 (AWG) copper wire is the most common size used for branch circuit wiring
in buildings. The amount of copper products consumed in the U.S.A. this past year would
make a size 12 wire that could encircle the Earth 2,630 times or make 140 round trips to
the Moon.
CDA's Electrical Energy Efficiency program illustrates how a simple upsizing of copper
conductors used for electrical distribution can earn significant paybacks to building
owners, usually within one to two years or less.
Installing #10 AWG wire instead of #12 AWG for feeding a 15-amp lighting load
running half time (4000 hours per year) pays back the difference for its higher cost in
only 9 months, at $0.075 per kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Because half of all the electricity generated in the U.S. is consumed by motor-driven
systems, the most significant energy savings are realized by upgrading systems with
high-efficiency motors.
A high-efficiency 3-hp motor operating full time at $0.08 per kWh would repay its cost
premium in less than 5 months, and from then on save money and electricity.
Premium motors are not only more efficient (mostly because they are made with more
copper), they also last much longer and generate less heat.
Wherever electricity flows, connectors are required. Copper in its many varieties is the
dominant and favored material whether conductors are used for high-current power
distribution or "signal" level currents used for data and telecommunications.
Some high-power connectors weigh in at 20 pounds or more, while tiny electronic
connectors may weigh as little as a few milligrams with spacing between pins less than
half a millimeter. The United States is the world's leader in the multibillion-dollar
connector industry.
A consortium assembled by the Copper Development Association is working on a project
to develop die materials for use in casting copper motor rotors. Such rotors would

6. dramatically increase motor efficiency. Commercialization of the process is expected in
2002.
Power quality problems that plague many modern offices and factories are largely
preventable. Copper-intensive solutions include using larger neutral conductors to handle
harmonic loads, better grounding systems to dissipate transients and lightning, and fewer
outlets per circuit to lessen interaction between office equipment and computers.
Scores of lives and billions of dollars in property could be saved each year if buildings
were properly protected against lightning. A single lighting strike at a commercial facility
could cause thousands of dollars per hour in lost production.
Copper and its alloys are the most common and most effective materials used in lightning
protection.
Nearly 50 tons of high conductivity, oxygen free copper wire was used to make 1,700
super conducting electromagnets for a collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in
New York. The magnets are used in the 2.4-mile diameter underground collider to study
subatomic particles.