1. . :: .r...,
,,-r n r ! ! :, *
! i.l tI > ir fd{lut i' ': :
!ti-I1 r /!
l" i l-
I
I
I
i
ffq'NERALS
Minerals:
l"
1. naturallY occurrtng
2. homogenuous,solid :
3. cornPositicn not fixed)
a. chenric':'l (clefinite but.generally
b. PtrYsica
4, orderecl aiorni.c ?fl'?rrlerl€fltprrrcersses
s. .trtrrrt f :'rme'l oy ill(lrganic
sr"tbstances
Mi neral oi rls - natttri:liy occurri n g 4]1ryThgf
witrtout crYstalline structure
*Tire orderly p.arterns ihat aton:s of elements assume
in a rr''ineral is called iis
crystallin u- stru cture
br-rt different
* Polymorplrs r ntinerals lra"ing the same composition/elernents
crystalli;',e struc:t r]'es
I
examPles:
ir.-arcasite -;
-* - Pvt'tqano
-- -l
.
I
Calcite atrd -.-,ragonite .---__
-^^^nrla I
*Alias es:
1. Caiclte - islan'l sPa;
2. FYrite - 1os1'1i cl'rld
3. Quart;. - ice cnilstals
Georgius tgr:cola (Georg Bar'rer)
D",f.q Metallica- , ..,,,,' ,,, , ,i, ,, . ,
Optical Fic';:e*ies;
2- dotrble refrtl;tion
':---
rr a sroup oi' crvstai
rrerar oytlrald unngu*rg"3,; consists
fff:1":',oJ11J':1,. to the'"j"ll::::,^oj
t,,,,"r, Tii';i':*n'.f,-nuuu the same relation physical properttes
' an*
s':rintlettv ancl cltsPti' ,-th* same chemical

2. because ;:[l are ui ;.erlain bY Iike atoms in the same geom€
af'ang€'Tlent
ex. pr,smatic
cubic '
*Nicolas steno - pointed out that the angles between correspo.nding faces on
of a nrine:tai [quartz] are always the same
"rfttuft de I'Lsle
* Rome
of
*Law of consta*cy of Interfacial Angles - angles between equivalent faces
crystals of the .ru"l* substance, measured
at the same temperature are
constant.
2. crystal habit - e.iternal shaPe
ex. botrYoidar, iihrous, grar"uiar
3: color - i': ti:e brightr'.ess or Carl"ness of a mineral :r-,- -^-.-{-r'..
spe -trum
_. - resurl of ilie ieflection of light within the visible
a. idroch,om:tic - ex. rruscovite (white or c.olorless), azurite (azure blue),
' rnalachite (green): sulfur (yellow)
b'. allochr:matic - ex' quartz
I
4. streak' is the color qiven by a pulverized mineral
eX'a.hernatite:streak=reddish.brown/indianred
| : color = red to black
b lir'ronite : streak = Yq'llow
: color = bl''-,wn
right that is reflected frcm I re surface of a
5. luster - qual:':, 3nd intensity of
lnir,eral
- can be lrouPed into:
'r
a metailic - luster "rf untarnished rnetal; the usual characteristic' of
dark and opaque rninerals
ex. nylite, golcl
h. non-metallic - ir,utatl"rizes the colored nrir erals , ,
l :,
, b. i resit'rous - appearance of resin .
b.; vitrer-rus - glass
u.s ouiil"urt'i:
b.4 adamantiire - diamond
b.5 silkY - silklike
b.i pearly - iridescent pearl-like lusJer..,
'grenJv
u.z -rpp"ars to be covered wiil. thin layer of oil
!
i
I
I
I
I
I
x&

3. A*
6. lrarciness - abiliiy of a rninerill to-withstand abrasion or scratching
- in .licated in ternrs of the Mohs' Scale of Hardness
calcite q
fluorite 14
-r5 diamond 1 hardest
Practical scale:
CLr-coin
r;, specific gravity. - refers to the ratio of the weight of a volumeof material to
the weight of an eclual volume of waier
- spr:ing scale; hefting the mineral by hand
ex.:
| 2.65 feld 2.56-2.76
old 19.3
q. cleavage -,i:iers to the characteristic tendency.of mat,minerals tc spiii. c:'
sepa:'ate easily along certain planes
- govenred by interrial arrangement
_ weak,:lssl
a. .ype of brr cring c. boti a and b
b. greater alomic sPacing
rfect
very good at 9C degrees to each other' feldspar
fair at 90 dectrees I9,n9-.--.--i
at 56.dsgleeg !r 124 degree.- amohibole
e
Perleei-oei-ell A Oegrees; rhomboh
perfect _ diamond
nerft':ct sphalarite
'r
v
'F

4. formed by the ''rreaking in the:
g. fracture - refers to the nature.of ir''"ofsurr"ce
cleavage
oir""i'"n other than those the
'
-i-
quartz)
a' cort:hcidal (ex'
b ri;'i;;;i'itint"'Y
' c' irregu'ar
hai;'liY
d'
- ^r ^r'"^{rrral rnta: ruintiing or-
l0.parting-breakingalongp|anesofstructuralweakness;resultoftt
pressure
nr
ll.tenacity-resistarcethatamiiteralofferstobreaking'crushing'bendirig'
tei ring
eas.ilY
a. brittle - breaks or powders ,
n' tnuiiuuble - hammered into thin sheets
with a knife
c. sectile - can be cut'into thin shavings
' cl' 'Cttctile - drawn into wire shape
;;ilL - n*nos but does not return to origina'
". elastic
f.
12. fluorescence' artdt.
phosphorescenee
4'I magnetism
14. reaction to HCI
', 5. taste
16. srnell
1'l . striations

5. . CI.ASSIFICATION OF MINERALIE
.I-CCORDING TO CHEMICAL GROUPS
native elements old, sulfur, diamond
oxides maqnetite, hematite
sulfides rite, qalena
sulfates
carbonates calcite. dolomite
hclsphates apatite
silicates uartz, feld l-
EIGHT MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENTS
IN THE EARTH'S CRUST
3.63
27.72 2.83
B.13 2.59
5X0
silica Tetrahedron . basic burlding block of the earth's crust
*polyrnerization
Silicates - most abunCant mineral group r
Feldspars - rnost abundant mineral
(bl Silicon.Oxygen Tctraledron cxpandcd
(rl Teuahcdron
(d) Top view

6. Silicate Structures
orthosilcate or (sio4)
nesosilicate independent SiOq grou
sorosilicate (Si2Oz) epidote, hemimorphite
lir.king of 2 SiO4
cyclosilicate (si6o16): beryl ,
rinq silicates
irrosilicate chain silicates
sinqle chain (Si roxene
double chain SjaOrr amphibole
phyllosilicate' (si2o5)-
sheet silicate
lectosilicate quartz, feldspar
framework
t
COMMO}{ ROCK-FORMING MI NERALS
'1. quarlz 6. mica I
I
2. feldspars
3. nephelilg amphibole
4. sodalite 9. olivine
5. leucite

7. 4.1 lGNDOus R(Juri"u '
,l
'Definitions: t ut mrnerals'
^r
niaterials whiclr maybe conposeo
. -*.. cfrnred, r:onsolidated l
irlocirs - r1:ltursuv ::il;;i.;;r, glass or a cornbination of these'
rocx
oiganic ttiatter, of
and solidification
"ig7lf$" fire) - fgrrned by direct crystaUiztrtion
Iglteorts roclcs:fLatin
nlilgttt'
Magntu
- "l{llr,acled nrixttrrd'
E l,s gi il ile;tuilssleri$ii
- rnol:ih
t*.,?f, sases
-'1,:, ,lTilo",',u*d r:l:?:51
tlissslvecl
ii
' the upPer rnantle
cnist: or in rhe upper
rnar due to
Jtltrtr partial *ati'ie 't'qti'wer
' forr:retl n' o "*uti
';;i;;,';'ic
- iieat,anrl/ot decreasT:.[:Tlfapped the earth's cnrst
lruithrn
on tho earth's surla(
-;.;,i;;'l.placecl
-;;,;;n.,,. cltnmbers K,'
*,*;r{:L::::f;j::,t',# l,"f,f'Na'
- S(Oi - PnllclPat -r ^:
uirlo*tv and explosive characteristics
- <rjssalvecr gases ;;;ii;:;riiu,*",r
6i]0'- 1200'C
- rilnfie t"nt1t"*tit"J'
',f SOz
- ,]"rir, L'I20-,:aPor, COr,
- Xlrvn
Lli.'ir.r-,j:,Pgg
" 50% Si0z
n. tltsnltic Inagmfl . 't:900-12C0"C
highlY fluid
eolr6Y, sloa
l"t. Grnnitic nraEitna
' T: lower than B00oC
- highlY viscous
l.Ld.tiri,--nn{erysldliag'lstr . of change"
'-o;j-"'tiy series -c^L^n
i:'.i.aciion $eries =
'
J- ,1".',-tts Reactiorr Series .,i. ,
., is graduallY
" r in whish the'earlier fornred inrler$s rnrgma'fbr
';;'i i'
i;' :'il:r:'; il; #'oi;"' r'm trre
"''t
:; n ll; t'the mineral
-*:i'iil1: :, : Tf
, tt,rti.*. in

8. ex.: plagioclase (Ca-rich torl(rich)
f.)iscontinuous Reaction Series : reactiorr in which an early crystallized mineral reacts
to form
with the remaining licluid which constantly. changes its conrposition during cooling
ancther mineral
ex.. 'i
i,,,, Enstatite + +
Forsterite Melt
2 Mg SiOr MgzSiOa SiOz
Magmatic ;lifferentiation : a general piocess in which the original magma with its full
.ung. of cornponent elements is separated into rocks of different mineral composition
a. fractionation
b, filter o:essing
. c. assimilation of the wall rock
d. magnra-mixing
Morlqresl-af.tnsglqa
a. external.forces - sqrteezing of rnagma chamber and causs filter pressing
b. internal forees - gur **punsion; stoping (magma move along fractures until they engulf
the ho$ rock)
tgnerrus rocks ,
- 80% of the mass of the earth's crust
- Genetically classified into
rr''| a. plutonio: intrusivb
li, volcanie = extrusive I
c. liypabyssal
- Mineralo$ically:
a, felsic - large proportions of K-feldspar and Na-plagiocl456 + quartz
b. mafic - Ca-plagioclase, large hmounts of{endrnagnesian mlrerals but little
quartz or K-feldspar
c. ultramafic - composed entirely offerromagnesiatt rninerals with minor amounts
of feldsPars
- Major textures
Textirre Dcscription Inte'rpretation
Phaneritic grains visible to the relatively slow cooling
naked eve
Aphanitic grains not visible to relatively fast cooling
the naked eye _ _
Forphyritic some grans coarse, two cooling rates
others line
(phenocryst,
sioundmass/matrix)

9. no minerals fonled
r id s"tft; co4llg witElgSie eg
9X
Most Abundant lgneous Rocks
#-
Intrusive Extrusive
feiric r" ck[ K.ftiltdMptfiioclase, qtr arte,
less
Granite Rhyolite
amountp of biotite or ampbibqle-.
-.
.
Diorite
'Andesite
ffie(30-50% anorthite),
a,rnphibole,, (quartz may be present in
gqoi*.
"t'Gali,bro- ' Basalt
amounts of olivine
s.trapes brrfiirtiilve rock bcdies
of its size or shape
" Flutoir ='any llass of intntsive rrrck regardless
a. batholiths
b. :tcsks
c, dikes
d. sills
I
e. lacolith
f. tupolith
(mining): gold district
imflb rlancb:' r.retaliic and non-metallic minerals
'
L.
' : -"
:- i' (' '
5.1 Yolungoes ''
!-
ro!r:n:io : a vdni which connects a reservciir of maguu in the deptlis of tlie earlh's crust
with the surface of the earth
:
ejc"ts lava, fragmentaVpyrociastic rocks and
gases
:
cons (volcanic edifice)
A. Lava
nffiu that h1S reached the surface of the earth
different compositions ancl temperatures iesulted
into lavas with a rango of physical
-
properry (i.e., r'iscosity) and fcafules.
a.. paloeho* riua -:t:glly fluid, T = 1000"c;
thin; smooth, biilciwy, ropy suilace
b. aa l.vr - fi'-il; iini.'guq $low moving; seu*rh neters thick;rough'
':' "ibtlu$;
jugg*d, sPinose '
c. pittorv-,ta.iu1"-Iffii;pted under water or ice; (toothpaste-like)

10. I .f
a ,l ll. F!'rqginstic materials
blown-out from a volcanic vent under pressure or
-:il:,:m#*'ffffiT$rrue**,smagma
the
raoidlv expanding gases present in
plsstic state
- rr*tpoi.d eitfiei+n in solid or
of the fragments
- classification in telTns of sizes and shapes -
older lavas
r
a, blocks - > 64 mm; pieces of crustal layers or
the congealing of blebs tllj:d ..'j:a
b. bombs - > i4mm; spindle/spherical masses from
Iava
b"l bowdung
' "i b'z breadcrust
b'3 armored
,0 c. lapilli -2-64 mrn;
saccretionary lapilli
4 ash-<2mm
glass)
+*r- Pu,nice, scori&, obsidian (volcanic
T:
.;, of pyroclastic rocks and lava
..:,ts, domppsite/strntevolcnnoes: altemntingla-yers
Mont Pelpt'Krakatau
ex.. Mt. ttu.ii, V.r,,nius, Stromboli' Etnq Mayon'
: a higtrly hh?{ gas 'charged with incandescent
i' nuee srdente (glowine cloud)
,rt porti"ie, ,oitrut i, i"g"*ii*r u *ouile ernulsio--n
ydtidense enough to maintain
lntact with surface '
r.ldera - co.llapsed volcano (ex' Taaf,Laguna Bay)
.;r .:ir
comPo$ed of solidified lava flows;
b. Shield ".olcailoes - broad, gently sloping.v-;rcantjes
rarelY stePPer than,f:dtigrees '
ex. Mauna Loa '
': , a
'il. Cindur cones - volcano that is constructed
of loose fragmentilpyroclastics;slopes
about 30-33 degrees
ex. Parictrtin
BELT
- PACTF'IC RING.OF FIRE/CIRCIJM-PACTTTC
Type of Volcanic Eruptions: -rr --^,.-|.^.rri.onh,erl gases
.,cq.eq
*. influencealfnir"ority of the magma aitd a{nourlf oi dissolved
- .iolencs" ,*pii* i, ,rtuit io ,rr" o*gree of fragmentation and the
distance
"'r.n
quiet liberation of gases
a. Fflaw*iian - ubundant outpouring of lava flows; lava fountains;

11. and scoria
b. Stnoxnholinn - milil, explosive eruption of pasty, incandescent bombs
ql, accompanied by a white vapor cloud; discrete explosions
c. vutrcaninn - btsw-out of solidified cnrsts (over the crater); acbompanied by a great
- - lava'flows may
;;;iifl.wei shaped eruption cloud containing an abundanco of ash;
issue
d. Flininn - eruption of extrerne violence; gas-blast eruption; eruption cloud resembles an
spreading out); huge'
Italian stone pinetree (shooting upward of the column then
sustained eruPtion column
Felean - extreme explosiveness; nuee ardente
Phneatic'
g F.trreatomagmntic l
h. Uliru-Ptiniatr - excessive emission of ash resulting to negative landforms
lLE
n*Vqlpgnlg-Hazards (
c. lava flows e. caldera collapse
a. ieplua fall
d. lahars f. tsunami
b. pyroclastic fhll
lrnportnnt: geothermal energY (ex. Makban, Bacman, Tiwi)
s[rMM3'nY
lava fottntains

12. :,t,il,i .. j,::,
r. i.:r:
.il..l_,'1
ffi
ffi i+:ir
:ri,'i
.i;i
b9&
o'ir 5
L)-rr
#6p
!
I
!Ii:r;';i
i '?.ii:li','
iiii-ig' b
tj;iEln
Z .E
i.i.'i1.1 Y
I
iili$[
6
0,
(s
E
E
'z
I {}::r
l'i':i;
l:i+.i
::: olii
:i .E r,
l:..ir. 'i
tr.'..:+i
o
=
d 0)
o)
o .c.
6@
'7
-rao
q
LY:t
!i:t

13. ,i iii
wil,AT'r{rcntruc nivn ER,osnoN
iVE,:X'I.!!Eit,lNi- is the physical disintegtation arfci r,hernical decontposition by ivhich
rocks iire changed upon exposure to "agents" at or near the earth's surface, with little or
no lranspo;t of loosened or altercd Inateriai
*- agents - hydrosllhere, a-tmosphere, biospher-e
.4. l4cch*nical Weathering - is the breakdown. of rccks into smaller fiagnents by
vat'ious ph1151"'1 stresses
- ::tictly a lthysicul pl'oces:; willxnt a change in chemical
c1tilP)r'iliott
fr4 erhilnicaN Weath ering Frocesscs
a. ice wedging/ttost wedging
b. salt crystal gror,vth
L:. slrceting/unloading - releasc of confining p:ressure
exfoliation - fonnation of cprved sheets of rock by release of pressure
d. anirnals and plants
e. tlrermal expansion and contraction - seasonal/daiiy temperature changes
tr]. Chenrical Wcattering'- is the process"by rvhich chenrical reactions transform rocks
and nrinerals into ne;, shemicat cornbinations that are stable under conditions prevaillng at
or near the earth"s sur{-ace
lioie: more ef-fectittc itt x'armer clintcle:i - lrcat increase,s tlw xtte of ma:;t
reucf irnts
Chcnricnl Wcatherinq Proccsses
a. Flydrolysis - H' or Otf of the water anAffinUe ions of the rninerals
Ex. I(-ibldspar
2l(Alsi?o8 + 2tt2co3 -F 9FI20
Ortlroclase Carbonic Acid Water
Al2iii205(ot-t),r -l- 4l-I4sio4 J- ?tc + 2{-ICo3'
Kaolinite Silicic Acid Potassium Ion Bicarbondte l.on
{,
:--*ffi

14. . ,1;'
l). ulSSOllltl0n - Fr2U -- --Llnlversat solvent
Ex.
b.l NaCl T HzO Na -F CI 1- FLO
b.2 FITO COz
-,----+ HzCOr
CaCOr T FizCOr ------+ Caun F 2HCO:-
c. Oxidation * is the cornbiration of oxygen ioris ivith cations
Ex.
2FeSz + 7O:r + zHzO
F 2Fe'-' + 4SOt' + 4F-t+
4Fe'* -t- oz {- 4# -_|4FErr'r + 2H?O
gl&qlar dalrygolbstlqg or "onion-skin weathering" -- produces spheroidal boulders of
relat ively untveathertd material
X{.esults/f roducts:
a. regolirlr - fragincntal and uncor.rsoiidated rocl< material that has coarse grains
rvith angular edges and a composition sinrilar to the unweathered rock
" b. very large increase in the surface area of the v/eathered rnatedal
, f,,. soluble rnaterials
Xlilr:tons afT'ccting the nntes o{' weathering:
I. susceplibility ot'the consl-ituertt roirrurals to rveatltering
- Goldich Stability Series
-- nrinerals forrned at liigher temperatures and pressures tend to be less stable in
uveathering environment than those formed at lower temperatures
2. climale or intensity of the weathering processes
-- total amount of precipitation
- intensity ol'rain
-- sr:asonal variations
-- infiltration -r
-- run-ofl'and rate of evaporation
-- teulperature
''r'wnnn,
hunrirlclimate Vs. coid clirnaLe
-J. amount ol'srrrface exposecl to the atmosphefe
f,i?0$'/Ory - forcehrl physical removal of material frorn ihe parent rock, alwa.gs
acconrparried by transportat.ion and eventually end in deposition
a. running vrater d. 'ivind f- mass wasting:' :
b. grouncl water €.'waves' ald currents g. oigarric activi'
c. glaciers

15. '"
n
Dcpositio n itrtti [ix.hit'icatiorl :
I
I
l--
Lithifliq:ation - is the term for p group of processes tlrat conrreft loose sediments into
sedirlen.rarr/ rocks
u. C1:me6talion - the process by which sediments are convefted ilt<i roclr by the
cliemical precipiiation of rnineral material / cqment among the grains of the
sediment I
+
silic.r, carbonates and irolt oxides
t{ is tlie loss in over-allvolunie and pore space as sedinrent
t-, . Ccrnpactittn =
particles are packed closer together by the weiglt of, overlying rnaterial
Cry:;tallization - refers to crystal developmelit and growth by precipitation
fi'om solution; no cement; grains are held together by inierloclcing crystals
Ser{inrept:ltion - tlre process of fornring sedinqnt in layers, including ttre separation oi
rocli partioles fit'lnr the palerrt Inaterial, transportation of these pa.rticles to the site o.l
deposirir:n, actual cleposition/setiiing, litlrification and consolidaticn into rock,

16. '.
SEDIMEhITARY ROCKS
SedimentarY Rocks:
- Latin woi-d, sedimentum = "settling"
- formed from consolidation of
materials from pre-existing rocks, from
precipitation and from secretion of organisms'
Sediments - finely divided matter consisting of mineral grains and
organic
processes,.transported by
matter derived from pre-existing rocks and from life
and deposited from alr, water or ice'
- origin:
(1) weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks
izi cnemical prebipitation from solution
(3) secretion of organisms
Ocean = ultimate destination
Partlcie size classification for sediments
[dden-Wentworth Common
Size Glass . Sedimenf Narne
Particle Name
Gravel
or
Rubble
1116-2
1/256-1/16
Two Maior Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
.
and particles
1. clastic [Greek k/asfos, "broken"] = discrete fragments
crystal pattern' '
2. non-clastic texture = minerals forming an interlocking
.

17. Iypes of Sedlrrient'ary Kocr(s
a. Detrital sedimentary rocks'.particle size is the primary basis
UOOenlWentworth Common Detrital Rock
Size Class Sediment
(Particle Namq)- Name
Boulder Gravel Conglomerate
UI
Cobble
Rubble Breccia
Pebble
Granule
Sand Sand Sandstone
sitt Mud siltstone Shale or mUdstone
Clay clavstone
precipitation of minerals
b. chemical sedimentary rocks: formed by direct
from solution.
*Precipitation occurs in two.ways:
(1)lnorganicprocessessuchasevaporationandchemica|
actirTity can produce chemical sediments'
-
iximprei: dripstone and halite (salt)
(2) Organic processes of water-dwelling organisms form
biochemical sediments
Texture Composltton Rock Name
Group
Clastic or non- calclte, u?uu3 Limestone
clastic
Non-clastic Dolomite, Dolomite (Dolostone)
lnorganic CaMq(COs)z
Non-clastic MicrocrYstalline Chert
quartz, SiOz
Halite, Rock salt
Non-clastic
NaCl
Gypoum, RocK gYPsum
Non-clastic
CaSOo'2HzO
Clastic or non- Calciie, CaCOg Limestone
Organic clastic
Non-clastic MicrocrYstalline Chert
ouartz, SiOz
Torc6sttc Altered Plant Coal
remains

18. -..
SedimentarY $tnuctu res
environment'
*provide additional information with regard to the depositional
':rmed as bedding or stratificationl
1, l-aYering [also t(
:l
layer is 1 cm or more
1.1 strataor bed: thickness of tftu
l.2taminafion:thicknessofthelayerislessthanlcm
(e.g., change in
*may result from differences,Qetween |ayers in texture
color or cementation'
grain sizei'ti*iui tomposition'
-beddingptanes.=flatsurfaces.alongwhichrockstendtoseparate
and the beginning of
e end of one episode of sedimentation
another
(b)pauseindepositioncanleadtothecreationofbeddingplanes
2'Ripp|emarks.=smatlridgesofsandformedbymovingwindorwater
2,lCurrentripp|emardE:lfairorwaterismovingessentiallyinone
direction
2.2oscillatoryripplemarks:Resu|tfromtheback-and-forth
movementofsurface*.u"'inshal|owwaterenvironments
3'Cross.beddingisanarrangementofsmallbedsatanangletothemain
sedimentarY laYering
by a Progressive
4. Graded bedding is a tYPe of bedding characterized
through the bed'
decrease in grain size upwaid
5'Mudcracksarepolygonul",.u.k,thatformwhenmudshrinksasiidries'

19. fiNETAMOffiFffiC RCCKS
Metarnorphic rocks = rocks resutting from changes in temperature and
pressLtr'e ancl frotr changes in the chemistry of tlreir poi'e fluids.
= can be formed from igneous, sedimentary, or
previor-rsly nretanrorphosed rockb.
= solid-state .reaction
= consist of a fabric of irrterlocl<ing crystal grains,
usually with preferred grain orientation.
*Changes new minerals, textures and structures
-,,.t.*
-')
occur in the solid rock; witltout melting of rock
I. Principal agents of metamonphisrn
a. lentperature
- rarely below 200oC, upper limit is ihe melting'temperature of
tlte tock
b. Pressurc
i
l
b.1 confiping/static = pressLr-e applied equrally on all surface of tlre
BT5r"r, ecl/dynamic - pressLrre applied unequally on the surface
of a body
b.2.1 compressive - flattens objects perpendicular to applied
pfessLl[e
b.2.2 shearing flattens objects parallel to tlre applied
pressLlre
*Fcrliation parallel arrangement of textural or structrrral features
-
in apy type of rock; planar structure that results from flattening of
tlre constituent grains of a metamorphic rock'
c. Chentically active/migrating f/uids
- loss and gain of ions and atoms
- snrall arnir-rnt of pore fluid provides an inrportant medir-rrn of
transPotl
'Mletasornatisln

20. introduction of ions fronr an external source
generally connected with magmatic intrusions
I'r
T-- new material (front magma) + pore fluid = new mineral
ilil l,/ stable in the new chemical environment
l[. Types of metamorphlstm
a. Contact/thenmal metarnorphisrn = metamorphism resulting from
the intrusion of lrot magma into cooler rocks.
*dorninant factor: temperatu re
fvlelarrorphitr
Qracle.
Ll. Regional metamorphism = metamorphism caused by relatively
high ternperature and both directed and confining pressure
= *affects broad regions of the Earth's
crrrst, usually in areas of tectonic activity. '
= foliation
*heat: great depths, earth movements, batholiths
"pressure: burial, tectonism
.
, | .t t,. -,:.
c. l-lyclrothenmal nnetamorphlsm =
metamorphism cauSed by
migratingftLridsandbyionsdissolvedinthehotfluids.
lll. Textures of dretamorphic rocks .,,. .' .,
a. slaty = nearly perfect, planar, parallel fotiation of very fine glainedl
platy (flat) minerals (i.e , rnicas); low-grade tnetamorphism ,,
l,l.t
.li,..1,.,.....:,,.
,

21. b. Regional meta*orphi"* = metimorphiir .uru-d bg relatiu.lg high
ternperatrr. both directed unJ .ot fining Pressure
"nd
= u{Qd..ts brood regions of th. Earth's
crLrst, urrullg itr areas of tectonie activity
= foliution
*'m e n'fs1 ba'lh' h'lh s
.
::::;:::1i : f i:i::': J
c.. Hgdroth**uf meLamorphism = metarhotphitm .uut.d by nigrating
fl,ri,Js bg ions dissoln.d in the hot fluids"
.und
111. fct:turo of mctamorphic rocks
a. slatg = nearlg pe#ect, planat-, purull.lfoliution of v.tg fine-grained
plu'y (flat) minerals (i.e., micas); low-grade metamotphi"t
phglliti. = s parallel (but wavg or wrinLled) foliatio n o[ [in"-g,ained
(ol.uu;onulig ,n.diur -g,uii.d) platg minerals (i..., misas and
chlorires), .ih,biting a silkg or me13llic lu*er; relativelg lo*-grad"
metamorphittt'
(.. ,.l",,rtose = purull"l to foliation of m.dium- to coarse-
"ub-purallel
qrained plutg ninerals (micas and nhlorite); intermediate-.to h'gh-
e."d* rnetamorphitt
gnei-ssrc = p^r"ll"l to uub-purull-l folirtio. of t.dium to coarse-
,:-.,ri,r"d platrl minerals in' alternating l.g"ru_ of difFerent
cc,mposition; jirter*-ditt"- tohigh-grade metatotphiut '
g rnoblustic = -rniform g;ain size o{ equant or- l.andomlg oriented
s:rains

22. t l ( | l. | |'-' r,l l' I
t horntelsrc = tine-gained rocks with grains tendlngto be lntergrown
-'-'1--L-
irr rarrdorn orientation
M. C.lassi$ication
A. tlnioliatud with qranular texture
:
l
b. rcliiated
Namc Texture Parcnt Rock
ate Slaty Tufl-, shale
P Slatg (silkg sheen); Tuff, shale
phylliti.
,5chistose basalt, gabbro, tuf{-, andesite,
shal., rhgolit.
Gnciss Gneissose
-
Granite, rhale, diorite, ihgolite
oCataclastic roclcs= r.o.ks that htu. b."n granulated by .tuthing-
+ Mqlonite= uataclastic roclcs with floy textures-

23. *l
DIASTRC}PHISTJI / ROCK DEFORMATION
r.'olume
Deformation = a general term that refers to all, changes in
ancllor shaPe of a rock bociY
= tfr" strain yielding of a solid to applieci stress ,
*Stress = the amount of force acting on. a rock unit to change its
shape and/or volttme
a. confining Pressure - equal
b. differential or dii'ecied
. b.1 compressional - shorten a rock body
b.2 tensional - elongate or purll apart the rock
bodY
b.3 shear - sliPPage
*strain = is tlire.change in shape andior volume of a rock unit
caused bY stress
Iypes of deformation (strain):
a elastic deformation = object returns to iis original size and
shaPe when stress is removed
b. plastic.deformation =.a permanent change in the original
Lr,up* o.f a solid that occurs without fracture '
c. ruPture
, , '.'
i
Rocks that defcrm plastically by foldin$ and flowing
are said to be
;;;;i;".' On'tf.'* otr'*r nanditoikt tested undqr surface conditlohs
],r""..t"i* -[Ji."irv, uri olce they exceed their elastic limit,
*"rt:b*hau* like a'brittle sblid and fractr:re- This type oi
l"t"i*"ti;; i. "orr*o brittie failure'

24. Fqs+src '*f{e,o*rv,g -{Sa'bdhaviot of roo{rsl
a. inherent ProPerties mineralogy, gtain size, porosity etc'
--nlinelalswithstronginternalmclecularbonds;=brittle
-- weaker bonds = ductile
-- qLrartzite, granite, gneiss = brittle
ductile
-- rock satt, [ypsum'-Marble and shale =
L:. time
-- quicKtY = fracture
confining Rressure')
high = plastic
d temperature /
,i,
e. solution - loulers rock strength
MAPPING GEOLCIGlc sTRUqliuRES
Outcrops - sites where bedrock are exposed
geological feature
Attitude - refers to the 3D orientation of some
ex. bed, fracture
intersection of an
strike - direction of the line formed by thefeature
planar
imaginary horizontal plane and any
o
- trend ,
Dip.istheangleofinclinationofthesurfaceoftheplanar
plane'
feature **ur,-,r6d from the horizontal

25. '4tt
FOLDS
Folc.ls - sinrply a bend or waverike undulations in bedding, foliation,
ciea,;ace rir other planar featlrres
Parts of a fold:
, a. litnbs ar ilanks - twcr sides of a fold
b. hinge - line of maximum curvature in a folded bed
c. axr's - line paratlel to the hinge; line moving parallel to itself
that generates the fold tt..,,
d. axial plane - imaginary surface that divides a folci as
symmetrically as possible
e. plunge- angle between the fold axis and the hor-izontal
Types of folds:
i.l. anticline = "arch"; convex upward
b. syncline. = arches downwarcl
d. synrmetrical = limbs clivergle atthe same angle
e. a$ymrnetrical
- overturned = one limb is iilted beyond the ver-tical
recumbent = axial plane is horizontal
f. plunginE = iolcl with Cipping axis
g. monoclines = broaci flexures; one limb
h. domes and basiri

26. FRAC'TU RES
A" Joints = are fractures arong which no appreciabre
displacement has occurred
= may harre almost any orientaticn _ verticar,
h o ri zo n ta',:::t
;"#:,Xifl '1.,=
Causes:
a. columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and develop
shrinkage fractures
ex. Devil's Causeway in lreland
Devil's Tower in Wyoming
L-r. sheeting
c. rocks in outermost crust are cieforrneci
n" ,Joints
may be significant from an economic standpoint
*" ,Joints also present a risk to the construction of.engineering
projects
B. Fadlts = are fractures in the Earth's crust along which slippage
or displacement has occurred.
Fault terminology:
1. hanging wall = the rock above an inclined fault
2. footwall = the rock beneath an inclined fauli

27. Types of faults:
a. Dip slip fauits
a.'inormar/gravity faurts = extension; the hanging
'-"''7"'r wail rrq
moved down relative to ihe footwall 'uq'r has
6 graben (German word, "grave,;1 = wedge_shaped
rock dropped downward
block
of
' ll,H:;::"tnt of rock that have moved upward relative
to
a.z reverse faurt = compr"rrion; hanging wail has
', relaiive to the moved up
footwall; high_angled
i
I a.3 thrust fault = gompression; wall has moved up
, relative to ihe footwail,; row-angred _hanging
1so" oi +6"i'-',
b- strike-slip faurts = raterar faurts; high-angre
faurts in which the
displacement is ho.rizontal, parallel to the stit<e
of the fault plane,
with little or no vertical movement.
b.1 right lateral stike-slip faulUdextral
b.2 left lateral strike-slip faulUsinisiral
c. Oblique slip faults

28. EARTHQUAKES AND REL
cf the earth
Earthquake 'sudden motion or trernbling release of energy
- vibration in the earfh "ur.u-d by ihe rapicl
*Most often are caused by slippage along faulis
Elastic Rebound TheorY:
oFl.f:. Reid, Johns Hopskins University
slour deformation of the crust (creep)
until strength of rock is
- over'
exceeded. Then, ruptttre cccurs' Start
- 1906 San Francisco Earthquake adhquake,
a. in the 50 y"u" before the 1906 san francisco e
surveys takln in the area recorcled
an offset by creep over 3
6 m, this movement
, il:l"Ji,*nt during the 1906 eafthquake was
to 50 years
took plaiu in +O ieconds as opposed
an earthquake originate
Focus - the poirrt at which vibrations of
Epicenter-pointonsurfac*ot"",-tr.'irnmediatelyabo'vefocus
Rupturesurface-areaonafaultplanethatexperiencesmovement
cluring an earlhquake event
any atqcri, tra vels through rock, produced
$eismic Waves .- ^^,r elastic waves that
by an earthquake or exPlosion
Whenanearthquakeoccuts,seismicWavesaregivenoff.Thisis
Wives are created
simiiar to throwinga stone tntol quiet body of water'
which move out fiom the point of impact
Energy is being propagated along
these paths; and as it moves
some of the energy is lost'
its energY'
The farther the wave travels the lower

29. Seismograph - iirstrurnent that records seisrnic wav.es
Seismogram - record made by the seisnrograph
Types of seismic waves:
. 'i- Body waves -
radiate outward from the focus in concentric spheres
and travel through the Earth's intericr
a. P-waves - Primary waves, Longitudinal waves, Compression
WAVCS
- involves alternating compression and expansion of the
material through which it passes
- similar to sound waves, like ihe nrotion of a spring or slinky, a
push-pull rnotion
- movement of rock particles is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation
- fastest waves, travel 5 to 15 km/s
- may pass through any kind of solids, liquids, or ga.ses
b. S-waves - Secondary waves, Shear waves, Transverse waves
- inVolves oscillation of rock particles perpendicular to the
direction
of propagation
- like sending a "wave' through a rope
- slower than p-waves, 4-7 km/s
- may pass through solids onlY
2. $urface waves - Long waves, L-waves
- radiate outward from the epicenter and travel along the outer part
of the earth; generally slower than body waves
- greater amplitude and longer period
- cause the greatest destruction
a. Rayleigh vJaves - rock particles move in a vertical rolling
(orbital) motion, something'like ocean waves
b. Love waves - rock particles move side to side in a horizontal
plane
- very destructive and travel faster than Rayleigh waves
Pvelocit.v' } Syeto city > Lvelocity

30. Locatine an earthqrrake
- in orCer to locate an earthquake, at least three seismograph stations
are needed
- if only one station: distance to epicenter, along a radius from station
- if two stations: two possible epicenter .
- three stations: unique point
Measurement of Earthquake Strenqth
a. lntensity - an indication of the destructive effects of an eartlrquake at
a particular place
- affected by: distance to tire epicenter, total amount of energy
released and nature of surface materials
- Mercalli scale (lflodified Mercalli Intensity Index)
o qualitative and subjective
o measure of damage and 'felt' intensity
o determined by site'examination and interviews
b. Magnitude -
total arnount of energy released during an earthquake
- based on direct measLlrements of the size (amplitude) of seismic
WAVES
- total ener$y reieased - calculated fi'om the amplitr-rde of the waves
and the distance from the epicenter
- Richter scale
o quantitative
o open ended, <1 to infinity
o logarithmic (a magnitude 2 is 10 times more powerful than a
magnitude 1)
Effgcts of earthquakes
1^ ground shaking and rupture
2. landslides
3. iiquefaction
4. tsunamis (seismic sea waves)
o originate when water is verticaily clisplaced during:
earthquakes
' uncjersea landslides (turbidite fiows)
undersea,rolcanic eruptions (e, g Krakatoa, 1683)

31. u6'F{ r rcf Eo. rr, r- ,,'*rF I - lr r*a- t@ds. 4te4+_gAgrfih€4r&rmCoC,ffin tfic gm&rs sititace,
charrging their positicns relaiive to one another
* ocean floor remains stationary as ihe contirrents ptowe(
thror_rgh it
-- t'lot nev/:
a. Buffon - sirnilarity in fossils
b. Snider-Pelligrini - similarity in coasilines
*"l'lorth Arnerica
and Europe
--'Alfred Wegener - Father of Continental Dr-ift
continents had been united into a vast superccntinent called
Pangaea (Pangea)
a. Laurasia (northern) _ North America, Eurasia
;
b. Gondwana (southern) - lndia and the rest of the continents
i
ii - driving mechanism: rotational and tidal forces
i -- Wegener's lines of evidence:'
l
a. ligsaw puzzle fit of the continents
i
,i b. distribution of fossil plants and animals
examotes:
i b ] G/cs opteris sp. and Gangamopfe4rs sp.
i b.2 Lystrosaurus.sp. - found in Antartica, Inclia anc.l
,
I South America; land dweller
(Why not North Arnerica? Distribution of fauna is
i
)u,n
"r:::5X,.,,:uJ;:':'3 : Arr e ri ca and s o u tir Arrica,
i:. aquatic reptile
li c. continuity of geotogic structures
- lndia, Africa, South America, Australia and Antartica .
'. tillites
'
j fossils
i
)l
, - identical patterns oi'scratches and grooves fornred in the
,. rocks
I d. nt*terhs trf pateoclfn"atgs ard qlc"tehby,, rn +he Soratho-rn l-te.rrrsphere
,'1 ' - pr*,.r*I. ; r.,[.-*o, -+"r*otrt"; rn
ftr*artica ,;;;;;;-'"
, once near tfie aqua*or
' .i.iFters v:. *i:rers - (tqao) cpiii-.aa< due rnainry io -rhe onc,r.0.,:t,ur,.,

32. ltl
rrf
t'
ocearl:
l
o in oPen ^^^ -,,^- ,
a tlr?V travei uP to 700-800 km/hr
" wavelength >100-200 knt
r wave height <1 m
o approacnlng a coastline
)hing d :"i:-'l:'^*^^^-
r wavelengih decreases (up to
. h;;;iintruu*", to compensate for low velocity
:
30m) <
'
' velocitY is reduced to 60 km/hr
of lakes' bays' rivers etc')
5. seiches (oscillating waves on surface
6. fire
7. t"gionalbhanges in iand elevaiion
.Seismichazardmaps'hqyearthquaKeriskinaparticulararea.
-indicateprobabilityofanevent,andprobabi|ityofacertain
amount of ground shaking
- Short term Prediction
}some=u""",'byJapaneseandChinesebyuslng|u|esl
other data
F factors considered useful:
3
'/ o"toimation of ground surface
:";il;i**i tune connecst two .water-fill:: "::tuiners
D gravimeters - measures changes in -.-graviiational
or falling land; of
strength brought ab,out ,nV liting
;;iles in deisitY of rrnderlYing rock
' cf€e PrTleter u
' :-
.. proton precession magnetometer - detects changes tn
[t"'* magnetic fielcj
"u'ift's
" lasers
/ sesismic gaPs along faults r, -..
'/ puiiurn= ind frequJn"y of earthquakes : :-,:1.'
uno*uf"tts animalbehavio ",',' l..
,':,'.,,'.'',''',ir-..;':",-'
'/ ,,
.
{CI
,/, changes in wateri#;iltb'Jity' t**pe.rature in
n*i' 16
", :x1"#:3?".#Tl,o*r ,."=irliyily. . ,-----,-^li..a,^ deep *ullt ',,ti, '-,-
.,,i.,,.
tt,

33. , r .,,..
)> rocks contain minute amounts of magnetic minerals that align with the
earth's magnetic field
}.directionofalignmentandinclinationfromthehorizonta|indicatesthe
position of the magneiic Pol"
within the rocks
the time and place the rocks formed
n studies show that poles were in.different positions relative to a continent
at various times in the geologic past
t
"-o'",1it';:,'", had moved
(2) continents had moved
- continents stationary, poles had moved: paleomaqnetibally determined
pole positions for a particular time should be the same or all
continents
- continents had moved, poles stationary: pole positions slrould differ
among the continents

34. SEA FLOOR READIF,IG
-- Hess,oroposed that the sea-floor
mighi, fYlr)i/rn^
I I rv v il ty
:l
crest of the MOR doivn the flanks
to disappear finally'by plunging
,- spreading'center = ridge crest
- subduction = sliding of the sea
neath a continent
- Driving force of sea floor spreading:
a. Hess: SFS was clriven by ntle convection
+ Meinesz and'Holmes hy earth's internal heat
r beneath the crest,
b' j
uplift of the spreading,ridge jlstuoiunt
formed simpry permits sriding
v'rithout the help of conveltion curid:it
ll:
c' subductecJ slab is rnore dense b;g.urr" it is coid
tends to pull
the slab along as it dives .ri;i
:ii -;
,ii
Objections. :
"
a. viscosity of the magma il ,
b. rocks are very weak under tensi.bn
iili
Evidence for SFS: iii ',
1' thickening of the sedimentary r3x,"r away from
the ridge
Itl
2 the age of the sediment restiilgi on the ocean floor increases away
fronr the ririge .:ii-
,l'1..
3.stripesofmagneticanomati"s,.i.:i,
" normar earth fierd - a!_ditir13,and str'ng magnetic
intensity
" reverse _ subtracts from tfleipr*="ni-ragnetic intensity.leaving
low vatue :ii '
.
e
:'i:r
.: '

35. p uqrr. rrcrotrtigs rHEOnv
ilii
eAding (1eo8)
- or the ocean r'1or
"".1':;lT,$JLi.',-nit'ffi';iol;uu; reaturesmountain ranges'
plus o'tit'nttt; ;i '' ea4hhuakes;
volcanoes, etc illli
i:l1l i i
l:l;l I
ii{dt is part of the earth's surface
mobile slab of rocf t{{Xt
Plate = large, l'
continental
:: entirely "t idi& oceanic crust' the
idl#;oceanic
crust or both ifli
on the same plate are not
= assumed to be rigid - t*o'$[drus
- motion .^la*irro tb each othe;fii
th Othgnl
in -r:^^ relative
iiiin/linot Plates:
Major plates: il;,'--
,,.it.
: li r. Southeast Asian-
1. American ,rli z. Nur"u
2. Eurasian :ii'
3. CarriC"an
3. African ::'
i. inJiun-Arlstralian ''ii 4' Arabta
Lrqr'6' Philippine
5. pacific ti ,5
6. A.ntartic "l
..^
, iirr
outer shetl
L.iihosphere = earth's rigid i!
Astenosphere = Low Velocity
Zonei rlue to an incre
=azonetrratnerr.au*$.pr"='icaltyduetoanincrease
in Pressure and terRberature allowing the plates to
iuv"t
= acts as a runritliilS
move
.l
I 'ii
distinit unit' all maior interactions
plate b 'oundaries
between pates'occur along
I
i* ' "
- ^!:
t,:
'r" a mountain building
-rnd
seismic activitY' volcanlsm ,
' !i:
where plates
a' divergent nouhdaiiS:- : maierial from nff'.v,:
tt tllupyvellin$ of
upu*,i"=iift'*g
t; create new sea floor:r'

36. :,
b. conver-gent beundai-ies = wnere . plates Inove
together, causing orte of the slabs of the liihosphere to
be consumed into tHe mantle as it descends an
overriding plate
c. transform biundaries = whet'e plates slide
past eactr other creating or destroying lithosphere
i
::.
Features:
.;i.
;r 11..,
A. Divergent Boundaries 'iii: :
a. oceanic divergence - mif,1ked by the crest of the MOR
and basaltic voicanoes :i'ii:
ex. Boun'dary behrueeriliazca and Pacific plates
'1,
b. continental divergence * niarked by rift valleys
ex. East African rift vallqys' Red Sea
'
.t,:
B. Convergent boundaries :''
a. oceanic-oceanic' .onuBrg"n.* : ?, 9::alit plates
converge, one plaie subducts under the other
a.1 Wadati-Benioff zones of earthquakes
a.2 volcanoes I.
a.3 island arcs (Philippines, Japan, Tonga, Mariana)
a.4 inner wall of the"trench consists of a subduction
complex and fore-arc basin
tVr:fe. Marianas type; fensioiip/ environment,' sfeep-ang/ed
st.rbducfiorr ',
b. oceanic-continental cohvergence - plate capped . by
oceanic crust is subducutecl under the continental piate
t:
b.1 subduciion complex,'fore-arc-basin, back-arc basin
b.2 edges of the continent become deformed intoI
young mountain ranbe "
b.3' volcanic/magmatic.a.rc within the continental crust
continental-continental,Qonvergence - collision of ilvo
corrtinents ' .::
'I
i
li
,l

37. ':llen{:j
11.1. :
l ,: l:,
' :
. ' ,' rrii":ii
r'nl
.iil;tu
':'l:i:'i
c.1 rnar-l<ed by sutr-rre zones (olci sites of subduction) , .,1:. r
,: :
c.2 majestically high mountain ranges in the interior'of
.aneWlargercontinerr:t(e.g.lndiaandAsia) r.,
':it i
:lr,:
c.3 marked by broad belt of shallow focus earthquakes
ali-,,1-l g the nu me[ousi:far-r lts
i':
3. -fransforil Bounrdaries iii
it::
marked by shailow focus eatfhqLiakes
,rl:l:
- first motion studies indicateiil$trike-slip movement
ifi
What Causes ptate motions? 'iti
illl
a. mantle convection - involves nCiO'conielJtion cells anr:i hot
mantle ii'rock
,, due to: ili
I o a.1 magrna intrusionri on the ridge brest.prrshing tlre
.
r
plates
o
,.
a-? currents mov-ing away carry the plates
*"Push i-iypothesis" :1.
:
"difficurlt to account for the ve'pical.cracks in the rift zone . ,..,iri)lli
i
b. sitbdt-rction pulls the plates :
r:.l.1,:l
*"Pull Flypothesis"
"nan account.for the tensional cracks but in.some ridges
trenches
there are no
'r1.... i
C. plurnes and hotspots ll
*plumes - narrow colLtmns of hot mantle rock that rise anci
spreacl radially outwald formiiig hotspots of active volcarrism
ex. plurne under Hawaii , i{i,,
,t$
ii:jr
i;,,,.;,,',t .i$$'
r' :',j':
.',:'.:.:
t,
,,$,
. .ii:'
,$',
,i it''
,:' ii
ii
i,:
$
ii