1. “Commodity” (utility):
how does the building function?
“Firmness” (strength) :
( g )
how does the building stand up?
VITRUVIUS ON ARCHITECTURE
EDITED FROM THE HARLEIAN MANUSCRIPT 2767 AND TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH BY FRANK GRANGER, D.Lrr., A.R.I.B.A.
PROFESSOR IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM IN TWO VOLUMES I

2. “Haec autem ita fieri debent, ut habeatur ratio
firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis.”
.
BOOK I. c. i., CHAPTER III, ON THE PARTS OF ARCHITECTURE, page 34 / 35
Image: Vitruvius’ De Architectura, Book X. Medieval Copy Carolingian Anonymous (750-987)
Image source: http://wobblingsolutions.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/page/2/

3. “2. Now these should be so carried out that account is taken of
strength,
t th utility,
tilit grace.
firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis (lat.)
CHAPTER III
ON THE PARTS OF
ARCHITECTURE, page
34 / 35 Account will be taken of strength when the foundations are carried
down to the solid ground and when from each material there is a
ground,
choice of supplies without parsimony;
of utility, when the sites are arranged without mistake and
impediment to their use, and a fit and convenient disposition for the
aspect of each kind ;
of grace, when the appearance of the work shall be pleasing and
elegant, and the scale of the constituent parts is justly calculated
for symmetry”

4. strength utility
g y g
grace
?

5. “Commodity”:
how does the building function?

6. A place to shelter, celebrate, work or worship?
We ca ta about “utility” on two levels, i.e, from two aspects:
e can talk ut ty o t o e e s, e, o t o aspects
• in regard with organization of space, which must meet the needs arising
from a specific physiological civilizational anthropological spiritual,
physiological, civilizational, anthropological, spiritual
cultural, economic, social and other needs.
• in regard with material components i.e., material system of building -
components, i e
enclosure, that must respond to all physical impacts of environment and
needs of users.

7. Concept of Shelter

8. Concept of Shelter

9. Shelter
1 2
Artificial shelter starts with such gentle manipulations In progressively more elaborate stages of
of the landscape as planting a tree for shade or a row environmental intervention, a paving of stones
of shrubbery for a windbreak. A simple, freestanding or a platform of wood provides a drier footing
east-west wall of piled-up rocks, by means of its for the inhabitant. A lean-to roof keeps off rain
vertical profile and its thermal capacity, can create a and snow.
small zone of shaded coolness immediately to its
y
north in hot weather and a sun-warmed, less windy
zone to its south in cold weather.

10. Shelter
3 4
At night, a fire at the mouth of this simple shelter One can easily imagine further steps in the
warms its occupants by both direct and wall- improvement of such a rudimentary shelter: the use of
reflected radiation, and a small portion of its heat is fabric or skins to close off the open side after dark or
stored in the stones to moderate the temperature of on cloudy days, the moving of the fire to an interior
the sheltered space even after the fire has died. hearth, and so on.

11. Home

12. Development of human civilization –
development of needs, requirements, spaces

13. Development of human civilization:
development of needs,
requirements, spaces
i

14. The Function of Buildings
Spiritual, cultural,
Spiritual cultural social and other needs
Temple of Horus, Edfu, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, cca. 490 B.C.
237-212 B.C., the Ptolemaic period
Differences regarding disposition, articulation of space and arrangement of space:
buildings of same functions, constructed in different cultural, civilization and religious contexts.

15. The Function of Buildings
Spiritual, cultural,
Spiritual cultural social and other needs
Differences regarding visual expression:
buildings of same functions, constructed within different cultural, civilization and religious contexts.
Temple of Horus, Edfu, 237-212 B.C., the Ptolemaic period Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, cca. 490 B.C.

16. The Function of Buildings
A place to shelter, celebrate work or worship?
shelter celebrate,
Differences regarding articulation of space and arrangement of space:
buildings of different functions
public library layout

17. The Function of Buildings
A place to shelter, celebrate work or worship?
shelter celebrate,
Differences regarding articulation of space and arrangement of space:
buildings of different functions
hotel, floor layout

18. The Function of Buildings
Factor of tradition
Specific developing of layout based on traditions and cultural
factors
Japanese house with spatial sections serving for traditional tea ceremony

19. Japanese house, interior

20. What a building should do?
This is the graphical
presentation of the list,
attempting to include all
the functional expectations
we have for a building at
the present time.
The diagram shows
interconnections /
interdependences of
different f
diff functions of the
i f h
building.

21. What a building should do?
After Vitruvius, many theoreticians of architecture
proposed many different systems by which buildings
may be analysed, their qualities discussed and their
meanings understood.
Besides this, within the scope of building science
numerous sets of requirements, standards and
regulations on different aspects of building functioning
have been developed.
Set of requirements on wall designing, according to Neil Hutcheon.

22. Below:
Some of the more critical physical phenomena impacting enclosures,
according to Hutcheon.
Left:
Building occupancy types and occupancy factors, according to
Hutcheon.

23. Concept of Enclosure
igloo wigwam
Buildings are enclosed for privacy, to exclude
wind, rain, and snow from the interior, and to
y
yurt control interior temperature and humidity.
A single-enclosure type of system is one that
extends continuously from the ground to enclose
the floor. Simple examples are cone-like tepees
and dome igloos
igloos.
A multiple-enclosure type of system consists of a
isba hut horizontal or inclined top covering, called a roof,
and vertical or inclined side enclosures called
walls.
ll
pile dwelling
hut
tepee

24. Concept of Enclosure
Building: shell (envelope) and structure
In order to understand how a
building works, we can dissect it
and study
its various elemental functions.
But few building functions
take place in isolation. Almost
every component of a building
serves more than one f
h function,
i
with some components
commonly serving ten or more
simultaneously, and these
functions are heavily
f ti h il
interdependent.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF
ARCHITECTURE, FRANCIS D.K.
CHING

25. How Buildings Work?
THERMAL CONTROL: Heat transfer and the building envelope
Insulated wall
How much heat the building envelope -the construction that separates the interior spaces from the outside
environment - gains or loses is influenced by the construction of the outside of the building envelope, along with
the wind velocity outside the building. Each layer of material making up the building’s exterior shell contributes
some resistance to the flow of heat into or out of the building. The amount of resistance depends on the properties
and thickness of the materials making up the envelope. Heavy, compact materials usually have less resistance to
heat flow than light ones. Each air space separating materials in the building envelope adds resistance as well.
The surface inside the building also resists heat flow by holding a film of air along its surface. The rougher the
surface is, the thicker the film and the higher the insulation value.

26. How Buildings Work?
THERMAL CONTROL: Ventilation
Before the invention of mechanical ventilation,
the common high ceilings in buildings created a large volume of indoor
air that diluted odors and carbon dioxide. Fresh air was provided by
infiltration, the accidental leakage of air through cracks in the building,
which along with operable windows created a steady exchange of air
with the outdoors.
“Cupola”
Whole house fan
Roof window

27. How Buildings Work?
DAYLIGHTING
Skylights
Clerestory window
Until recently, the workday ended when the sun went down. At the end of the day, everyone huddled around the
fire, and then headed off to bed in the dark. Fires, candles, and oil lamps provided weak illumination, and were
often too expensive for poorer people. People depended on daylight entering their buildings to give enough light
for daily tasks.
Architects and builders understood the role of natural light in buildings intuitively. Building orientations,
configurations, and interior finishes were selected to provide sufficient levels of daylighting in interior spaces.

28. How Buildings Work?
WATER AND WASTES
Throughout history, a primary concern of architects, builders,
and homeowners has been how to keep water out of
buildings. It wasn’t until the end of the nineteenth century that
supplying water inside a building became common in
industrial countries.
Indoor plumbing is still not available in many parts of the
world today.
Today, interior designers work with architects, engineers, and
contractors to make sure that water is supplied in a way that
supports health, safety, comfort, and utility.
Supply plumbing

29. How Buildings Work?
HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS
In steam heating systems, steam that is produced in
a boiler is circulated under pressure through
insulated pipes, and then condensed in cast-iron
radiators. In the radiator, the latent heat given off
when the steam cools and becomes water is
released to the air of the room.
The condensed water then returns to the boiler
through a network of return pipes. The system is
reasonably efficient
but difficult to control precisely, as the steam gives
off its heat rapidly.
Radiators

30. How electricity is supplied to a building
How Buildings Work?
ELECTRICITY
Until around 1870, only fire and muscle power were commonly used in buildings to perform useful work.
Historically, coal and oil were burned for heat and light or converted into energy for machines that generated heat.
Since the end of the nineteenth century, heat has been converted into electricity. Even nuclear energy produces
heat for conversion to electricity. Converting heat to electricity is inherently inefficient, with about 60 percent of the
energy in the heat wasted.
Today, electricity offers a clean, reliable, and very convenient source of energy for illumination, heating, power
equipment, and electronic communication.

31. How Buildings Work?
ACOUSTICS
Reverberation
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of
sound. Acoustical design is the planning, shaping, finishing, and furnishing of an enclosed space to establish an
acoustic environment necessary for the distinct hearing of speech or musical sounds. Understanding
how we hear sound and how sound interacts with the built environment helps us design spaces that are as
acoustically pleasing as they are visually rich.

32. “Firmness” :
how does the building stand up?

33. Structural Requirements
“DESIGN ERROR MY FOOT ....WE ALL CAN SEE YOU ARE LEANING
AGAINST IT !!!"

34. Structural Requirements

35. Structural Types

36. Structural Types
POST AND BEAM
(POST AND LINTEL)
Beam is a rigid structural member
designed to carry and transfer
transverse loads across space to
supporting elements.
Column is a rigid, relatively slender
rigid
structural member designed primarily to
support axial, compressive loads applied
at the member ends.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE,
FRANCIS D.K. CHING

37. Structural Types
POST AND BEAM
(POST AND LINTEL)

38. Structural Types
ARCHES AND VAULTS
Arch is a curved structure for spanning an opening designed to support a vertical load primarily by axial
opening,
compression.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE, FRANCIS D.K. CHING

39. Structural Types
ARCHES AND VAULTS
Ilustracija 7: potkovičasti kameni luk, u različitim
izvedbama, periodima i kulturama.
Figure 7: stone horseshoe arc, in different versions,
periods and cultures.
MUJEZINOVIĆ, NERMINA: KAMEN – MATERIJAL
KONTINUITETA I IZRAŽAJNIH MOGUĆNOSTI,
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND
SCIENCE, SARAJEVO, 2009.

40. Structural Types
ARCHES AND VAULTS
Vault is
V l i an arched structure of stone, b i k
h d f brick
or reinforced concrete, forming a ceiling
or roof over a hall, room or other wholly or
partially enclosed space.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE,
FRANCIS D.K. CHING

41. Structural Types
ARCHES AND VAULTS
Ilustracija 19: romaničko i gotičko oblikovanje u
kamenu, kameni rebrasti svod.
Illustration 19: artistic expression of Romanesque
and Gothic periods in stone. Ribbed vault made of
stone.
stone
MUJEZINOVIĆ, NERMINA: KAMEN – MATERIJAL
KONTINUITETA I IZRAŽAJNIH MOGUĆNOSTI,
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND
SCIENCE, SARAJEVO, 2009.

42. Structural Types
DOMES
Dome is a vaulted structure
having a circular plan and usually
the form of a portion of a sphere,
so constructed as to exert an
equal thrust in all directions
directions.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF
ARCHITECTURE, FRANCIS D.K.
CHING

43. Structural Types
DOMES
Ilustracija 8: najstarije kupole na trompama,
Firuzabad, rano III st.
Illustration 8: The oldest domes on squinches,
Firouzabad, early III century
MUJEZINOVIĆ, NERMINA: KAMEN – MATERIJAL
KONTINUITETA I IZRAŽAJNIH MOGUĆNOSTI,
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE,
SARAJEVO, 2009.

44. Structural Types
FRAME STRUCTURES

45. Structural Types
PORTAL FRAME STRUCTURES
Portal frame construction is a method of building and
designing simple structures primarily using steel or steel
structures, steel-
reinforced precast concrete although they can also be
constructed using laminated timber. The connections
between the columns and the rafters are designed to be
moment-resistant, i e
moment resistant i.e. they can carry bending forces.
forces

46. Structural Types
PORTAL FRAME STRUCTURES

47. Structural Types
TRUSSES
A structural frame based on the geometric rigidity of the triangle and composed of linear members subject only to
axial tension or compression.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE, FRANCIS D.K. CHING

48. Structural Types
SPACE FRAME TRUSSES

49. Structural Types
SPACE FRAME TRUSSES
A two-dimensional truss transforms into three dimensions over the central span of the terminal.

50. Interior of a concrete shell structure
Structural Types
SHELLS
Also known as ‘surface structures’, shells resist
and transfer loads within their minimal
thicknesses. They rely upon their three-
dimensional curved geometry and correct
Interior ribbed surface of the shell. orientation and placement of supports for their
adequate structural performance.

51. Structural Types
MEMBRANE STRUCTURES
Fabric or membrane structures represent another type of surface structure. These structures, where tensioned
fabric initially resists selfweight and other loads, also rely upon their three-dimensional curvatures for structural
adequacy. Fabric form, thickness and strength must match the expected loads, and all surfaces must be stretched
taut to prevent the fabric flapping during high winds. Like shell structures, there is no distinction between the
architectural and the structural forms.

52. Structural Types
SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
Suspension structure is structure of cables suspended and prestressed between compression members to directly
support applied loads.
A VISUAL DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE, FRANCIS D.K. CHING

53. Structural Types
SUSPENSION STRUCTURES

54. ...ALL THESE as applied within the contemporary
architectural and engineering practice: typical working
drawing sheets for a medium – sized building
d i h f di i d b ildi
In contemporary practice, a set of projects which is to be provided
within the construction documentation stage consists of the
following projects: architectural project, landscape project, structural
design with a static estimate and analyses, the project of electrical
supply (electrical installation) project, heating and ventilation project
and plumbing (water supply and sewerage) project.

55. 1. “Commodity (utility)”: how does the building function?
“Firmness (strength)” : how does the building stand up?
Exam preparation:
Professor s
Professor’s lecture and presentation
Ching, Francis D., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997.,
“Arch”, pages: 12; “Beam”, pages: 15; “Building”, pages: 21-23; “Cable structure”, pages: 29; “Column”, pages:
40; “Dome”, pages: 60 61; “Heating”, pages:121; “House”, pages:136; “Light”, pages: 150; “Membrane”, pages:
Dome 60,61; Heating House Light Membrane
168; “Plate”, pages: 195.; “Plumbing”, pages: 196; ”Shell”, pages: 219; “Truss”, pages 259; “Vault”, pages 262.
Neufert, E., Neufert, P., Baiche,B. , Walliman, N., Architects' Data, 3rd Edition, 2002.,
“Suspensioned and Tensioned Structures”, pages: 88; “Space Frames: Principles , pages: 89; “Tensile and
Suspensioned Structures Space Principles” Tensile
Inflatable Structures”, pages: 86; “Cable Net Structures”, pages:87; “Thermal Insulation”, pages: 111.
Further readings :
Mujezinović, N
M j i ić Nermina: K
i Kamen – materijal k ti it t i i ž j ih mogućnosti,
t ij l kontinuiteta izražajnih ć ti
Federal Ministry of Education and Science, Sarajevo, 2009.

56. Prepared by:
Dr. Sc.
Dr Sc Nermina Mujezinović
architect
Literature th t was used f lecture preparation / C dit & R f
Lit t that d for l t ti Credits References
Vitruvius, on Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts Harvard University Press; William Heinemann. 1953.
Charleson, A.W., Structure as Architecture, A Source Book for Archtects and Structural Engineers, Elsevier, 2005.
Ching, Francis D., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997.
Allen, E., How Buildings Work – The Natural Order of Architecture, Oxford University Press, 2005.
Binggeli, C., Building Systems for Interior Designers, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
Mujezinović, N., Kamen – materijal kontinuiteta i izražajnih mogućnosti, Federal Ministry of Education and Science, Sarajevo, 2009.
Hansbridge, J., Graphic Hiistory of Architecture, Hennessey & Ingalls, 1999.
Corbeil, J. C.; Archambault, A.,
Corbeil J C ; Archambault A The Macmillan Visual Dictionary: Architecture Webster's New World; 1 Amer ed edition 1992
Architecture, Webster s edition, 1992.
Mehta, G.; Tada, K., Japan Style: architecture, interiors, design, Tuttle Publishing, 2005.
Mostaedi, A., Design Hotels, Architectural Design
G. B. McCabe; J. R. Kennedy, Planning the Modern Public Library Building, Libraries Unlimited,2003.