English langauge booklet (advanced)

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 1
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Language
Language is the collection of sounds, which is used as a means of communication.
Structure of Language
a) Semantics: It is the study of words and their meanings. (Vocabulary)
b) Grammar: It consists of the following sub-fields:
1. Morphology: It deals with the formation and composition of words.
2. Syntax: It is a collection of rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences.
3. Phonology: It is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units.
4. Phonetics: It is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds called phones, non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. (Pronunciation)
Skills of Language

1. Listening (input)
2. Speaking (output)
3. Reading (input)
4. Writing (output)
NB: If one increases inputs of the language, the outputs always increase. The approaches to learn L1 (language one) and L2 (language two) are different; therefore, the learner is required to adopt personal deliberation and individual involvement for learning any desired language, which is not the L1 of the learner.
GRAMMAR
Linguistics: It is the systematic study of language, encompassing a variety of scientific and humanist methodologies for its inquiry. It is further divided into many sub-fields. For better study, it is divided into two major topical divisions viz. the study of language structure which is called grammar and the study of meaning which is called semantics. Further, grammar consists of morphology, which deals with the formation and composition of words, syntax, which is a collection of rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences and phonology, which is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units. Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds called phones, non- speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.

Grammar: English grammar is a body of rules specifying how phrases and sentences are constructed in the English language. There are two approaches to the study of grammar: the descriptivist and the prescriptivist, the former specifies some grammatical rules, regulation and system of English language whereas the latter does not describe English grammar but rather sets out a small list of social regulations that attempt to govern the linguistic behaviour of native speakers. In fact, the descriptivist method is highly helpful for those who are not native English. Thus, grammar is the science of language. It is an art of supplying the right words in the right places, with the help of grammar we can read, write and speak any language accurately, in poor words: Grammar is an ornament and base of language.
Letter: A written or printed sign representing a sound used in speech. English Alphabet has (26) twenty-six signs, each sign or sound is called a letter. Example: A, B, C ...Z.
Vowels: Among the twenty-six letters the five letters are vowels viz. (a, e, i, o, u). The vowels are unobstructed pronounced sounds, the vocal organs do not move, only air passes out of mouth and the vowels sounds are pronounced. Vowels are called sound carrier which help in producing sounds by mixing consonant sound with them.
Consonant: The letters except the vowels are known as consonants: (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z)
Note: - Sometimes, "W" and "Y" are considered as vowels,

when they produce the sound of a vowel as “y” in the word “happy” produces the sound of vowel “e” or “y” in sky produces the vowel sound of “a”.
Syllable (Sound): Vowels are used to make syllable with the help of consonant. Every syllable must have at least one vowel. For instance, the word “beautiful” consists of two syllables viz. beau / tiful.
Word: A single unit of language which means something and can be spoken or written. It is the combination of syllables, which has complete meaning.
Example: book- pen- teacher- flower.
Phrase: A group of words working as part of a sentence, which has neither complete sense nor does it have the subject is called phrase.
Example: The book, that pen, on the table, over the wall, early in the morning.
Clause: A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and verb, usually joined to the rest of the sentence by a conjunction. For instance: Ali said that he would come the next day. Sometimes, the word clause is also used for structures containing participles of infinitives with no subject or conjunction. For example (a) Realizing his mistake, he stopped arguing. (b) The situations compelled her to withdraw from her point of view. The former is the example of participle whereas the latter is of infinitive. Clauses are of three types.

(a) Subordinate Clause: The subordinate clause works as a part of another clause as a subject, object or adverbial in the main clause of a sentence. For example: (a) I thought that you understood. (b) What they want is delicious food. (c) You will find fast food, wherever you go. In example (a) "that you understood" functions as an object of the sentence. In example (b) "What they want" functions as the subject of the sentence. In example (c) "wherever you go" functions as adverbial of the sentence.
(b) Co-ordinate Clause: Coordinate clauses are one of the two or more clauses of equal rank or value that make up a sentence. A co-ordinate clause does not function as a subject, object, complement or adverbial in another clause like a subordinate clause. For example: (a) Will you come to me or should I come to you? (b) It is sunny today and there is a bit cloudy. In these instances all the clauses are of equal rank or value.
(c) Main Clause: Some sentences consist of a main or principal clause and one or more subordinate clause. In this kind of combination, a subordinate clause functions like the part of the main clause as a subject, or an object, or an adverbial. For example: (a) How she works does not matter. The subordinate clause "How she works" functions like the subject of the main clause. (b) I thought that you understood. The subordinate clause "that you understood" functions like the direct object of the main clause. (c) You will find fast food, wherever you go. The subordinate clause "wherever you go" functions like the adverbial of the main clause. The same

sentence can be re-written like this: You will find fast food anywhere.
Sentence: A group of words that makes a complete sense is called sentence. It denotes to a single thought.
Example: (I) He is a good boy. (II) Asif writes for the national and international newspapers as a freelancer journalist.
(a) The parts of sentences: A sentence consists of two parts viz. “Subject” and “Predicate”. Furthermore “predicate” may consists of four main parts, i.e. “verb”, “object”, “adverbial” and “complement.”
Example:
(a) Wasim laughs.
(subject) (predicate)
laughs.
(verb) (intransitive verb having no object)
(b) Katherine wrings a shirt.
wrings a shirt.
(verb) (object)
(c) My father is a doctor.
is a doctor.
(complement)
(d) Aslam writes a letter to his brother monthly.
writes a letter to his brother monthly.
(verb) (object) (complement) (adverbial)

(e) Shut the door. (Imperative sentence)
(predicate) (shut (v) the door (o)
Note: Generally, the imperative sentence consisting of either an order or request does not have subject but its subject is always "you". "Shut the door" in fact is "(You) shut the door." This "you" is understood but not spoken or written.
(a) The Police (s) immediately (a) arrested (v) the thief. (o)
(b) He (s) is (v) now (a) a visiting faculty member (c) at University of Sindh. (a)
(c) He (s) became (v) confident (c) gradually. (a)
(d) It (s) rained (v) steadily (a) all day. (a)
(e) I (s) bought (v) Ali (o) a pen (o).
(f) The executive committee (s) selects (v) a woman (o) as the chairman (c) every year (a).
Note: Some examples given below show internal relationship of these elements in the sentences of advance level when they have dual existence; hence, "subject" or "verb" in one part of the sentence may work as "object" to other part of the sentence.
(g) He thought that they (s) had understood (v) him (o).
(sub:) (verb) Object
(h) Wasim grew happier when his friend (s) arrived (v).
(sub) (verb) (comp) (adverbial)
Note: The sentences, which consist of intransitive verbs, have only verb but they have no object at all in their predicates.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO MEANING

1) Declarative Sentence: It has two forms:
a) Affirmative Sentence: An affirmative sentence is a positive statement:
Example: Wasim writes a letter. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
b) Negative Sentence: A negative sentence is a negative statement:
Example: Aslam does not write a letter. There is no substitute of compassion in human life.
2) Interrogative Sentence: An interrogative sentence is used to ask question:
Example: What is your name? Will you accompany me to the station?
3) Exclamatory Sentences: An exclamatory sentence expresses a sudden emotion, feeling or a desire:
Example: a) Hurrah! We have won the match. b) Oh! He is dead.
c) Yippee, grandfather is coming! d) What fun!
4) Optative Sentences: An optative sentence expresses a strong wish or pray:
Example: a) May God bless you! (b) May God blacken her / his face!
5) Imperative Sentences: An imperative sentence expresses a command, request or a piece of advice.

Example: a) Shut the window. (Command or order)
b) Please give me a pen (Request).
6) Assertive Sentence: An assertive sentence expresses opinions or desires strongly and with confidence, so that people take notice.
Example:
a) You should try and be more assertive.
b) You had better work hard if you want to shine about the firmament of the success.
7) Clef Sentence: It is a kind of sentence in which special emphasis is given to one of its parts that may be subject or object by using the structure with "it" or "what".
Example:
a) It is teachers who guarantee the future of the students.
b) What I need is your trust.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION
1. Simple Sentences: A simple sentences contains one finite verb and therefore one clause. It expresses one main idea. Thus it has one main clause only which may have word or phrase modifier (adjectives or adverbs or prepositional phrases):
Example:
a) My mother was born in Pakistan. (b) The Holy Quran guides mankind.
c) They are going to Karachi.

2. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence expresses two or more main ideas in two or more independent or main clauses. It has more than one finite verb and more than one clause joined by co-ordinate conjunction. A compound sentence can be broken into two or more simple sentences:
Example:
a) My mother was born in Pakistan but she came to England as a small girl.
b) I am going to Multan today and I shall return tomorrow.
c) I went to pay the utility bill, but the bank was off.
Note: Above sentences can be broken into two simple sentences by omitting co-ordinate conjunction “and” with “full stop”; as: (a) I am going to Multan. (b) I shall return tomorrow.
3. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence has one independent or principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The independent clause expresses a complete idea and remains meaningful even if the dependent clauses are removed from the sentence. The dependent or subordinate clauses are meaningful only if the meaning of the independent clause is added to them:
Example:
a) My mother came here from India when she was a small girl.
b) Wasim, who is a prominent psychiatrist, thought the patent would recover from the mental retardation.

4. Multiple Sentences: A multiple sentences, also called “compound complex”, have at least two independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses:
Example: He was visiting his home district (independent clause) and looking at the familiar scenes (independent clause), which reminded him of his childhood. (subordinate clause)
WORD CLASSES: PARTS OF SPEECH
The words used in English languages are generally classified or categorized among nine classes which in English grammar are called: "word classes" or "lexical units" or “Parts of Speech”. They are: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection and Articles.
1. NOUN
Noun: A noun is a naming word and it provides better identification. It is the name of a person, place or thing. But the nouns like "jump" or "destruction" which show an action are called deverbal noun.
Example: Aslam - school - apple - fan.
KINDS OF NOUN
Noun, basically are classified into two main groups viz. Proper Noun and Common Noun. Further, Common Nouns are subdivided into minor categories like concrete, abstract,

mass, compound and collective nouns.
Noun
Proper Noun Common Noun
e.g. e.g. book, copy
Ali, Pakistan, Karachi mango, cow, cat,
Concrete Abstract Mass Compound Collective
Noun Noun (uncount:) Noun Noun
e.g. e.g. Noun e.g. e.g. e.g.
house freedom butter doorknob team
1. Proper Noun: A Proper Noun is a particular name of a particular person, place or thing. A proper noun is unique in its properties, features and characteristics and it does not share them with another noun. A proper noun always commences or begins with a capital letter.
Example: Waseem - Asif - Pakistan - Badin - Farhan Public School Kadhan - The Holy Quran.
2. Common Noun: A common noun is a common name of a common person, place or thing. All the common nouns have common features or properties to share with. The word common means "shared by all". The common nouns are further subdivided into following subgroups.

Example: boy - women - apple - table - chair.
a) Concrete Noun: A concrete noun refers to an object, substance or anything that exists in physical sense, whose physique can be felt by the dint of senses. They are countable nouns, therefore possesses singular and plural and are used with articles (a, an, the) or any numeral.
Example: book, pen, bird, apple.
b) Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a name of an idea, state, quality, emotion or action. They have dual characteristics of "mass" and "countable" noun.
Example: love - happiness - darkness - honesty - truth - democracy - joy - tennis.
c) Mass Noun: A mass noun generally denotes to the substance in liquid or solid form which are indivisible. The most probably they are uncountable; therefore, they are not used in the plural sense, nor do they need article (a, an, the) nor numerals.
Example: rice - sugar - can - gold - glass - milk - oil - water
d) Compound Noun: When two or more words are put together to form a name is called a compound noun. The compound nouns are hyphenated or written separately but they mean one thing.
Example: post office - living-room - brother-in-law - textbook - check-up - grown-up - policeman.
e) Collective Noun: A collective noun is a name given to a group or set of person, places, and things, taken together. There lies a choice of using either singular or plural helping verb or pronoun with the collective nouns with certain

exceptions depending on whether they refer to individuals which make up the group or the group as a unit.
Example: army - assembly - team - flock - herd - swarm - family.
a) Family has used its car. b) Family have used their car.
c) The team is about to win. d) The team are losing morale.
d) The police are in blue uniform. (Not: The police is ….)
THE NOUN: CASES
It means the position of a noun in a sentence. A noun has following six cases:
1. Nominative or Subjective Case: A noun or pronoun, which is the subject of a verb is said to be in subjective case. It always comes before the verb.
Example: Faheem is my friend. The cow gives milk. The boy played well.
2. Accusative or Objective case: A noun or a pronoun, which is the object of a verb is said to be in objective case. It always comes after the verb.
Example: They eat mangoes. She cooks food. Asif writes a letter. They play cricket.
3. Dative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is the indirect object of a verb is said to be in dative case:
Example: They give Ali a quilt. I bought my brother a book. She told Asif a story.

4. Obligative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is preceded by a preposition said to be in obligative case.
Example: The mother bought ice-cream for children. I bought a pen for Asif. She told a story to Nasreen.
5. Vocative Noun: A noun which addresses is said to be in vocative case:
Example: Naeem! Come here. Asif! Help me please. Boys, work hard.
6. Possessive Case: A noun or a pronoun which shows ownership or possession is said to be in possessive or genitive case. A noun in this case always bears an apostrophe (‘) over it:
Example: Asif’s cow gives much milk. This is Naeem’s car. Father’s love is incomparable, but mother’s love is unsurpassable.
NOUN: GENDER
Nouns can generally be categorized under the umbrella of four genders:
1. Masculine Gender: A noun, which denotes a male person or animal is said to be in masculine gender.
For instance: father - husband - boy - horse.
2. Feminine Gender: A noun, which denotes a female person or animal is said to be in feminine gender.
Example: mother - wife - girl - mare.

3. Common Gender: A noun, which denotes both male and female person and animal is said to be in common gender.
Example: friend - teacher - student – cousin, camel, buffalo.
4. Neuter Gender: A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (such nouns are the things without life) is said to be the nouns of neuter gender:
Example: table - pen - picture - clock - tree.
FORMATION OF GENDER
Rule # 01: Some masculine nouns have totally words as their feminine gender; as:
Masculine Gender
Feminine Gender
Masculine Gender
Feminine Gender
father
mother
daddy/ papa
mummy/ mama/mom
brother
sister
son
daughter
uncle
aunt
Nephew
niece
bachelor
spinster
fiancé
fiancée
bride-groom
bride
husband
wife
King
queen
sir
madam
widower
widow
boy
girl
male
female
man
women
lord
lady
gentlemen
lady
hero
heroine
Adam
Eve
sultan
Sultana
bull, ox
cow
drone
bee
bullock, steer
heifer
horse/ stallion
mare
drake
duck

stag
hind
dog
bitch
cock/rooster
hen
colt
filly
duke
duchess
barman
barmaid
manservant
maidservant
ram (sheep)
ewe
boar (pig)
sow
buck (deer)/ rabbit
doe
grander
goose
Rule # 02: By adding “ess” at end:
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
host
hostess
heir
heiress
poet
poetess
mayor
mayoress
author
authoress
manager
manageress
count
countess
prince
princess
lion
lioness
god
goddess
millionaire
millionairess
murder
murderess
prince
princess
proprietor
proprietress
Rule # 03: By adding “ess” at the end after dropping the last vowel:
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
actor
actress
master
mistress
head master
head mistress
waiter
waitress
emperor
empress
post master
post mistress
tiger
tigress
master
mistress
conductor
conductress

Rule # 04: By using feminine word.
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
grand-father
grand-mother
grand-son
grand- daughter
step-father
step-mother
step-son
step-daughter
father-in-law
mother-in- law
brother-in- law
sister-in-law
son-in-law
daughter-in- law
maternal- uncle
maternal-aunt
land-lord
land-lady
paternal- uncle
paternal-aunt
sales-man
sales-woman
washer-man
washer- woman
milk-man
milk-maid
pea-cock
pea-hen
cock-sparrow
hen-sparrow
bull-calf
cow-calf
tom-cat
tabby-cat
he-goat
she-goat
billy-goat
nanny-goat
Common Gender:
(a) Person: These nouns are preferably used as common gender: "adult, ancestor, baby, Buddhist, child, Chinese, citizen, companion, cousin, doctor, European, friend, guardian, guest, infant, judge, juvenile, lawyer, lecturer, Minister, orphan, owner, parent, passenger, principal, pupil, relation, relative, singer, student, teacher, teenager, tourist, traveler, worker."

(b) Animals: These nouns used for the names of animals have common gender: "animal, bear, bird, butterfly, cat, cattle, deer, eagle, fowl, goat, horse, insect, octopus, owl, pig, sheep, snake, swan, wolf."
Neuter Gender:
These nouns used for the names of non-living or inanimate things have no gender: "bag, book, box, bread, chalk, chimney, desk, dishes, floor, house, kettle, mirror, pillow, ruler, school, seat, stairs, street, table, wall."
SINGULAR AND PLURAL
Generally, all the common, countable nouns are found in two forms viz. singular and plural. The general rules to change the singular noun into plural noun are as under:
a) Monosyllabic singular nouns mostly add “s”:
Example: bat - bats; book - books; cat - cats.
b) Singular nouns ending in a hissing sound, e.g. s, ch, x, add “es”:
Example: glass - glasses; watch - watches; box - boxes.
c) Singular nouns ending in “y” proceeded by a consonant, change “y” into “i” and add “es”:
Example: party - parties; company - companies; library - libraries.
d) Singular nouns ending in “y” preceded by a vowel simply add “s”:
Example: boy - boys; toy - toys; journey - journeys.

e) Most of the singular nouns ending in “o” preceded by a consonant add “es”:
Example: tomato - tomatoes; hero - heroes; mosquito - mosquitoes.
Note: The following words ending in “o” preceded by a consonant have an exception to above rule; they simply take “s” for their plural:
Example: kilo - kilos; piano - pianos; photo - photos; dynamo - dynamos; Eskimos – Eskimos.
Besides, cargo and zero have two correct plural forms:
cargo - cargos (British English) - cargoes (American- English); zero - zeros (BrE) - zeroes (AmE).
f) Singular nouns ending in “oo” add “s”:
Example: cuckoo - cuckoos; zoo - zoos; bamboo - bamboos; kangaroo - kangaroos.
g) There are some words or singular nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, change “f” or “fe” into “v” and add “es”:
Example: knife - knives; wife - wives; thief - thieves; life - lives; leaf - leaves; sheaf - sheaves; calf - calves; self - selves; wolf - wolves; shelf - shelves; half - halves; loaf - loaves.
h) Some singular nouns ending in “f” simply add “s”:
Example: roof - roofs; belief - beliefs; chief - chiefs; cliff - cliffs; handkerchief - handkerchiefs; safe - safes.
Note: The nouns "hoof", "scarf" and "wharf" take either "s" or "ves" in the plurals.

Irregular Plural Forms:
a) By changing the inside vowels: foot - feet; goose - geese; tooth - teeth; louse - lice; woman - women; man - men; ox - oxen; child - children.
b) Plural forms of compound noun: major- general - major- generals; step-father - step-fathers; father-in-law - fathers- in-law. If the first part of compound noun is fixed then both nouns are pluralized like man-driver – men-drivers; woman driver – women-drivers. Sometimes, the first part is made plural when a compound noun is made of a verb+ er noun + adverb like: hanger-on – hangers-on; looker-on – lookers- on; runner-up – runners-up.
c) The following nouns have no plural forms but can be used both as singular and plural nouns as shown below:
Word
Singular
Plural
bread
a piece of bread
pieces of bread
a loaf of bread
loaves of bread
music
a piece of music
pieces of music
furniture
a piece of furniture
pieces of furniture
equipment
a piece of equipment
Pieces of equip.
salt
a pinch of salt
a spoonful of salt
spoonfuls of salt
grass
a blade of grass
blades of grass
a leaf of grass
leaves of grass
ink
a bottle of ink
bottles of ink
water
a glass of water
glasses of water
a bucket of water
buckets of water

d) The following nouns are both singular and plural:
deer
one deer
two deer
fish
one fish
two fish
sheep
one sheep
two sheep
innings
one innings
two innings
head quarters
his head quarters
their head quarters
e) The following nouns are always used as plural and take plural verb. Some garments consisting of two parts: breeches, pants, pajamas, trousers. Some tools and instruments consisting of two parts: binoculars, pliers, scissors, spectacles, glasses, scales, shears. Some other words like arms, damages, earnings, goods/ wares, greens, grounds, outskirts, pains particulars, premises/quarters, riches, savings, spirits (alcohol), stairs, surroundings, valuables, people, cattle, wages, spectacles, clothes, police.
Example: The police are in blue uniform. Your pants are long. I need two pairs of trousers.
f) There are some words, which are plural in form but singular in meaning and will take singular helping verb and pronoun like: "news, hair"; some diseases like: "mumps, rickets, shingles"; certain games like: "billiards, darts, draughts, bowls, dominoes".
Example: The news is very sad. Billiards is my favourite game. My hair is long.
g) There are some nouns ending in "ics" are plural in form

and generally take plural verb like "acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics." But, the names of sciences are used in singular sense.
Example: His mathematics are weak. Mathematics (as scientific subject) is the mother of all knowledge. Acoustics is the scientific study of sound.
h) The words of foreign languages sometimes follow English rules but to great extent they have different format for making plurals. Some of the foreign nouns' plurals are dealt as under:
Singular
Ending
-us
Foreign Plural
Ending
-i
Regular Plural
Ending
-uses
Both Plural
Endings
-i / -uses
stimulus
stimuli
bonus
bonuses
campus
campuses
chorus
choruses
circus
circuses
virus
viruses
cactus
cacti / cactuses
nucleus
nuclei / nucleuses
radius
radii / radiuses
syllabus
syllabi/syllabuses
terminus
termini/terminuses
Singular
Ending
-a
Foreign Plural
Ending
-ae
Regular Plural
Ending
-s
Both Plural
Endings
-as / -ae

larva
larvae
vertebra
vertebrae
area
Areas
dilemma
dilemmas
diploma
diplomas
drama
dramas
antenna
antennas/ antennae
formula
formulas/formulae
Singular
Ending
-um
Foreign Plural
Ending
-a
Regular Plural
Ending
-s
Both Plural
Endings
-a / -s
curriculum
curricula
album
albums
museum
museums
stadium
stadiums
forum
forums
memorandum
memoranda/ memorandums
aquarium
aquaria/aquariums
symposium
symposia/symposiums
medium
media / mediums
datum
data
stratum
strata
Singular
Ending
-ex, ix
Foreign Plural
Ending
-ices
Regular Plural
Ending
-es
Both Plural
Endings
-ices / -es
index
indices

matrix
matrices/matrixes
appendix
appendices/appendixes
Singular
Ending
-is
Foreign Plural
Ending
-es
Regular Plural
Ending
Both Plural
Endings
basis
bases
analysis
analyses
crisis
crises
thesis
theses
diagnosis
diagnoses
hypothesis
hypotheses
Singular
Ending
-on
Foreign Plural
Ending
-a
Regular Plural
Ending
-s
Both Plural
Endings
-a / -s
criterion
criteria
phenomenon
phenomena
demon
demons
electron
electrons
neutron
neutrons
automaton
automata/ automatas
Singular
Ending
-eau
Foreign Plural
Ending
-eaux
Regular Plural
Ending
-s
Both Plural
Endings
-eaux / -s
bureau
bureaux
plateau
Plateaux/plateaus

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUN
A noun is classified as under:
1. Countable Noun: The common names of objects, things that we can count are called countable nouns. Those all things would fall in the ambit of countable noun which by shape, structure or form are divisible into number or counts. Hence, noun "star" is a countable noun no matter they are infinite or countless. The countable nouns take articles (a, an, the) or numerals. The countable nouns have singular and plural as well.
Example: boy - tree- toy – book - chair.
2. UN Countable Noun: The names of objects, things that we cannot count are called uncountable nouns. Those all things would fall in the ambit of uncountable noun which by shape, structure or form are indivisible into number or counts. The uncountable nouns do not take articles (a, an, the) or numerals, nor do they have singular or plural forms. Example: milk - water - salt - atmosphere - food - butter.
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
A couple of the machines are ready.
A lot of the book is completed. (only one book)
A lot of the lectures are waiting to join us.
A pair of pants is purchased for him.
These pairs of pants are new.
The pants/trousers/scissors/pliers are sold.
A series of computers is reached in the market.
Anyone/anybody/anything is ready.

Each of my sisters is hardworking.
Every one of the streets is made clean. (NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one)
None of the computers are ready. (informal usage)
None of the computers is ...(formal usage)
None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word their precludes the use of the singular verb.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).
Nothing in this school is...
One of my employees is...
Some of the book is...(only one book, but this refers to part of the book)
Some of the homework is...
Some of the notes are...
Somebody/someone/something is...
Ten thousand dollars is a lot of money to spend on an education.
The furniture is...

The piece of furniture is …..
The pieces of furniture are …
The information is…
My hair is long/short.
The number of words is...
The sugar is…
Ten dollars is a high price to pay. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense
Three hours is the adequate time to complete the test.
Traveling fifty thousand miles is a long time to spend in an airplane.
Two thirds of the books have already arrived.
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon are Muslims
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon is Muslim.
The English are accustomed to... (people from England)
know the English. (person).
I know English. (language)
This list of names is not very complete. (The verb "is" agrees with the subject "list.")
The teacher as well as the students agrees with this opinion. (The verb "agrees" modifies the subject "teacher.")
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
There are four hurdles to jump. (“are” agrees with hurdles [plural] There is a high hurdle to jump. (“is” agrees with hurdle) [singular])
The teacher and the student are tired.

Neither the teacher nor the students are excited about the lesson. (The subject "are" agrees with "students," the closer subject.)
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Neither of them is/are available to speak right now. Neither answer is correct.
Neither of the answers is/are correct.
Either of us is/are capable of doing the job.
He is mistaken, or else I am.
He is not to blame, nor are you.
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
A car and a bike are the means of my transportation.
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. (Pie is the object of the preposition of) Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. (Pies is the object of the preposition) One-third of the city is unemployed. One-third of the people are unemployed.
(NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions)
All of the pie is gone. All of the pies are gone.

Some of the pie is missing. Some of the pies are missing. The number of people we need to hire is thirteen. A number of people have written in about this subject.
(The expression “the number” is followed by a singular verb while the expression “a number” is followed by a plural verb.)
Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports. (The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.) He is one of the men who does/do the work. (The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.)
The staff is in a meeting. (Staff is acting as a unit here.) The staff are in disagreement about the findings. (The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example. The sentence would read even better as: The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.)
My assets were wiped out in the depression.
The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of the policy.

The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides the issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
The wages of sin is death.
Great pains have been taken.
Much pains has been taken.
All possible means have been tried.
The means employed by you is sufficient.
The bike is a means of transport.
My means were much reduced owing to that heavy loss. (income)
His means are ample. (income)
According the present market rate twelve dozen cost one hundred rupees.
Gulliver’s Travels was written by Swift. (Name of book)
The Arabian Nights is still a great favourite.
The United States has a big navy.
The following nouns are always plural and take a plural verb.

Police – Police are charging him with the murder of the princess.
People – People in general are not very approachable. (Peoples (with '–s') refers to peoples from more than one race or nation. (EXAMPLE: the peoples of Asia.)
Football Team – Liverpool are a very successful football team. (BUT: Liverpool is a great city.)
Clogs, sandals, slippers, and sneakers, jeans, knickers, panties, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, and underpants – E.g. These trousers are not mine. ("a pair of" can be used with these plural nouns. E.g. A pair of jeans is available. Two pairs of jeans are available.
Glasses (= spectacles), binoculars – E.g. My glasses are used only for reading.
Pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, tongs – E.g. Pliers are a handy tool. My garden shears trim the hedge very well.
Clothes – My clothes need to be washed but I don't have time.
Earnings – Earnings in the agricultural sector have increased by 5% in the fourth quarter.
Cattle – Cattle are reared for their meat or milk.
Committee – The Committee have rejected all the proposals. (“has” is also used in some books)
Nouns which are plural in form but take a singular verb The following plural nouns are used with singular verbs as they are treated as singular:

Athletics, economics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics, mechanics, numismatics, physics, politics and pyrotechnics – Economics was my favourite subject at school.
News – The good news is that we've all been invited.
Mumps, measles – An infectious illness, mumps was common among children.
Measurements and amounts that are considered as a single unit:
One hundred years is a century. Ten kilometres is a long distance. Twenty dollars is not enough to buy a good shirt. Seven days in prison is all he got for shoplifting.
What is the news? Shingles is caused by the same virus as chicken pox. Billiards is a game which connects mathematics and football.
A noun can be used as singular or plural The following collective nouns can be singular or plural. It depends on how they are regarded. Viewed as a single unit, it takes a singular verb; viewed as a group of separate members or parts, it is treated as a plural noun and used with a plural verb.
Our team competes in a local tournament. Our team have just won the quarterfinal. My family is a large one. My family are always arguing about how to share the bills. The new government has gained more support since taking office. The Government are determined to keep inflation in check. The explorers stumble across a species of plant unknown to

science. The coastal waters of the island are rich in different fish species. Data indicates that most of the offenders come from broken home. We will not draw any conclusion until we have looked at all the data.
Data is collected from 40 countries.
These data are sufficient for drawing conclusion (in Technical English) Statistics is included in this year's Mathematics syllabus. The statistics tell us the current trend is towards more consumers' spending. The full orchestra includes a fair number of female instrumentalists. The orchestra do not agree to the venue for their next performance. The enemy is calling for a ceasefire. Security is very tight as the enemy are everywhere.
Nouns ending in -ics can either take a singular (if they are considered as the name of a science) or a plural verb (if they express a specific application of the science):
Mathematics was never easy for Geoffrey. The teacher told Geoffrey that his mathematics were below the standard. (his understanding of mathematics or his results)
Rhetorics was one of the seven free arts. His rhetorics were doing more harm to our case than any mistake we had ever made. (his way of expressing ideas)

Acoustics is the study of sounds. Poor classroom acoustics create a negative learning environment for many students. (audibility in the classroom)
Two subjects expressed as a single unit and take a singular verb.
Ali, the secretary, is coming.
Time and tide waits for no man. Bread and jam is what he eats most in the morning.
Two and two is four.
The horse and carriage is at the door.
Honour and glory is his reward.
The rise and fall of the tide is due to lunar influence.
My friend and benefactor has come.
The novelist and poet is dead.
(2) PRONOUN
Definition: Pronoun is a noun substitute, which is used instead of a noun. Its main purpose is to avoid the repetition of a noun, besides; it is time saver.
Example: I, we, you, he, she, it, they one etc.
KINDS OF PRONOUN
A pronoun has ten kinds:
1) Demonstrative Pronoun: It is used to point out things, person already mentioned in the sentence.
Example: this; that (for singular); these; those (for plural)
a) This is my book and that is yours. b) These are my copies and those are your copies.

2) Indefinite Pronoun: Indefinite pronouns refer to unspecified person or thing.
Example: somebody; anyone; anything.
a) If somebody calls inform them that we are in the field.
b) If anyone tries do not allow them to use this computer.
3) Intensive Pronoun: These are used to intensify or emphasize the preceding noun or pronoun. Intensive pronouns immediately follow the subject of the sentence.
Example: a) He himself told me the whole story.
b) I myself have seen him at the hotel.
4) Interrogative Pronoun: These pronouns are such that produce question.
Example: What; which; who.
a) What is your name? b) Which is your book?
c) Who does teach you English?
5) Distributive Pronoun: These pronouns show that the persons or things are taken singly. These pronouns are always singular:
Example: each; every; either; neither.
(a) Each / Every is longing for gallery seats.
(b) Either he or they are going to Karachi.
(c) Neither they nor he is taking the test.
6) Reciprocal Pronoun: These are used in order to indicate persons or things mutually affected. They occur in such phrases, as:
Example: each other; one another.

a) David and Katherine loved each other. (for two)
b) All Muslims are brothers to one another.(more than two)
7) Reflexive Pronoun: These pronouns are used when the subject and the object of the sentence are the same or the action passes back to the subject. The reflexive pronoun always comes in the end of the sentence it is used in; if it comes immediately after the subject of the sentence it turns to be intensive case rather reflexive one.
Example: myself; ourselves; yourself; yourselves; himself; herself; themselves; itself.
a) They are teaching themselves. b) She speaks herself.
8) Relative Pronoun: These pronouns are used to connect a subordinate clause to the main clause, and serve as conjunctions also.
Example: who; whom (for person or persons); whose; that (for persons or things); which (for animals and things)
a) The teacher who teaches English is posted.
b) The person whom you are calling is actually deaf.
c) The person whose wallet is stolen is very much worried.
d) The tree that /which got its leaves shed is sprouting.
9) Possessive Pronoun: These are used to indicate the possession or, in same cases, intimate relationship, which cannot be strictly called possession. They are grouped into two categories:
a) my; our; your; his; her; its; their.
b) mine; ours; yours; his; hers; its; theirs.

Note: The forms in the first group, sometimes called "possessive adjective", are used with nouns following them immediately as in the examples given bellow:
Example: my book; our house; your pen; her purse; their house; his notebook.
(a) It is my book. (b) She has missed your pen.
Whereas, the pronouns in the second group or class do not require nouns after them but generally they in the end of the sentence.
Example: This book is hers. You are mine. These books are ours.
Note: No apostrophe is needed to mark the possessive pronoun except the pronoun "one" which bears an apostrophe "one's" in possessive case.
10) Personal Pronoun: The pronouns stands for persons are called personal pronouns; they are divided into three kinds:
a) First person pronoun: I; we; us; me; mine; our.
b) Second person pronoun: you; yours; thou; thy.
Third person pronoun: he; him; his; she; they; its, etc.
CASES OF PRONOUN
Person
Subjective Or
Nominative
Objective Case
Possessive Cave
Possessive Adjective
Reflexive Case
First
Person Pronoun
I
we
me
us
mine
ours
my
our
myself
ourselves
Second Person
you
you
yours
your
yourself yourselves

Pronoun
thou
thee
thine
thy
thyself
Third Person Pronoun
he
she
it
they
one
him
her
it
them
one
his
hers
its
theirs
one’s
his
her
its
their
one’s
himself
herself
itself
themselves
oneself
ORDER OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
a) When singular pronouns of different persons are used in a sentence, the second person in singular comes first and the first person pronoun appears in the end:
Example: a) You and I write in same way.
b) You, he and I read same lesson.
c) You and he go to Karachi.
b) Plural pronouns, however, follow another order. The first person plural comes first, second person plural and third person plural follow respectively:
Example: a) We, you and they go to Karachi.
b) We and they go to Karachi.
c) You and they play the match.
3. ADJECTIVE
Definition: An adjective is a word, which qualifies only a noun or pronoun and adds something to their meaning. It shows the characteristics, qualities, quantity, number, merits, demerits and attributions of a person or thing. It is a descriptive word.
Example: happy - big - two - intelligent.

KINDS OF ADJECTIVE
Adjectives can be laid down under the umbrella of eight headings as under:
1) Adjective of Quality: It shows the kind, quality or state of a noun or pronoun:
Example: a) Ali is an intelligent boy.
b) I ate a sweet mango.
2) Adjectives of Quantity: It shows the quantity of something:
Example: enough; some; all; little; much.
3) Adjectives of Numbers: It shows the number of a noun:
Example: one; two; three; first; second third.
4) Demonstrative Adjectives: It points out a noun:
Example: this; that; these; those; such, etc.
a) These books are mine. (Demonstrative adjective)
b) These are my books. (Demonstrative pronoun)
5) Interrogative Adjective: It is used to ask a question:
Example: what; which; whose.
a) Which book do you want to buy? (Interro: adj.)
b) Which is your book? (Interrogative pronoun)
6) Distributive Adjectives: It shows that the persons or things are taken singly:

Example: each; every.
a) Each student was given a prize.
7. Proper Adjective: It is formed from the proper noun and they always begin in a capital letter:
Example:
a) Khalil Jibran wrote his world-famous book: "The Prophet" in English language.
b) Sindhi people are very simple and sane.
8. Possessive Adjective: It is formed from personal pronoun:
Example: my; our; your; his; her; their.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Degrees of Comparison: There are three degrees of comparison:
1. Positive Degrees: It is a simple form of an adjective, which is used when no comparison is required. It simply qualifies a noun or pronoun.
Example: a) Naeem is a good boy. b) The mango is sweet.
2. Comparative Degree: It is used when one noun or pronoun is compared with another noun or pronoun of the same rank or class.
Example: a) Ali is better than Asif.
b) The mango is sweeter than an orange.

3. Superlative Degree: It is used when noun or pronoun is compared with all other nouns or pronouns of the same rank or class.
Example: a) Ali is the most industrious student of the class.
b) A mango is the sweetest of all of all fruits.
c) The Indus is the longest river of Pakistan.
FORMATION OF DEGREES
There are certain rules to change the positive degree into ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees.
Rule # 01: A positive degree of a monosyllabic adjective is inflected with “er” and “est.” to constitute comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
black
blacker
blackest
high
higher
highest
low
lower
lowest
cheap
cheaper
cheapest
dear
dearer
dearest
great
greater
greatest
sweet
sweeter
sweetest
sour
sourer
sourest
poor
poorer
poorest
rich
richer
richest
cold
colder
coldest
tall
Taller
tallest
dwarf
dwarfer
dwarfest
Rule # 02: A positive degree of a monosyllabic adjective

ending in “e” is inflected with “r” and “st.” to constitute comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
able
abler
ablest
Rule #03: When the positive degree ends in “y” preceded by is a consonant, in that case change “y” into “i” and add “er” and “est” for the formation of comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
happy
happier
happiest
heavy
heavier
heaviest
lazy
lazier
laziest
merry
merrier
merriest
wealthy
wealthier
wealthiest
healthy
healthier
healthiest
stormy
stormier
stormiest
sunny
sunnier
sunniest
Note: If there is a vowel before “y”, in that case “y” is not changed into “i”, it only needs "er" and "est" for comparative and superlative degree respectively:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
gay
gayer
gayest
gray
grayer
grayest
Rule # 04: If the positive degree of an adjective ends in a consonant and there is a vowel before that consonant, in that case the consonant is doubled and “er” and “est” are added

to form the comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
big
bigger
biggest
fat
fatter
fattest
fit
fitter
fittest
hot
hotter
hottest
red
redder
reddest
sad
sadder
saddest
thin
thinner
thinnest
wet
wetter
wettest
Rule # 05: When an adjective consists of two or more than two syllables, we simply add “more” and "most" before the positive degree to constitute comparative and superlative degrees respectively.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
beautiful
more beautiful
most beautiful
difficult
more difficult
most difficult
handsome
more handsome
most handsome
courageous
more courageous
most courageous
splendid
more splendid
most splendid
efficient
more efficient
most efficient
boyish
more boyish
most boyish
criminal
more criminal
most criminal
famous
more famous
most famous
fortunate
more fortunate
most fortunate
gloomy
more gloomy
most gloomy

ruinous
more ruinous
most ruinous
selfish
more selfish
most selfish
troublesome
more troublesome
most troublesome
valuable
more valuable
most valuable
watchful
more watchful
most watchful
womanish
more womanish
most womanish
womanly
more womanly
most womanly
vigorous
more vigorous
most vigorous
generous
more generous
most generous
necessary
more necessary
most necessary
popular
more popular
most popular
coward
more coward
most coward
Rule # 06: There are some adjectives, which form their degrees in an irregular way.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
bad, ill, evil
worse
worst
good
better
best
little
less/lesser
least
much (quantity)
more
most
many (number)
more
most
later
latter/later
latest/last
old
older/elder
oldest/eldest
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
nigh
nigher
nighmost/next
fore
former
foremost/first
in
inner
inmost/innermost
up
upper
upmost/uppermost

out
outer
utmost/utermost
(latter/later) (a) He is later than I expected. (b) The latter chapters are lacking in interest.
(last/latest) (a) Ours is the last house in the street. (b) Is there any latest news about the issue?
(older/elder) (a) Ali is my elder brother. (b) He is older than his sister. (NB: elder is not used in comparative sentences)
(farther/further) (a) Karachi is farther than Hyderabad. (b) He made no further remarks.
(nearest/next) (a) Where is the nearest phone box? (b) His shop is next to the bank.
Rule # 07: “than” is always used after the comparative degrees of Adjectives.
a) Asif is wiser than Naveed.
b) Azra is more intelligent than Yasmin.
c) His handwriting is worse than my handwriting.
d) Wasim is slimmer than I (am). (Not: Wasim is slimmer than me.)
Note: Use the subjective case of pronoun rather than the objective case as mentioned in the aforementioned sentences # (d).
Rule # 08: If the two qualities of a same noun or pronoun are being compared, the first degree of adjective is used preceded by “more”;
Example: Wasim is more good at Biology than Physics. (Not better)
Rule # 09: Some comparatives have neither positive nor

superlative degrees. They all end in “or”. They do not carry “than” as shown in rule # 07 above. They are followed by preposition “to”.
For instance: “minor; prior; senior; interior; exterior; ulterior; junior; inferior; superior; major”
Example: a) He is senior to me. b) My brother is inferior to Rizvi in intelligence.
Rule # 10: The degrees of adjective are also formed by adding “less” and “least”
(a) Ali is more intelligent than I. = I am less intelligent than Ali.
(b) He is the most intelligent student of the class. = The class is less intelligent than he.
Adjective used as Noun: (Plural) “rich; wicked; Americans; seniors; juniors; sweets; bitters; valuables; eatables” (a) The rich are cruel. (b) The wicked are devoid of feelings.
(singular) The future is unpredictable.
Superlative Degree used with indefinite article: It was a most eloquent speech (means very eloquent)
Verb Participle used as adjective: (boring/bored) The work was boring. The audience was bored.
(tiring/tired) The work was tiring. The workers were tired.
(interesting/interested) The story was interesting. The students were interested in movies.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
The adjectives can be classified into two classes; as:
1) Attributive Adjective: The adjective, which stands with its noun is said to be an attributive adjective or an “epithet”. It always precedes noun.
Example: a) It is a sweet apple.
b) He is a good boy.
c) It is a true story.
2) Predicative Adjective: The adjective, which is used with the verb as a complement is called as predicative adjective. It always follows the noun it qualifies to.
Example: a) The sky is clear.
b) He seems angry.
c) It grew dark.
Order of Adjective:
size- general description-age-shape-colour-material- origin-purpose
(a) an old red Spanish leather riding boots (b) A funny brown German beer mug
(c) a long sharp knife (d) an old plastic bucket
4. VERB
Definition: A verb is a word that expresses an action performed or refused by the subject or a state experienced by the subject.

CATEGORIES ON VERB
1. Intensive Verb: The sentences, which have subject complements, have intensive verb.
Example: a) The girl is now a student at a large university.
b) Wasim grew rich gradually.
2. Extensive Verb: Extensive verbs can be either intransitive or transitive. When extensive verbs are used as intransitive they do not permit any of the four object and complement types (direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement) to be used in the sentence.
Example: a) it rained steadily all day.
When the extensive verbs are transitive they take a direct object. Further transitive verbs are classified as "Monotransitive", which take direct object, "Ditransitive", which take indirect object and "Complex Transitive", which take an object complement. For instance:
a) I write a letter. (Monotransitive)
b) She had given the girl an apple. (Ditransitive)
c) They make him the chairman every year. (Complex Transitive)
STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS
a) Dynamic Verbs: The verbs which are used in progressive form are called dynamic verbs. For example:
a) We waited for him. b) We were waiting for him.

b) Stative Verb: The verbs which cannot be used in progressive form are called Stative verbs. For example:
a) Wasim is now lecturer at University of Sindh.
b) He knew the answer.
FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB
a) Finite Verbs: The finite verb phrases have tense discrimination and there is always an agreement between the subject, person number and the finite verb. Besides, finite verbs have moods.
a) They work / worked in the field. (Tense distinction)
b) Ali comes. They come. (Verb agreement)
c) If they were eating, they would sit. (Subjunctive mood)
d) Shut the window. (Imperative mood)
b) Non-finite Verb: All the verbs which are in infinitive form (to read), the -ing or present participle form (reading) and the -ed or past participle form.
a) He drinks wine heavily. (Finite)
b) To drink like that must be lethal to health. (Non-finite)
c) He is laughing. (Finite)
d) I found him laughing. (Non-finite)
VERB: MOOD
Mood, basically, is a particular method or mode to use a verb to denote, express or mention to a particular action. There are three kinds of moods in English language.
1) Indicative Mood: If a verb expresses a statement

showing fact, question or a supposition is in known as indicative mood.
a) Columbus discovered America in 1492. (Statement)
b) Have you dined? (Question)
c) If they come, I will inform you. (Supposition)
2) Imperative Mood: The verb which is used to express an order or command, an advice or any entreaty is known as imperative mood.
a) Fetch me a glass of water. (Command)
b) Be submissive and polite to your fellows. (Advice)
c) May I use your computer please? (Entreaty)
3) Subjunctive Mood: In subjunctive mood a verb expresses a wish, hope, desire, intention or resolution in noun clause in the present and improbability in the past time.
a) May God bless you! (Present wish)
b) The committee recommended that a weekly inspection to be conducted to assure hygienic condition in the prison. (A noun clause used for present resolution or intention)
c) I wish I attended the meeting. (Past wish)
d) If I knew driving, I could go to beach. (Present improbability)
THE INFINITVIE, BARE INFINITIVE, SPLIT INFINITIVE
1) The Infinitive: The infinitive is a verb noun having features or characteristics of a noun, it is not limited by a

person or number or the subject.
a) To err is human.
b) They loved to drive in rain.
c) To learn English is not difficult. (as a subject)
d) I wish to help poor. (object of transitive verb)
e) Her earnest wish is to become a successful doctor. (complement)
f) We found her open the door. (object complement)
g) I want to submit my will. (qualifying a verb showing purpose)
h) She is very happy to secure the first position. (qualifying an adjective)
i) It is time to go. (Qualifying noun)
Verb + infinitive with “to”: These verbs are generally followed by infinitive form of verb with “to”, for instance “want, necessary, ought to, agree, dare, decide, expect, fail, happen, hope, manage, mean, offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, wish)
(Infinitive of purpose: she sat down to rest. Example: in order to- so as to)
1. It is nice to sitting here. 2. I am glad to have seen her.
3. She likes to be liked. 4. Try not to be late.
5. I am sorry not to have phoned.
Verb + Object+ infinitive
1. He wants me to wash his socks. 2. I would prefer you to pay now.
Other words: advise, allow, ask, can’t bear, cause,

encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, invite, leave, mean, need, order, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn
Adjective followed by Infinitive (in case of feelings and reaction): afraid, anxious, certain, glad, happy, likely, lucky, ready, right, shocked, surprised, willing wrong. Pleased, sorry
1. I am sorry to disturb you. 2. She is pleased to see you.
Adjective not followed by infinitive: fine, intelligent, lazy, unusual, well
2) Bare Infinitive: When the verb does not carry preposition "to" in its beginning is called to be in bare infinitive form. These verbs, auxiliary verb, phrases, preposition are generally followed bare infinitive: "bid, let, hear, watch, make need, see, help, dare, shall, may, do should, might, must, will, can must, would, could, had better, sooner than, had rather, rather than, would rather, expect, but, than."
a) We bade him go. b) I dared not speak with the principal.
c) He does nothing except play cards. d) You had better consult he doctor.
3) Split Infinitive: Sometimes, we use an adverb between to and the infinitive is called split infinitive. However, it is considered wrong in Standard English.
a) She always yearned to immediately break the news.
GERUND

Gerund is a verbal noun, which ends in "ing" and functions like a noun or a verb.
a) Walking is good for health. (as a subject)
b) He dislikes cheating in the paper. (object of transitive verb)
c) I am fed up with applying for jobs. (object of preposition)
d) My aim in life is becoming a real teacher. (complement of a verb)
e) The designing of clothes is in vogue. (as ordinary noun)
Note: The difference between the use of infinitive, participle and gerund should meticulously be noted:
a) To preach is easier than to practice. (Infinitive)
b) Preaching is easier than practicing. (Gerund)
c) Wasim is fed up with applying for job. (Gerund)
d) Applying for jobs, Wasim has left no stone unturned to avail all the possible means and sources. (participle)
PARTICIPLE
The participle is a verbal adjective which has the features or characteristics of a verb and adjective. There are there types of participle viz. Present Participle (verb + ing), Past Participle (verb + ed, d, t, n) and Perfect Participle (having + 3rd form of verb).
a) He has got charming personality. (Adjective)
b) Pakistan is a developed country. (Adjective)
c) She looks worried. (complement)
Note: Besides, the participle are used to determine the time or tense of the verb or action.

Verb+ ing form: avoid, cant help, deny, (can't) face, fancy, feel like, finish, give up, image, keep (on), mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, risk, spend time, (cannot) stand, suggest, look forward to,
1. Let us go climbing. 2.Did you go dancing last Saturday? (sporting or leisure activities)
2. The car needs washing, 2. My shoes need mending.
Note: we use ing form after preposition
(Noun followed by preposition + ing form: difficulty, hope, idea, thought)
FORMS OF VERB
The table showing forms of verb:
Imperative
(root)
Infinitive
1st
Past
2nd
Past Participle
3rd
Present Participle
4th
Gerund/Noun
eat
to eat
ate
eaten
eating
eating
write
to write
wrote
written
writing
writing
apply
to apply
applied
applied
applying
application
satisfy
to satisfy
satisfied
satisfied
satisfying
satisfaction
Note: We use “to” before the verb to make infinitive. When ‘to’ is omitted the verb becomes an order.

THE THREE FORMS OF VERB
1) Regular Verb: All the verbs which take "d" or "ed" to constitute the past and the past participle forms are called regular or weak verbs.
Verb
(1st form)
Past
(2nd form)
Past participle
(3rd form)
answer
answered
answered
arrest
arrested
arrested
chase
chased
chased
hate
hated
hated
NOTE: In accordance with the above rule the words ending in “e” only add “d” to make past and past participle form; whereas, the words ending except “e” add “ed” to make past and past participle form.
2) Irregular Verb: All the verbs which constitute their past and past participle forms without adding "ed", but they rather follow different patterns for making forms are called irregular verb. Generally, the irregular or strong verbs are classified as under:
1) Group#1: In the first group 1st, 2nd and 3rd forms are identical:
1st form
2nd form
3rd form
burst
burst
burst
cost
cost
cost

Thus, below given words come in the ambit of first group:
cut; hit; knit; let; set; shut; spread; read; hurt; broadcast; telecast.
2) Group#2: The verbs whose 1st and 2nd forms are identical.
1st form
2nd form
3rd form
beat
beat
beaten
3) Group# 3: 1st and 3rd forms are identical.
1st form
2nd form
3rd form
become
became
become
come
came
come
run
ran
run
4) Group# 4: 2nd and 3rd forms are identical.
1st form
2nd form
3rd form
bend
bent
bent
bind
bound
bound
bleed
bled
bled
bring
brought
brought
burn
burnt / burned
burnt / burned
buy
bought
bought
Thus below-mentioned words come under the umbrella of the group-4: catch - caught; dig - dug; dream - dreamt; feed - fed; feel - felt; fight - fought; find - found; get - got; hang -

hung; have - had; hear - heard; hold - held; keep - kept; lay - laid; lead - led; lean - leant; light - lit;
5) Group# 5: These verbs are completely irregular in their forms.
1st form
2nd form
3rd form
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke
awoken
be; am; is; are.
was; were
been
begin
began
begun
bear
bore
borne
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
choose
chose
chosen
do
did
done
break
broke
broken
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forget
forgot
forgotten
freeze
froze
frozen
give
gave
given
hide
hid
hidden
know
knew
known

lie
lay
lain
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
saw
sawed
sawn
see
saw
seen
sew
sewed
sewn
TENSE, APECT AND MOOD
Time is a cosmopolitan, non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present and future. Tense shows the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. Aspect shows that how the action is experienced or regarded. The action can be in progressive or perfective state. If it is continuous or in progress, it is called in progressive aspect, if the action is completed it is in perfective aspect:
a) I am / was writing. (Progressive Aspect)
b) I have / had written. (Perfective Aspect)
Whereas, mood shows the relationship of an action or verb with these conditions like: "obligation, necessity or possibility". In fact, tense, aspect and mood are interdependent, interrelated or interwoven, because any expression or statement of either present or past cannot be comprehended or understood without its aspect whether it is in progressive or perfective aspect. Whereas, all expressions or statements concerning future are closely bound or related

with their mood, which helps to understand or comprehend them properly.
TENSES
It is derived from Latin tensus stretched, from the verb tendere .A noun in Middle English (in the general sense time): from Old French tens, from Latin tempus time. It determines the time of a verb or action carried out by a subject. Generally the time is divided into three major parts and they are:
(I) Present Tense
(II) Past Tense
(III) Future Tense
The first says something about an action done in present time; the second determines the action done in past time; while, the third determines an action, which will be done in the upcoming time. Furthermore, every tense can be divided into diverse parts for the better understanding of an action.
1. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
Definition: It says something about an action done in present time.
(Helping verbs: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I write a letter (Affirmative)

(b) She does not play squash (Negative)
(c) Do they play truant regularly? (Interrogative)
(d) Doesn’t Ali go to school? (Interrogative: Negative) or
Does Ali not go to school? (Interrogative: Negative)
Note: This pattern of making interrogative negative can be applied for all tenses.
Usage:
1. To mention a habit or routine in present:
I wake up early in the morning.
2. To explain universal truth:
The sun rises in the east.
3. While writing the summary or synopsis of poem, novel, drama, or film:
The poet praises the daffodils in the poem.
4. For an action done in present time:
I write a letter to my brother who lives in Karachi.
5. For the definition of something:
An adjective adds something to the meaning of a noun or a pronoun.
6. While writing the process of particular action:
The shake in the plates of the earth causes an earthquake.
7. To show the natural expressions of different senses viz. hearing, smelling, seeing, tasting, sigh etc when they are not done deliberately:
I see. I like. (Not: I am liking.)
8. In newspaper, the radio, TV etc:
The train derails and kills 75 passengers.

9. For future:
They leave tomorrow.
If my father comes, I will inform you. (Conditional)
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: It says that a particular action is happening or is in progress in present for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: is / am / are) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I am writing a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) You are not playing well. (Negative)
(c) Are they phoning? (Interrogative)
(d) Is she not weeping for her mother? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. An action happening now:
I am writing a letter.
2. An action happening now but not necessarily taking place while spoken of:
I am reading Shakespeare nowadays.
3. An action that is supposed to take place in future time but its time is finalized:
I am going to Karachi tomorrow.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Definition: It says that the action has been completed in present time.

(Helping Verb: has / have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]
Sentences:
(a) I have written a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She has not dispatched the letter. (Negative)
(c) Have you appeared in the court? (Interrogative)
(d) Has she not taken the examination? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. The action completed in present time:
I have written a letter.
2. The action remained continuous for particular time during present time:
I have waited for you for two hours.
3. It is the equivalent of past perfect in present time:
We have completed our syllabus a bit earlier than expected time frame.
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: It says that the action has remained continuous for long span of time in present.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I have been teaching English Language for ten years at Paragon English Language Academy. (Affirmative)
(b) She has not been writing as freelancer journalist since 1999. (Negative)

(c) Has he been playing football for ten years? (Interrogative)
(d) Have you not been living in Karachi for two years? (Interrogative: Negative)
Note: "Since" shows the point of time or beginning of an action; whereas, "for" denotes total amount or period of time of an action.
a) I have been teaching English since 2003. (Shows beginning or point of time the action began)
b) I have been teaching English for 7 years. (Shows the total period or amount of time the action remained continuous)
Usage:
1. The action that remains continued for long span of time in present:
I have been living in Karachi since 1990.
2. The action that is done but its influence yet prevails:
I have been watering the plants so my clothes ate wet.
5. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
Definition: The work done in past time
(Helping Verb: did) [Verb: Past form / 2nd form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I sang a song. (Affirmative)
(b) I did not sleep (Negative)
(c) Did you shriek? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not dream? (Interrogative: Negative)

Usage:
1. The work done in past time:
I went to Karachi yesterday.
2. The work done in past for indefinite time:
Allah created Adam from clay and mud.
3. The work done in past for definite time:
Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492.
4. To know or mention the past time:
Last year brought the heaps of pleasure for us.
5. For the habits of past:
I worked in a hospital.
6. For future :( Condition)
If my father came, I will inform you.
6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: The tense denotes an action, which remained continuous in past for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: was / were) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I was waiting for my father. (Affirmative)
(b) Were they playing cricket? (Interrogative)
(c) The teacher was not delivering lecture on essay. (Negative)
(d) Was Imran not planning to join Medical College? (Interrogative: Negative)

Usage:
1. An action continued in past for short span of time:
I was waiting for my brother.
2. When one action interrupted the other which was in progress in past time:
When you phoned I was sleeping.
3. The action in progress in past time:
They were constructing a training wing for the teachers.
4. The action taking place in past with no confirmed end:
They were trying to come up with new ideas to meet the exigency of time and space.
5. In lieu of past indefinite tense:
We were gossiping.
7. PAST PERFECT TENSE
Definition: The action, which had been completed in the past time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: Past Participle / 3 rd form]
Sentences:
(a) I had adequately completed my professional qualification. (Affirmative)
(b) She had not adorned her house. (Negative)
(c) Had Danish quenched his thirst? (Interrogative)
(d) Had we not said adieu to the nostalgic beauties of the university life? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The action completed in past:

We had had food.
2. When an action completed in past is interrupted by other action:
When I reached the railway station, the train had left.
3. The action remained continuous for particular time in past:
I had worked in a firm for two years.
4. It is the equivalent of present perfect in past time:
By morning we had reached the destination aimed at.
8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: The action which remained continuous for long span of time in past.
(Helping Verb: had been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I had been writing in newspaper for ten years. (Affirmative)
(b) Abbas had not been bullying his son since childhood. (Negative)
(c) Had you been facing the jerks and jolts of life since childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Had the train not been coming for two weeks? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which remained continuous in past for long span of time:
We had been working in a firm since 1990.
2. For an action done in past (instead of past perfect tense):

We had been waiting for you.
3. To show the link of an action with present time:
Since they had been watering the plants, so their clothes are still wet.
9. FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
Definition: The action, which will happen in the upcoming or future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall go to Karachi. (Affirmative)
(b) She will not take a cup of tea. (Negative)
(c) Will Imran write a letter? (Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not play cricket match? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which will happen in upcoming or future time:
I shall go to Karachi tomorrow.
2. The actions, which are beyond our control:
The sun will rise at 5:47 a.m.
3. The habits in future time:
I will take exercise daily.
4. Generally news papers, magazine, news caster use this tense to mention the events which are supposed to occur or take place in future time:
The Prime Minister of Pakistan will visit America in the next month.

5. The use of “going to” for future:
We are going to organize a farewell party in the honour of outgoing student.
6. The use of “about to” for future:
It is about to rain.
7. The use of present indefinite for future:
They leave tomorrow.
8. The use of present continuous for future:
We are going to Karachi tomorrow.
9. The show a condition:
If my father comes I will inform you.
If my father came I will inform you.
Note: We generally use “shall” as a helping verb with subject “I” and “We”, when the action is done without their active involvement; otherwise we use “will” as helping verb with the afore-mentioned subjects when they are going to do an action with their active participation or intention or consent. Whereas, the rest of the subjects like: "he, she, it they, Ali" take "will" as helping verb.
10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: The action which will remain continuous in future time for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: shall be / will be) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I shall be washing and wringing clothes. (Affirmative)

(b) She will not be paying tariffs. (Negative)
(c) Will he be waiting or us? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be bicycling? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. For an action, which remains continuous in future time:
The students will be waiting for their results.
2. For an action, which will take place with out intention:
They will be gossiping and making fuss about in the corridor.
3. For question:
When will you be watching TV?
4. For an action already planned:
They will be convening a seminar on the standard and quality education.
5. Be + To.
The Prime Minister is to visit America next month.
11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Definition: The action will be completed in future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3 rd Form]
Sentences:
(a) When you will come, Imran will have slept. (Affirmative)
(b) By the end of the month, they will not have completed

their assignments. (Negative)
(c) Will the clerks have dispatched the letters? (Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not have arrived at Lahore by early morning? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1. The sentence beginning with “By”:
By the end of this month I will have worked here for five years.
2. The action which will be completed in infinite or finite time in future:
When you will pass intermediate I shall have completed my studies then.
12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Definition: It denotes the action, which will remain continuous for long span of time in future.
(Helping Verb: shall / will have been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten years. (Affirmative)
(b) Abbas will not have been bullying his son for months. (Negative)
(c) Will she have been facing the jerks and jolts of life since childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Will the train not have been coming for two weeks?

(Interrogative Negative)
Usage:
1. The action, which will remain continuous in future for long span of time.
I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten years.
13. PRESENT TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in present time. There is no action on the part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping / Verb: am / is / are) [No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) Asma is a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It is not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Am I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Are they not players of chess? (Interrogative Negative)
(e) Aren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)
14. PAST TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in past time. There is no action on the part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: was, were) [No Action Verb]

Sentences:
(a) Asma was a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It was not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Was I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Were they not players of chess? (Int. Negative)
(e) Weren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)
15. FUTURE TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: It shows the state of somebody or something in future time. There is no action on the part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: shall be / will be) [No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) Asma will be a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It will not be a fabricated story. (Negative)
(c) Shall I be a lawyer? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be players of chess? (Int. Negative)
(e) Won’t you be a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)
16. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: The subject has attained the state of completion in present time for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [No action verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have been a doctor for two years. (Affirmative)

(b) He has not been a lawyer for two years. (Negative)
(c) Have they been addicted to heroin since 1990? (Interrogative)
(d) Has he not been a computer operator for ten years? (Interrogative: Negative)
17. PAST PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: The subject has attained the state of completion in past for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verbs: had been) (No action verb)
Sentences:
(a) He had been good in moral since childhood. (Affirmative)
(b) She had not been an early-riser. (Negative)
(c) Had I been habitual of late sleeping? (Interrogative)
(d) Had he not been latecomer in the school? (Interrogative: Negative)
18. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”
Definition: The subject will attain the state of completion in future for a considerable amount of time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will have been) [No action verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been a teacher for one year? (Affirmative)
(b) She will not have been good at operating computer. (Negative)

(c) Will you have been good at English after completing the course? (Interrogative)
(d) When Imran will come from London, will he not have been old in age? (Interrogative: Negative)
19. PRESENT POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the capacity or potency of a subject of doing an action in present time.
(Helping Verb: Can) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I can write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She cannot play dice. (Negative)
(c) Can you drive a car? (Interrogative)
(d) Can Ali not submit his assignment? (Int. Negative)
20. PAST POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or ability of a subject of doing an action in past time.
(Helping Verb: could) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) It could mitigate the intensity of pain. (Affirmative)
(b) Abbas could not forget me. (Negative)
(c) Could you exhort / urge / request / implore / beseech him? (Interrogative)
(d) Could Ali not blackmail / deceive / doge us? (Interrogative: Negative)

21. FUTURE POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or ability of a subject of doing an action in future time.
(Helping Verb: shall be able, will be able) [Verb: Bare-infinitive]
Sentences:
(a) I shall be able to submit the assignment in next week. (Affirmative)
(b) They will not be able to vent their ideas. (Negative)
(c) Will they be able to snare birds? (Interrogative)
(d) Will she not be able to learn computer within two months? (Interrogative: Negative)
22. PRESENT PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows that the subject can have done an action if certain conditions have been fulfilled in present time.
(Helping Verb: can have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I can have bought the car. (Affirmative)
(b) If you did not give me money I cannot have bought the car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me address can I have written letter to you? (Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me cell number can I not have informed you? (Interrogative: Negative)

23. PAST PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE
Definition: It shows that the subject could have done an action if certain conditions had been fulfilled in past time.
(Helping Verb: could have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]
Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I could have bought the car. (Affirmative)
(b) If you did not give me money I could not have bought the car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me money could I have bought the car? (Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me money could I not have bought the car? (Interrogative: Negative)
24. PRESENT POSSESSIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in present time.
(Helping Verbs: have, has) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have four pens. (Affirmative)
(b) She does not have room to stay at. (or) She has no room to stay at. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali have a book on history? (Interrogative)
(d) Do I not have a chance to attempt? (Interrogative: Negative)

25. PAST POSSESSIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in past time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I had that car as white elephant (as a burden). (Affirmative)
(b) I did not have time to roam about. (Negative)
(c) Did she have a charm in her voice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did they not have clothes to put on? (Int. Negative)
26. FUTURE POSESSIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows the possession of a subject in future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have a pen. (Affirmative)
(b) I shall not have a splendid house in the next year. (Negative)
(c) Will Wasim have an opportunity to bid her farewell / adieu? (Interrogative)
(d) Will he not have a job to join? (Interrogative Negative)
27. PRESENT AORIST TENSE
(Helping Verb: may) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]

Definition: This tense can be used for under mentioned entries:
Sentences:
1. For Permission:
You may sit in the chair. (For giving permission)
May I come in, sir? (For seeking permission)
2. For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
It may rain today. (Affirmative)
3. For Pray / Wish / Curse:
May you be successful in your aim! (Optative Sentences) [Wish]
May God blacken her / his face! (Optative Sentences) [Curse]
4. For a Purpose:
We work hard that we may succeed. (Affirmative)
28. PAST AORIST TENSE
(Helping Verb: might) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Definition: This tense can be used for under mentioned purposes in past time.
Sentences:
1. For Permission:
You might take my cordless phone. (Affirmative)
2. For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
I did not come to you because I thought you might stay at office. . (Affirmative)

3. For Wish / Pray / Curse:
Might Allah give him long life! (Optative Sentences) [Wish]
4. For a Purpose:
I went to Karachi that I might get an opportunity to fly abroad. (Affirmative)
29. PRESNT DUBIOUS TENSE
Definition: It shows that the action taking place in present time is uncertain or in doubt.
(Helping Verb: may be) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) Katherine may be studying in her room. (Affirmative)
(b) Imran may not be lending money in those days. (Negative)
(c) May they be waiting for their parents? (Interrogative)
(d) May Ali not be dyeing his hair? (Int. Negative)
30. PAST DUBIOUS TENSE
Definition: The tense shows that the action, which has taken place in present time, is in doubt.
(Helping Verb: might have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have gone home. (Affirmative)
(b) They might not have borrowed money. (Negative)

(c) Might Imran have wiped out her tears? (Interrogative)
(d) Might I not have called at him? (Int. Negative)
31. PAST DUBIOUS COUNTINOUS TENSE
Definition: It shows that the action might have been taking place in past time.
(Helping Verb: might have been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have been phoning us since morning. (Affirmative)
(b) She might not have been playing for two days. (Negative)
(c) Might they have been waiting for you? (Interrogative)
(d) Might Imran not have been sleeping? (Int. Negative)
32. PRESENT HABITUAL TENSE
Definition: This tense shows the habits in present time. Present indefinite is also used to show the habits in present time.
(Helping Verb: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I write in the Daily Dawn.” (Affirmative)
(b) She does not sweep her home. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali play cricket daily? (Interrogative)

(d) Do we not go to London? (Int. Negative)
Note: The Present Indefinite Tense is generally used as Present Habitual Tense. But it will be incorrect to write that:
(a) I use to work in a hospital. (Incorrect)
(b) I work in a hospital. (Correct)
33. PAST HABITUAL TENSE
Definition: It shows the habits in past that are no longer in existence in present time.
(Helping Verb: used to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(British English)
(a) I used to play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) She did not use to smear hina on hands. (Negative)
(c) Did he use to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not use to set houses of enemy on fire? (Interrogative: Negative)
(American English)
(a) I would play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) They would not go to school. (Negative)
(c) Would she teach English? (Interrogative)
(d) Would Asma not surf sites? (Interrogative: Negative)
34. PRESENT CONJUNCTIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the end of one action causes the start of other in present time.

(Identification: having) [Verb: Past Participle/3rd form]
Sentences:
(a) Having washed hands, I eat food. (Affirmative)
(b) Having taken rupees, he does not buy book. (Negative)
(c) Having played match, do they go home? (Interrogative)
35. PAST CONJUNCTIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the end of one action caused the start of other in past time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Past / 2nd form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) Having written a letter she went to her friends. (Affirmative)
(b) Having had food he did not change his clothes. (Negative)
(c) Having played match did they go home? (Interrogative)
36. FUTURE CONJUNCTIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the end of one action causes the start of other in future time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) Having sold my abode, I shall fly for London. (Affirmative)
(b) Having played game, he will not take bath. (Negative)
(c) Having played match, will they go home?

(Interrogative)
37. PRESENT INFINITIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the subject has to do a particular action in present time. The subject has either to do or is compelled to do an action.
(Helping Verb: have to / has to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have to write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) He does not have to withdraw from his plea? (Negative)
(c) Do you have to inform all members? (Interrogative)
(d) Does she not have to pay rent? (Interrogative Negative)
38. PAST INFINITIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the subject had to do a particular action in past time. The subject had either to do or was compelled to do an action.
(Helping Verb: had to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I had to play a match. (Affirmative)
(b) He did not have to work for extra time. (Negative)
(c) Did she have to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did I not have to teach? (Interrogative: Negative)
39. FUTURE INFINITIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the subject will have to do a

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