An overview of academic writing

1. B Ed (HONS) Research Theories and Methods
RTM0017
Contact Session 3: Academic Writing
16 March 2013
Prof G Lautenbach

2. Why is it so difficult to write?
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3. Why is it so difficult to write?
• Reshuffle desk
• Adjust the light
• Open the window
• Sharpen pencil
• Search for paper
• Go to kitchen to eat; wash dishes; wash car; clean up cupboards
• Put on comfortable shoes;
• Lock the door
• Read the newspaper; watch TV
• Phone a friend; read emails and respond to Facebook
• Put on music; change CD
• Look outside; check the time; tidy room
• Finish novel; go to the bathroom
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4. Distractions?
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5. We cannot write
what
we do not know
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7. Writing formally
• Academic English – mostly a written language
• In general, confined to the realm of the serious:
textbooks, academic or technical works, and most
essays or reports
• Remember - you need to move from the informal
language of speaking to the more formal language
of writing
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8. What to avoid
• Contractions
– don’t, didn’t, haven’t
• Sweeping statements
– all over the world
– everyone is involved
– the whole of South Africa is at risk
• Clichés
– avoid like the plague
– better late than never
– bright and early 8

9. 9

10. Do you rely on spell check?
Eye halve a spelling cheque, It came with my pea sea
It plainly Marques four my revue miss steaks eye kin knot sea.
Eye strike a key and type a word and weight four it two say
Weather eye am wrong oar write it shows me strait a weigh.
As soon as a mist ache is maid it nose bee fore two long
And eye can put the error rite its rare lea ever wrong.
Eye have run this poem threw it, I am shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh, my cheque tolled me sew.
Sauce unknown

11. Do you rely on spell check? continued

12. How to create unity in a paragraph
• A paragraph
– not made up of disconnected sentences
and clauses
– consists of a web of related ideas that are
logically connected; this helps develop
coherence and enhances readability
– Normally one main idea per paragraph
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13. Paragraph A
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead
bodies. Mummification, which was remarkably effective,
consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural
preservatives inside and outside, and wrapping the body in
layers of bandages. Mummies several thousands of years
old have been discovered nearly intact, with well-preserved
skin, hair, teeth, nails and facial features. Mummies may
show evidence of diseases such as smallpox, arthritis, and
nutrititional deficiencies. Fatal afflictions are apparent: a
middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a
child-king died from polio.
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14. Paragraph B
Rewriting to develop coherence
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead
bodies by mummifying them. Basically, mummification
consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural
preservatives inside and outside, and then wrapping the
body in layers of bandages. This process was remarkably
effective. Indeed, mummies several thousands of years old
have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth,
nails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in
life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies,
are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still
apparent: a middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to
the head; a child-king died from polio.
(paragraphs from Little, Brown Handbook, 4th Edition, p. 87)
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15. Ways to develop coherence
1. by the repetition of key words and phrases
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead
bodies by mummifying them. Basically, mummification
consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural
preservatives inside and outside, and then wrapping the body
in layers of bandages. This process was remarkably effective.
Indeed, mummies several thousands of years old have been
discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, nails, and
facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as
smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still
diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a
middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a
child-king died from polio.
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16. Ways to develop coherence
2. Make use of pronouns
Possessive
Personal I, you, we
this, your, our, their
Reflexive
himself,
Pronouns Demonstrative
this, that, these, those
yourself,
themselves
Indefinite Relative
few, any, several, none who, whom, whose, which, that
• …This process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies
several thousands of years old have been discovered nearly
intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, nails, and facial features are still
evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and
nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal16
afflictions are still apparent…

17. Ways to develop coherence
3. using linking words and phrases* - show relationships
between ideas
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead
bodies by mummifying them. Basically, mummification
consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural
preservatives inside and outside, and then wrapping the body
in layers of bandages. This process was remarkably effective.
Indeed, mummies several thousands of years old have been
discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, nails, and
facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as
smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still
diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a
middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a
child-king died from polio.
• *transitional expressions; - also known as linking words, logical connectors,
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conjunctions or rhetorical devices.

18. Transitional expressions
• to indicate a connection between ideas,
• making obvious the developing thread of meaning which
the writer is trying to communicate
• often helping the reader to anticipate what is coming next.
When a writer uses connectives effectively,
we say that the text is cohesive
(it ‘sticks’ together).
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19. Transitional expressions
• To show addition
– again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first,
further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise,
moreover, next, or, still, then, too.
• To compare
– also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly.
• To contrast
– although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so,
even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, regardless, still, though, whereas, yet.
• To give examples or intensify, expand, enlarge (amplification)
– after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for instance,
indeed, in fact, it is true that, namely, of course, specifically, that is, to be
sure, to illustrate, to tell the truth, truly, to prove, to show, in particular,
such as.
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20. Transitional expressions
• To summarise, repeat, or conclude
– all in all, all together, as a result, as had been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in
conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on
the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarise, again, to repeat.
• To indicate place
– above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, near, nearby, on the other
side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left.
• To indicate time
– after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that time, before,
currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.), finally, formerly, immediately,
in the meantime, in the past (future), lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently,
shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter,
until, until now, when, while.
• To indicate cause and effect
– accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, for this reason,
hence, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, with this
object.
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21. Writing tips 
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22. Punctuation
Punctuation is crucial!!
A woman without her man is nothing

23. Punctuation
Punctuation is crucial!!
A woman, without her man, is nothing!
As men write it!
A woman: without her, man is
nothing! As women write it!

24. General Confusion with writing?
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March 18, 2013 ADS Workshop

25. Argument 1
• DAUGHTER 1
• Mom, I don’t believe you! You are so unfair! Why can’t I
stay out until three! You never let me do anything fun.
None of my friends has a curfew. How do you think it feels
to be the only one who has to leave a party early?
• Everybody thinks it’s ridiculous, and I bet they’re all really
glad they don’t have you for a mother.
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26. Argument 2
• DAUGHTER 2
• Mom, I would really like to stay at this party tonight until it’s
over. I know you have a problem with my being out late, and
I understand you’re concerned about my welfare. But I’m
eighteen now, I’ll be leaving for university next month, and
maybe it’s time you let me start testing my own judgement.
You and I both know I’m not going to do anything stupid, and
I would really like to get some practice making my own
decision about my comings and goings.
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27. Argument 1
• Daughter 1 has a lot to learn about making her
point successful. She:
–insults her mother
–inaccurately appeals to crowd behaviour –“none
of my friends has curfew”
–fails to offer any sensible reason for her mother
to change her mind
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28. Argument 2
• Daughter 2 offers a reasonable argument:
– She acknowledges her mother’s concerns
– She cites a sensible reason for lifting the curfew
– she needs practice at being grown up while she
is in her home environment
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29. What is an argument?
• An argument puts forward a viewpoint with sufficient
evidence to the claim and may include sections on the
background information, any premises the view may be
based on, the evidence supporting the claim, other opposing
viewpoints and a conclusion.
• Effective arguments are ethical as well as reasonable, being
made openly and honestly
• An argument is a position supported by clear thinking and
reasonable evidence, with a secure connection to solid
facts.
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30. Writing an introduction
• Write the introduction last?
• The introduction is the broad beginning of
the paper that answers three important
questions:
– What is this?
– Why am I reading it?
– What do you want me to do?
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31. What is this?
Why am I reading it?
What do you want me to do?
• Answer these questions by doing the
following:
– Set the context – provide general information
about the main idea, explaining the situation so
the reader can make sense of the topic and the
claims you make and support
– State why the main idea is important – tell the
reader why they should care & keep reading.
Create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay
people will want to read and act upon
– State your thesis/claim – state the position you
will support with logos (sound reasoning:
induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional
appeal), and ethos (author credibility). 31

32. Writing an introduction
• If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you
will support your thesis by outlining the structure of your paper, the
sources you will consider, and the opposition to your position. Your
forecast could read something like this:
• First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide
some background of the situation. Next I will outline the important
positions of the argument and explain why I support one of these
positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss
why these positions are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas
for taking action and possible directions for future research.
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33. Writing the literature review
• Analyze relevant works in relation to your specific research problem and
ideas.
• Critique and assess the literature.
• Make your literature review do more work for you than merely list,
summarize, and synthesize key works.
A literature review serves the following purposes:
– Demonstrates your grasp of relevant works
– Shows your skill in identifying and discussing the most significant ideas and
findings in earlier works
– Specifies who did what, when and why and how they did it
– Evaluates earlier studies
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34. Writing the literature review
• Allows you to use your research problem to frame, integrate,
and assess the literature
• Prompts you to make explicit and compelling connections
between your study and earlier studies
• Reveals gaps in extant knowledge and states how your
study answers them
• Helps you to position your study and to clarify its contribution
• Permits you to make claims
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35. Translations!
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March 18, 2013 ADS Workshop

36. Non First Language English Speakers

37. Writing the methodology
• Present in a stepwise fashion - anyone else should be able to follow the
same procedures/plan.
• Organise each section to show progression taken through data
generation, gathering, processing, and analysis:
– Identify what type of qualitative inquiry was used, explain rationale for this choice,
discuss how the methodology is appropriate to answering the question under study, and
provide supporting citations;
– Include a full discussion of how participants were recruited;
– Explain every step of data collection, provide a rationale for each of these research
decisions, and identify what constitutes data in the study;
– Describe each step of the generation, collection, processing, and analysis of the data and
include illustrative examples;
– Include a full discussion (including relevant literature) of every step taken to ensure rigor
and trustworthiness; and
– Describe how the results will be presented and how these findings are derived from your
analysis.
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38. Writing the findings
• What could the findings mean?
• Why are they significant?
• From which theoretical standpoint do you
interpret the findings?
• What possible recommendations could come
from the discussion?
• Have you addressed the research question
sufficiently?
Henning 2003
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39. Writing the conclusion
• In a general way, restate your topic and why it is important,
• restate your thesis/claim,
• Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should
align with your position,
• Call for action or overview future research possibilities.
• Done. Complete. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing
message.
• The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to
follow for argument papers:
– Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).
– Tell them (body).
– Tell them what you told them (conclusion).
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41. The end (again)
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