1. Development of Indian
Mining Industry – The
Way Forward
Non-Fuel Minerals
FICCI Mines and Metals Division
October 2013
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2. Copyright © 2013 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry
All contents in this report is the property of Federation of Indian Chambers of
Commerce & Industry (FICCI) and is protected by Indian and international
copyright laws. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification,
distribution, transmission, republication, display or performance, of the content in
this report is strictly prohibited without written permission from FICCI.
Compiled by:
Arnab Kumar Hazra, Director, FICCI
S B S Chauhan, Advisor and Member FICCI Mining Committee
Arpan Gupta, Senior Assistant Director, FICCI
Ekta Sharma, Research Assistant, FICCI
Mines and Metals Division
Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Federation House
Tansen Marg
New Delhi 110 001
India
www.ficci.com
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3. MESSAGE FROM THE SECRETARY GENERAL
Dr. A. Didar Singh
Secretary General
FICCI
FICCI has always thrived in providing thought leadership. In this regard I am extremely
happy and proud that we have developed a comprehensive report on the mining sector
titled “Development of Indian Mining Industry – The Way Forward”. The report covers
all non-fuel minerals that are either produced in India or imported and used in India.
FICCI’s mining division has developed this report in-house which goes to showcase our
capabilities.
India has long been recognised as a nation well endowed in natural mineral resources.
India is ranked 4th amongst the mineral producer countries, behind China, United States
and Russia, on the basis of volume of production It is an extremely important sector and
contributes significantly to our Gross Domestic Product. The Indian mining industry
however is passing through a critical phase, especially in the last two years, witnessing
negative growth. As mining is interlinked with industrial development, availability of raw
material is of prime importance and as such, the pro-active role of union and state
governments is called for to ensure an era of mineral development. This report is an
initiative on the part of FICCI to bring out the issues and concerns plaguing the mining
sector (each non-fuel mineral) for the consideration of the government. There are a
number of unresolved policy issues, which deserve serious consideration by the union
and state governments.
The report is also a ready compendium that gives the reserve and resource position,
the production levels, the demand and the future demand-supply scenario besides
flagging the way forward. I am sure policy makers, geologists and academicians will all
find this report to be extremely useful.
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4. FOREWORD
Tuhin Mukherjee
Chair, FICCI Mining Committee &
Managing Director, Essel Mining & Industries Ltd,
Aditya Birla Group
India is well endowed in terms of most minerals. The country produces as many as 87
minerals, including 4 fuel minerals, 10 metallic minerals, 47 non-metallic minerals, 3
atomic minerals and 23 minor minerals (including building and other materials). The
Mineral Development and mining sector is a significant contributor to the India’s GDP
growth; as there is a strong correlation between growth in same and the manufacturing
sector; making it a catalyst for the growth of basic industries such as power, steel,
cement etc.
The National Mineral Policy, 2008 announced by the Union Government, was made to
fulfil this aim. The 2008 Policy differed from the earlier policy by introducing an open sky
policy on non-exclusivity for reconnaissance work, large area prospecting license,
seamless transfer and security of tenure to the entrepreneurs. Government of India
liberalized the grant of licenses and leases for most of the minerals except atomic
minerals and Hydrocarbon energy minerals under the National Mineral Policy, 1993.
However, the sector has witnessed negative growth for two consecutive years now. In
2011-12, the growth outlook had turned negative to register a minus 0.6% contraction.
In 2012-13 too there was no significant improvement, and the sector contracted by
0.6%. This de-growth is having its repercussions on the economy as a whole and is
contributing to the widening current account deficit and resultant weakness in Indian
currency. India needs an evolving and growth oriented mineral development and mining
policy that can foster systematic and sustainable growth in the sector.
At this critical juncture, the FICCI Mining Commitee members unanimously felt the need
of highlighting the issues and concerns for harnessing various minerals present across
the country as one collated document. So it was decided to do a base report on all nonfuel minerals and present to the Government in one place, both the critical issues and
the way forward, along with the reserve and resource position, by each mineral. This
report, titled “Development of Indian Mining Industry – The Way Forward” is a collective
document on the current requirements of the Indian mining industry.
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5. I believe it is time for mineral development and mining to be given its long over-due
recognition as a core industry as is the case in developed countries such as Australia,
Canada and USA. Emphasis should be given on exploration to continuously augment
the resource / reserve base of the country and harness the existing resources through
scientific and sustainable mining including beneficiation technologies and focusing on
zero waste mining. This is possible only through an investor friendly regulatory regime
that provides for security of tenure and encourages investment in exploration and
critical infrastructure for development of the mineral and mining industry.
I would like to acknowledge the contribution of the authors, Mr. S B S Chauhan, who is
also a FICCI Mining Committee member, as well as Mr. Arnab Kumar Hazra and Mr.
Arpan Gupta, who are part of the FICCI Secretariat. I would also like to thank the
various committee members for going through the document and providing valuable
comments.
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6. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary
09
Chapter 1 – Indian Mining Industry
12
Chapter 2 – Bulk Minerals
26
Chapter 3 - Base Metal Ores and Associated Strategic Minerals / Metals
46
Chapter 4 - High Value Precious Minerals / Metals
60
Chapter 5 - Industrial / Non-Metallic Minerals
73
Chapter 6 – Small Mines
98
Chapter 7 – Summary of Recommendations
105
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7. LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 1.1
Seven Key Mining States have Majority Share in Mineral
Production / Total Reserves
Exhibit 1.2
13
Illustrations of Local Community Development Initiatives by
Mining Companies
14
Exhibit 1.3
India’s Production Rank across Key Minerals in 2010
15
Exhibit 1.4
Intensity of Mineral Consumption Expected to Accelerate
16
Exhibit 1.5
Demand for Key Minerals in India Expected to Grow Significantly
17
Exhibit 1.6
Growth in Key Mineral Consuming Industries Likely to Drive
Demand for Minerals
Exhibit 1.7
17
Global Demand of Key Export Minerals of India is expected to
Increase Significantly
18
Exhibit 1.8
India’s Position in Reserves of Key Minerals – 2010
19
Exhibit 1.9
Significant Mineral Potential still Untapped in India
19
Exhibit 1.10 India’s Share in Global Exploration Budget in 2010 less than 0.5%
20
Exhibit 1.11 Only 60% Mining Projects Proposed in Last 17 Years have got
Forest Clearances
22
Exhibit 2.1
Hematite & Magnetite Resources in India: 1980 to 2010
26
Exhibit 2.2
State-Wise Reserves / Resources of Iron Ore April 2010
27
Exhibit 2.3
Sector Wise Production of Iron Ore
28
Exhibit 2.4
India’s Iron Ore Production by Grade
29
Exhibit 2.5
Exhibit 2.5: Crude Steel Capacity & Production during
12th Five Year Plan
30
Exhibit 2.6
Domestic Usage of Iron Ore
30
Exhibit 2.7
Production of Bauxite 2001-02 to 2011-12
33
Exhibit 2.8
Five Principal Bauxite Mines in India
34
Exhibit 2.9
Production of Bauxite State Wise 2008-09 to 2010-11
34
Exhibit 2.10 Production of Chromite 2001-02 to 2011-12
37
Exhibit 2.11 Production of Manganese Ore 2001-02 to 2011-12
40
Exhibit 2.12 Quantity of Manganese Ore in Different States, 2010-11
40
Exhibit 2.13 Production of Limestone 2001-02 to 2011-12
43
Exhibit 2.14 Broad Chemical Specifications of Cement Grade Limestone
44
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8. Exhibit 3.1 Production of Copper Concentrates 2001-02 to 2011-12
47
Exhibit 3.2 Import and Export of Refined Copper in India
48
Exhibit 3.3 Projected Capacity and Production of Refined Copper
48
Exhibit 3.4 Production of Lead and Zinc Metal – 2001-02 to 2010-11
51
Exhibit 3.5 Production of Lead and Zinc Concentrates – 2001-02 to 2011-12
51
Exhibit 3.6 - Demand for Zinc in India
52
Exhibit 3.7 - Demand for Lead in India
52
Exhibit 3.8 Demand-Supply Scenario of Zinc during 12th Plan Period
53
Exhibit 3.9 Characteristics of Strategic Minerals / Metals
55
Exhibit 4.1 Gold Production in India (by-product and mines)
61
Exhibit 4.2 Import of Gold into India
62
Exhibit 4.3 Silver Production in India
65
Exhibit 4.4 India’s Export and Import of Coloured Gemstones
72
Exhibit 5.1 Resources, Production and Demand of Industrial
Minerals during XI and XII Plans
74
Exhibit 5.2 Production, Import, Export & Apparent Consumption of
Industrial Minerals
76
Exhibit 5.4 Production and Value of Industrial Minerals during 2008-09 & 2010-11
81
Exhibit 5.5 Capacity and Production of Nitrogenous and Phosphatic Fertilizers
84
Exhibit 6.1 List of Minerals Produced by “B” Category Mines
102
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9. Executive Summary
India has long been recognised as a nation well endowed in natural mineral resources. India
ranked 4th amongst the mineral producer countries, behind China, United States and Russia, on
the basis of volume of production, as per the Report on Mineral Production by International
Organizing Committee for the World Mining Congress, It however ranked 8th on the basis of
value of Mineral production, during 2009.
The Mining sector therefore is one of the important sectors in India’s economy and contributes
about 2% to our GDP. However the contribution of the sector to India’s GDP has been on the
decline. The mining sector contributed 3.4% of India’s GDP in 1992-93. This declined to 3.0% in
1999-2000, and further to 2.3% in 2009-10. And with the sector contracting in absolute terms in
the last couple of years, the contribution of the mining sector to India’s GDP has come down to
2% in 2012-13.
The mining sector has been reeling for more than two years now, under a lethal mix of high
borrowing costs on one hand and policy paralysis on the part of the government on the other
hand. Mining projects across the country remain stalled owing to environmental, regulatory and
land acquisition issues. The study seeks to identify the critical issues and recommend the way
forward that would help the sector come out of the impasse.
India produces as many as 87 minerals, which includes 4 fuel minerals, 10 metallic minerals, 47
non-metallic minerals, 3 atomic minerals and 23 minor minerals (including building and other
materials). Minerals can broadly be divided into fuel and non-fuel minerals. Coal, lignite,
petroleum and natural gas are the four fuel minerals. In a way, atomic minerals also can be
clubbed under this category. Essentially these minerals are used for the nuclear power
programme in India to generate electricity. Uranium and thorium are the two chiefly known
naturally occurring atomic minerals considered as sources of power. These minerals are
excluded from the scope of the present study and this study focuses only on the non-fuel
minerals, which are used in industrial production.
Among the non-fuel minerals, again two broad distinctions can be made – metallic minerals and
non-metallic minerals including minor minerals. Metallic minerals are those minerals that can be
melted to make new products. Examples are iron ore, copper, gold, lead, zinc, silver, tin, etc.
Non-metallic minerals are minerals that are not able to create new products after melting and
are usually sedimentary rocks. Examples are Limestone, mica, gypsum, dolomite, asbestos, etc
Most of the remaining 80 minerals are covered in this report. However the report does not club
these minerals, used for industrial production, into metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.
Instead the report, on the basis of the characteristics of these minerals, divides them into four
categories and also has a chapter on small mines, as the necessity to add a chapter on small
mines was felt.
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10. The first category is Bulk Minerals. These minerals are transacted in high volumes. In other
words, the minerals in this category are characterized by bulkiness in extraction, transportation
and consumption. Limestone, iron ore, chromites, manganese ore, bauxite, granite, marble,
etc., fall in this category. The extraction of these minerals involves shallow depth mining but
with a considerable quantity of over burden removal and waste generation. The input of
resources into production stream is also huge in some cases, for example inputs for 1,000 kg
primary aluminium production requires more than 5,000 kg of bauxite ore, 13,000 litres of fresh
water, 27,500 litres of sea water, 15,711 kWh of electricity consumption. It therefore depicts that
mining of such mineral is not limited to mineral alone, but it is highly intensified resource use of
other resources. The reclamation costs also vary from 2% to 4% of the production costs. The
mining of bulk minerals also disturbs the eco-system beyond their resilience. Understandably,
the mines, from where these minerals are extracted are large mines and their clearances are
easily caught in the quagmire of environmental, forest and other clearances. Hence, there is
need for developing a wide spread understanding for the strategic value of different minerals.
On the other hand, the demand for these minerals is dependent on the demand of the user
industry, which is also produced in bulk. The report seeks to understand these dynamics and
makes the recommendations accordingly.
The next category is Base Metals Ores and associates strategic minerals/metals. This category
mainly comprises of non-ferrous metals such as copper, lead and zinc etc along with twelve
associated metals (Tin, Cobalt, Lithium, Germanium, Gallium, Indium, Niobium, Beryllium.
Tantalum, Tungsten, Bismuth, and Selenium). The minerals/metals in this category have limited
reserves and may be classified as “Deficit Category”. Even though the country is presently selfsufficient in copper and zinc metal production, but in the long-run, the availability of indigenous
ores will be a cause of concern because of limited ore reserves. In addition, there are strategic
minerals / metals which are largely imported. Hence, this group of metals assumes greater
importance from the point of view of raw material security for industrial development. The base
metals are of high value but require large investments and state-of-the-art technology as most
of them require sophisticated extraction technology mainly from underground mines. We know
that most mines in India are open cast mines as opposed to underground mines. So the scope
of underground mines needs to increase.
The third classification or category of metals is characterized by high value but low volume. This
category consists of precious minerals/metals – gold silver, platinum group of metals, diamonds
and precious stones. They are mostly deep seated involving underground mining with
sophisticated technology. These are at times also extracted as by-product of base metal ores.
Some of these are also used as gem stones. India is known to posses favourable geological
terrain similar to those of gold rich geological terrains of the world, specifically Archean
Greenstone Belts, but the country is largely deficient in the production of these high value
minerals and is heavily dependent on imports. We all have seen the how gold imports unnerved
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11. the government and increased the current account deficit. This calls for a proper development
strategy for these high value minerals / metals, which is vital for Indian economy.
The last group of metals is characterized by low value but high volume. India presently
produces a total of 24 non-metallic minerals. The non-metallic minerals can be further subdivided into a) Fertilizer Minerals; b) Flux and Construction Minerals; c) Ceramics and
Refractory Minerals; and d) Minerals with Export Potential. These are buy-and-large
characterized as low value and high volume minerals and are basic inputs for a number of
industries like fertilizers, glass & ceramics, refractory, asbestos-cement and chemical products.
This group of minerals are largely produced in small mines owned primarily by individuals or
private firms. Though the resource base of industrial / non-metallic minerals in India are
adequate most of the minerals in this category, but country is deficient in fertilizer minerals for
Rock Phosphate, along with Magnesite and Ball Clay. However estimates show decreasing
reserves for many of these non-metallic minerals.
The report added a chapter on small mines as India is characterized by a large number of small
deposits of metallic and non-metallic minerals and as a consequence, a considerable part of
mining activities comprises small–scale mining, working in small deposits and also operating as
small mining leases granted in large mineral deposits. Most of the minor mineral leases granted
are also in the form of small mines.
Each chapter goes into the mineral positions – reserve and resource, and the demand scenario
which cumulatively results in identifying the critical areas of concern and further - the Way
Forward. There are also certain general and broad areas of concern which needs concerted
government action. All these are cumulatively put together in the last chapter – Summary of
Recommendations.
Much greater emphasis is required on development of mineral deposits by way of prospecting
and zero-waste mining. The Indian government does not formally define mining as a core
industrial activity. Rather it is viewed as more often as an ancillary raw material industry. The
mining legislation always gave accent to regulation which emphasized management of the
mines rather than on exploration and development. The exploration within the lease holds were
confined to the barest minimum to take care of future production schedule as per the market
scenario. This left only the Geological Survey of India (GSI) to do regional exploration whereas
the detailed exploration could not be carried out in all identified potential areas. The future
therefore now lies on deployment of latest technologies as well as interpretation of geological
data to its best advantage for opening up of new mines. As mineral exploration is a key to
attracting investment in the mining sector, separate legislation and procedure for grant of
prospecting / exploration licenses is required. At present, the same procedure is being adopted
as that of a mining lease in grant of prospecting licenses whereas mineral investigation does
not involve acquisition of land, it being a temporary activity for a short period.
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12. Indian Mining Industry – An Overview
Mining is one of the core sectors that drive growth in an economy. Not only does it contribute to
GDP, it also acts as a catalyst for the growth of other core industries like power, steel, cement,
etc., which, in turn, are critical for the overall development of the economy. Our analysis has
shown that every one percent increment in the growth rate of mining and quarrying results in
1.2 – 1.4% increment in the growth rate of industrial production and correspondingly, an
approximate increment of 0.3 percent in the growth rate of India’s GDP.
After clocking an average growth rate of 4.8% over the 5 years between 2006-07 and 2010-11,
the sector has witnessed negative growth of 0.6% for two consecutive years now (2011-12 and
2012-13). The mining sector in the last couple of years has been hit hard due to policy paralysis
on a whole gamut of issues, irrespective whether they are in the domain of the Centre of the
States. As a result mining projects across the country has remained stalled owing to court
cases, environmental, regulatory and land acquisition issues. The sector has also been reeling
under high borrowing costs.
Moreover, despite India’s significant geological potential, the country does not rank very high in
terms of its mineral resource base amongst similarly geological endowed nations. It is also a
matter of concern that though as per National Mineral policy, 2008, private sector should have
been at the forefront of mineral production but the public sector continues to play a dominant
role accounting for 68% of mineral production during 2011-12. Clearly policies and incentives
have not been conducive for the private sector players to participate more actively.
There is significant mineral potential that still lay untapped in India for the growth of mining but
historically, mining sector has struggled to exploit the potential due to three big factors i.e.
regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure facilities and sustainability.
These challenges have limited the overall investment in mining and exploration activities in
India, as evident from very low inflow of FDI in the mining sector. India’s spend on mineral
exploration is less than 0.5% of the global spending on exploration in 2010, much below its fair
share given the size of mineral resource potential.
Given the availability of mineral wealth in India, the Ministry of Mines, Government of India, has
targeted significantly higher share of GDP from mining. It aims to increase share of mining and
quarrying in GDP from current 2% of GDP to 5% of GDP over the next 20 years. This requires
mining to grow at 10-12% per annum. On the other hand, within two decades of liberalized
economy, much in contrast with the constitutional objectives, mining as a sector has come to be
associated with scams, conflicts, violence and ecological degradation. The conflict it engenders
is enormous and wide spread. The future should therefore usher in an era of mineral
development with socio-economic development as the focus.
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13. At present, nearly half of India’s total mineral production (including oil and gas) in value terms is
contributed by seven key mining states, namely Odisha (9.6%), Andhra Pradesh (9.0%),
Rajasthan (7.9%), Chhattisgarh (7.8%), Jharkhand (6.5%), Madhya Pradesh (4.8%) and
Karnataka (3.6%). The seven big mining states also account for a third of India’s population but
are relatively backward. Growth in mining could play a critical role in the social and economic
development of the people of these states as these seven states also account for a majority of
the key minerals reserves in India.
Exhibit 1.1: Seven Key Mining States have Majority Share in Mineral Production / Total Reserves
Source: Ministry of Mines, Government of India; Ministry of Coal, Government of India, Indian Bureau of
Mines, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy
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14. Industry’s relationship with society is undeniably both critical and under pressure. Rising levels
of public opposition and social conflicts are impacting operations in India and arguably around
the world. The mining industry in India has however has started to shape the future direction of
this engagement towards an inclusive agenda. There is no doubt that mining investment can
become a positive catalyst for improving livelihoods of the local populace, bringing in much
needed investment job and wealth creation, and government revenues. On its part the industry
is beginning to recognize the difficulties communities are facing in adjusting, particularly since
the local populace mostly has limited exposure to modern living. Severe, rapid disruptions to
local life generate fear and mistrust. The public trust deficit needs to be addressed by both
industry and government alike.
That mining companies, given the nature of their business (operations in backward / remote
regions and need for social ‘license to operate’), are investing in helping local community by
building schools, healthcare facilities, etc is evident from Exhibit 1.2. This is no way suggests
that that enough is being done, but a beginning has definitely been made.
Exhibit 1.2: Illustrations of Local Community Development Initiatives by Mining Companies
Source: Company Web Sites (Tata Steel and Jindal Steel & Power Limited) and Annual
Sustainability Report (Sesa Goa)
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15. Potential and Opportunity for Significant Growth of Mining in India
India produces about 87 minerals that include 4 fuel minerals, 3 atomic minerals, 10 metallic
minerals, 47 non-metallic minerals and 23 minor minerals (including building & other materials).
India occupies a dominant position in the production of many minerals across the globe.
There are close to 3000 mines in India. Number of reporting mines during the last decade has
been around 3000 to 3200. However, during 2010-11, it was 2928, out of which, 573 were fuel
mines, 687 were mines for metals, and 1668 mines for extraction of non-metallic minerals. Of
the total number of about 90 minerals, the three key minerals are coal, limestone and iron ore.
There are 560 Coal mines (19% of total number), 553 limestone mines (19% of total number)
and 316 iron ore mines (11 % of total number). They comprise about half of the total number of
reporting mines. The number of mines engaged in extraction was also significant in cases of
bauxite (189), manganese (141), dolomite (116) and Steatite (113). As seen in Exhibit 1.3, with
regard to production of these three key minerals, India ranks 3rd in coal production, 3rd in
limestone production and 4th in iron ore production, in the world as of 2010.
Exhibit 1.3: India’s Production Rank across Key Minerals – 2010
Source: Ministry of Mines, Government of India, US Geological Survey, Goldman Sachs & Morgan
Stanley Metals Playbook
Demand side potential
India has significant potential to further grow its mining industry. This potential is apparent from
both — the demand for minerals and the availability of natural resources in India.
Countries typically go through a mineral consumption curve where per capita
consumption of minerals accelerates during the industrialization period (developing phase)
15

16. and gradually stabilizes or declines later (developed phase). A relative comparison of India,
as shown in Exhibit 1.4, with various countries suggests that India is still at an early stage
on the mineral consumption curve. Even amongst the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and
China) nations, India is the least developed in terms of per capita mineral consumption. As
India’s per capita GDP increases, its mineral consumption will grow at a rapid pace in line
with the growth witnessed in other emerging markets like China and Brazil. Projections
based on the mineral consumption intensity show that demand for a variety of minerals will
increase at a much faster pace than the historical growth rates (as shown in Exhibit 1.5).
Exhibit 1.4: Intensity of Mineral Consumption Expected to Accelerate
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit, Goldman Sachs, JP Morgan, BP Statistical Review of World Energy
June 201 &, BCG Analysis
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17. Exhibit 1.5: Demand for Key Minerals in India Expected to Grow Significantly
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit, Goldman Sachs, JP Morgan, BP Statistical Review of World Energy
June 2011 & BCG Analysis
Further, to assess the domestic growth potential for mining sector in India, one can also
look at the future growth potential of its key consumer industries, for example, steel,
cement, etc. The Planning Commission, in its 12th five year plan, had set a target of 9% for
the GDP growth rate which subsequently has been revised to 8%. Nevertheless, this
implies a huge spurt in sectors like construction and power generation (as shown in Exhibit
1.6), which in turn will lead to substantial capacity addition in the steel, cement and thermal
power sectors. These industries, being key consumers of minerals like iron ore, limestone
and copper, will drive significant growth in consumption demand of minerals in India.
Exhibit 1.6: Growth in Key Mineral Consuming Industries Likely to Drive Demand for Minerals
Source: Morgan Stanley, Cement Manufacturers Association, Economist Intelligence Unit, Ministry of
Power and Planning Commission, Government of India
17

18. In addition to domestic demand growth, the Indian mining industry is also likely to see
accelerated growth in exports demand. The key minerals exported from India are iron ore
(although this has dipped significantly at present), alumina, and chromite. According to
industry forecasts, the global demand for these minerals is expected to accelerate in the
future. For example, as shown in Exhibit 1.7, the global demand for both seaborne iron ore
and aluminium is expected to grow at the rate of 10% per annum while the global demand
for ferrochrome, an alloy containing chromites, is expected to grow at the rate of 7% per
annum in the coming years.
Thus, there are substantial demand side drivers for the growth of India’s mining industry.
Exhibit 1.7: Global Demand of Key Export Minerals of India is Expected to Increase Significantly
Source: Morgan Stanley, 2011, HARBOR Intelligence, 2011 & Heinz Pariser, 2009
Supply side potential
In global rankings of mineral reserves, India occupies a dominant position for key minerals, for
example, coal and iron ore. India has the world’s 4th largest coal reserves, which is equivalent
to 12% of global reserves. India also possesses the 7th largest reserves of iron ore, 3rd largest
reserves of chromite and 5th largest reserves of manganese ore in the world. In other words, at
the current consumption rank, India has proven reserves for 175–200 years for coal, and 40–50
years for iron ore and limestone (as shown in Exhibit 1.8).
As far as imports are concerned, more than 85 % of the imports are accounted for by petroleum
and diamond. The former is essential to meet the energy requirements whereas the import of
raw diamond is for value added re-exports. India continues to be largely self sufficient in
minerals which constitute primary mineral raw material to industries like iron ore, ferro alloys,
aluminum, cement etc and mineral fuels like coal (except low ash coking coal) etc..
18

19. Exhibit 1.8: India’s Position in Reserves of Key Minerals - 2010
Source: Ministry of Mines, Government of India, US Geological Survey, Goldman
Sachs & Morgan Stanley Metals Playbook
In addition to the internationally recognized proven and probable ‘reserves’, India has significant
quantity of mineral ‘resources’ which are still under various stages of exploration. A quick look
across key minerals (as shown in Exhibit 1.9) highlights the fact that the unproven ‘resources’
are more than twice the proven reserves. With appropriate investments in infrastructure and
technology used in exploration, there is significant potential for further increase in the realizable
mineral wealth of India.
Exhibit 1.9: Significant Mineral Potential still Untapped in India
Source: Ministry of Mines, Government of India
19

20. Three Key Challenges to Growth Faced by Industry
Thus there is an enormous potential for growth of mining in India. This is driven by both the
positive demand scenario and substantial existing ‘reserves’ and potential ‘resources’.
However, historically, mining sector has struggled to exploit this potential due to three key
reasons:
a. Regulatory challenges
There are a set of regulatory and administrative challenges in India which restrict the
growth of mining in India. To illustrate:
The current regulatory provisions make it difficult, if not impossible, to transfer mining
leases. The prospecting licenses are not transferable.
There is no guarantee of obtaining mining lease even if a successful exploration is done
by a company. The mining licenses are typically awarded on a first come first serve basis in
principle but there is no transparent system.
Getting all approvals for mining is a long drawn process with multiple agencies involved.
Further, there are substantial delays in disposal of various applications for clearances.
There are limited incentives for private sector to invest in improvement of technology
and equipment in mining projects as the mining industry is the most heavily taxed industry
in India.
Exhibit 1.10: India’s Share in Global Exploration Budget in 2010 was less than 0.5%
Source: Mining India: Sustainability for Growth; Ernst & Young
These challenges have limited the overall investment in mining and exploration activities in
India. This is demonstrated by the fact that despite being one of the few sectors in India which
allows 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) (with the exception of atomic and fuel minerals),
the actual inflow of foreign investment in the mining sector in India has been quite low. Further,
20

21. as shown in Exhibit 1.10, India’s spend on mineral exploration is less than 0.5% of the global
spending on exploration in 2010 — much below its fair share given the size of our landmass
and our potential mineral wealth. Even this exploration activity has largely been limited to public
sector enterprises.
b.
Inadequate infrastructure facilities
The inadequacy of infrastructure is related to the absence of proper transportation and logistics
facilities. Many of our mining areas are in remote locations and cannot be properly developed
unless the supporting infrastructure is set up. For example, the railway connectivity in most key
mining states is poor and it has inadequate capacity for volumes to be transported which adds
to the overall supply chain cost. The government foresees that steel production capacity in the
country by the year 2025 will increase to 300 million tonnes per annum. This would require
Indian Railways freight capacity to be around 1185 million tonnes, for only steel and its raw
material requirements. In 2012-13 the total freight carried by Indian railways was 1,010 million
tonnes. Therefore, unless significant initiatives are taken and are promoted by Indian Railways
through private participation to address the anticipated logistics requirement of the mining and
manufacturing industries, the risk foreseen is too significant in magnitude to hamper the growth
of industry.
Further, there is inadequate capacity at ports for handling minerals and the rail / road
connectivity to some ports is very poor. The key constraints are:
• There is capacity constraint for capital dredging,
• Existing ports are unable to meet the expected 10% growth in traffic at ports,
• High dwell time of cargo in Indian ports due to manual workflow and low level of IT
penetration
• Lack of public investment in capacity building
• Slow evacuation of cargo from ports due to limited hinterland connectivity by rail/road.
c.
Sustainability
Mining activity in any area impacts the environment as well as the socio-economic set-up.
Therefore, ensuring that the adverse impacts are minimized and the benefits from mining to the
impacted community are optimized becomes critical for mining to be being carried out in a
sustainable manner.
The importance of sustainability in mining, in India, can be illustrated by the fact that a large
percentage of mining proposals has failed to get environmental / forest clearance from the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. For example, out of 2,842 mining
projects proposed for forest clearances in the last 17 years, only 1,723 projects, which
constitute about 60% of the total, have been issued forest clearance by the central government.
The remaining 40% projects are either still pending or have been rejected / closed on grounds
21

22. of sustainability. Further, obtaining the clearance is a very long drawn process, which is
illustrated by the fact that out of the total pending projects in 2012, 63% have been pending for
more than two years. This is given in Exhibit 1.11.
Exhibit 1.11: Only 60% Mining Projects Proposed in Last 17 Years got Forest Clearances
Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India
In addition to the environment and forest clearances, mining projects also have to comply with
several requirements aimed at enhancing the welfare of the local community. Obtaining these
approvals and clearances is a tedious process as it involves multiple agencies and local
22

23. governing bodies. Over and above these regulations, the mining companies also need to take
the local communities along, to ensure that they have the support of the ‘local’ side for their
projects. As a result, several projects are impacted with challenges by way of opposition from
local communities / NGOs, difficulties in land acquisition, denial of clearances from the
governing bodies, etc. A few instances of some of the major projects that have been impacted
in recent past are as follows:
Pohang Steel Company (POSCO’s) US$ 11 billion investment plan for mining
and steel production: strong opposition from local people over land acquisition.
Vedanta’s proposed US$ 1.7 billion bauxite mining project in Odisha: opposition
by local community and eventual withdrawal of the forest clearance
Utkal alumina project, which was a US$ 1 billion joint venture between M/s.
Hindalco (India) and Alcan (Canada) to mine and refine bauxite: delayed by more than a
decade due to challenges in land acquisition
Uranium Corporation of India Ltd., UCIL’s two mining projects worth US$ 200
million and US$ 225 million in Meghalaya and Andhra Pradesh respectively: opposition
from local communities and organizations on the grounds of likely effects of radiations
on human health and environment
Unresolved Policy Issues
Notwithstanding the proposed MMDR Bill 2011, there are certain major policy issues which
deserve serious consideration:
1.
So far as mining activity is concerned, India is a single economic space and as such,
more delegation of powers to the state governments may jeopardize the interests of
mineral development.
2.
While the National Mineral Policy 2008 remains yet to be implemented, the mineral
policies of the state governments are at variance with the same. In fact, the procedures in
the grant of mineral concessions also vary from state to state. It would therefore be
necessary that the state governments may be restricted to formulate their mineral policies
only to minor minerals.
3.
To curb the menace of illegal mining and to ensure scientific mining, it would be
necessary to strengthen and re-structure the Departments of Mines & Geology of the
state governments on a uniform pattern.
23

24. 4.
As mineral exploration is key to attracting investment in the mining sector, separate
legislation and procedure for grant of prospecting / exploration licenses is required. At
present, the same procedure is being adopted as that of a mining lease in grant of
prospecting licenses whereas mineral investigation does not involve acquisition of land, it
being a temporary activity for a short period.
5.
There is incorrect definition of prospecting activity in Forest (Conservation) Act 1980. The
provisions of guidelines 1.3 (v) of the handbook exempts certain activities like oil drilling,
transmission of power lines etc from forest clearance but in case of prospecting though
few drill holes are permitted (16 boreholes per 10 sq km) vide notification no 5-3/2007-FC
dated August 19th, 2010 of Ministry of Environment and Forests, but the collection of
surface samples through trenching / pitting are prohibited. In fact, the prospecting activity
has not been defined properly in the notification and entry to forest land remains a big
issue to the prospectors. As most of the mineral bearing lands overlap the forest lands in
the country, the provisions of Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 need to be amended in the
interest of detailed prospecting and exploration for mineral investigation, where no
degradation of forest is involved; rather, prospecting activity needs to be exempted from
forest clearance.
6.
There is a tendency on the part of the state governments to give preference to value
addition and reservation of potential areas to the state PSUs in grant of mineral
concessions. This has resulted in the reservation of large potential areas which have
remained blocked for a long period without any exploration and development. At the same
time, there is hardly any de-reservation of such potential areas.
7.
Geological Survey of India (GSI) has identified an area of 5.71 lakh square kilometres as
Obvious Geological Potential (OGP) area in the country. But there is hardly any detailed
mineral exploration activity in the absence of timely follow-up actions on GSI’s
recommendations.
8.
A transparent, simple and stable fiscal regime plays a significant role in the growth of the
industry for attracting investment. However, Indian mining sector is already amongst the
highest taxed in the world with effective tax of about 45% compared to other countries
which ranges between 35 to 40% (China-32%, Russia-35%, Australia- 39%, Chile 40%
and Canada- 35 %). The Draft MMDR Bill, 2011 proposes a number of additional taxes
and levies thereby taking the effective taxation to more than 60%. In addition to above
there is huge additional burden from revision of royalty rate and stamp duty.
Taxes/duties/cess etc. should not be prohibitive and should help the industry to survive,
sustain and grow. Further any new taxes/duties/cess should take into consideration
existing burden on the sector.
24

25. 9.
Development of dedicated freight corridors linking the iron ore mines to the ports and rail
heads to ensure evacuation from the pit heads without disrupting the public life needs to
be considered. Such corridors can either be in PPP model or a consortium of miners can
develop and operate the rail-line on a royalty/rent basis (examples of such PPP models
exist in Australia and Brazil).
10. Mandatory exploration for the operating mines and adequate incentives for green field
exploration need to be devised to enhance the resource base and convert them to
reserve category.
11. The strategic value of various minerals must be recognized and specific efforts need to be
made to conserve minerals essential for the country’s future. Minerals such as bauxite,
titanium, rare earths and several heavy metals (e.g. gallium germanium, platinum group of
metals, molybdenum, indium and cobalt etc) which will be crucial for future development
of materials need to be addressed for long-term needs of the country.
12. Looking to the complex mineralogy of Indian Hematite ores, IBM needs to go for
evaluation of cut-off in a deposit-wise manner in line with such practice in several
countries. For each deposit, theoretical cut-off and operational cut-off grade may be
declared based only on detailed mineralogical-metallurgical test-work and can be unique
for a particular deposit.
13. There is a need for detailing of the national mineral inventory so as to allow the investor to
get adequate information for taking up investment decisions.
25

26. Bulk Minerals
The first category of minerals consists of minerals that are characterized by high volume of
extraction, transportation and consumption. This category is thus clubbed as bulk minerals and
the minerals falls in this category are iron ore, chromites, manganese ore, bauxite, granite /
marble etc. The extraction of these minerals involves shallow depth mining but with a
considerable quantity of over burden removal and waste generation. The input of resources into
production stream is also huge in some cases, for example inputs for 1,000 kg primary
aluminium production requires more than 5,000 kg of bauxite ore, 40,000 litres of water, and
more than 15,000 kWh of electricity consumption. Therefore mining of such minerals is not
limited to the mineral alone, but it is highly intensified in the use of other natural resources too.
The reclamation costs also vary from 2% to 4% of the production costs. The mining of bulk
minerals also disturbs the eco-system beyond their resilience. Hence, there is need for
developing a wide spread understanding for the strategic value of different minerals and with
this view, the updates of bulk minerals along with the issues and concerns are outlined below.
Mineral 1: IRON ORE
Being the most important raw material for the steel industry, iron ore commands significant
importance as a basic raw material used in the making of pig-iron, sponge iron, steel and alloy
steel. The other important iron ore consuming industries are cement, coal washeries and ferroalloy industries. India has an estimated iron ore resource of over 28 billion tonnes and currently
stands as the fourth largest miner of iron ore.
Reserves and Resources Position
Hematite and Magnetite are the two most important iron ores found in India. As of April 1, 2010,
Hematite resources amounted to 17,882 million tonnes (million tonnes). Of this, 8,093 million
tonnes (45%) were under the reserves category and the balance 9,299 million tonnes (55%)
under the resource category. The Magnetite reserves amounted to 10,644 million tonnes. The
reserves and resources of Hematite and Magnetite (state-wise) estimated as on April 1, 2010
are in the Exhibit 2.1 and Exhibit 2.2
Exhibit 2.1: Hematite & Magnetite Resources in India: 1980 to 2010 (Million tonnes)
Grade
Resources as
on 1.1.1980
Resources as
on 1.4.1990
Resources as
on 1.4.2000
Resources as
on 1.4.2005
Resources as
on 1.4.2010
Hematite
11,469
12,197
(+728)
11,426
(-771)
14,630
(+3,204)
17,882*
(+3,252)
Magnetite
6,095
10,590
(+4,495)
10,682
(+92)
10,619
(-63)
10,644
(+25)
Total
17,564
22,787
(+5,223)
22,108
(-679)
25,249
(+3,141)
28,526
(+3,277)
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
26

27. It may be seen that during 2005 and 2010, Hematite resources have increased by 3,252 million
tonnes (1,089 million tonnes reserves and 2,162 million tonnes resources). On the other hand,
Magnetite resources have largely remained static during this period. However most of the
Magnetite resources are confined to the Western Ghats region which is considered to be
ecologically fragile area.
Exhibit 2.2: State-Wise Reserves / Resources of Iron Ore (’000 tonnes) – Apr 2010
Reserves
Resources
Total
State
Hematite
Magnetite
Hematite
Magnetite
Hematite
Magnetite
152,217
-
229,261
1,463,541
381,478
1,463,561
Assam
-
-
12,600
15,380
12,600
15,380
Bihar
-
-
55
2,659
55
2,659
Chhattisgarh
900,110
-
2,391,714
-
3,291,824
-
Goa
469,844
50,112
457,328
164,057
927,172
214,169
Jharkhand
2,304,142
3,391
2,292,478
6,879
4,596,620
10,269
Karnataka
876,866
148,437
1,281,811
7,663,347
2,158,678
7,811,784
Madhya Pradesh
56,814
-
174,632
83,435
234,446
83,435
Maharashtra
13,414
621
269,795
-
283,209
621
Meghalaya
-
-
225
3,380
225
3,380
Nagaland
-
-
-
5,280
-
5,280
3,313,000
156
2,617,232
54
5,930,232
210
7,139
4,225
23,420
522,652
30,560
526,877
Uttar Pradesh
-
-
38,000
-
38,000
-
Tamil Nadu
-
-
-
481,876
-
481,876
8,093,546
206,941
9,788,551
10,412,540
17,882,098
10,644,481
Andhra Pradesh
Odisha
Rajasthan
Total
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
Production
The domestic production of iron ore has seen a major dip since 2010-11. From 208 million
tonnes, in 2010-11, it fell to 167 million tonnes in 2011-12, and according to the Planning
Commission, is expected to fall further in 2012-13, to about 120 million tonnes. In the current
fiscal year (2013-14) data for the first three months suggests that production will be restricted to
about 100-110 million tonnes.
Exhibit 2.3 provides the sector wise production of iron ore in the country. The massive fall in
production from 2010-11 to 2011-12 can easily be traced to the temporary discontinuance of
mining operations in Karnataka, Subsequently there has been a ban on mining in Goa and
27

28. some fall in production from iron ore mines in Odisha, which cumulatively will see production of
iron ore in India get halved in 2013-14 as compared to 2009-10, i.e., in 4 years.
The iron ore production scenario is dominated by private players, which accounted for about
70% of the total production and the remaining 30% was accounted for by the public sector
companies. According to the latest data from the Indian Bureau of Mines, in India, there were
769 mining leases of iron ore in 2009-10 but only 319 mines reported production of iron ore.
Though domestic iron ore production exceeded domestic demand till 2011-12, a very small
quantity of iron ore would be imported based on specific commercial consideration of individual
companies. However, the subsequent fall in production resulted in India importing about 3
million tonnes in 2012-13. This year preliminary estimates at our end suggest that imports may
cross 20 million tonnes.
Exhibit 2.3: Sector Wise Production of Iron Ore (million tonnes)
Sector
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
Andhra Pradesh
9.17
10.11
6.20
1.39
0.15
0.25
0.52
0.38
0.36
Goa
30.53
31.20
39.32
36.48
33.37
Jharkhand
10.20
11.83
13.06
13.38
10.75
Karnataka
39.04
37.15
34.22
29.97
6.71
Madhya Pradesh
2.26
0.41
1.08
1.29
1.10
Maharashtra
0.64
0.27
0.25
1.52
1.44
Odisha
54.72
56.97
64.74
62.93
56.15
Rajasthan
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.03
146.73
148.22
159.39
147.34
111.63
Chhattisgarh
30.84
29.75
26.00
31.22
30.10
Jharkhand
10.55
9.50
9.95
9.82
8.19
Karnataka
9.95
9.82
8.80
7.70
6.48
Maharashtra
0.02
0.02
0.004
0.005
0.03
Odisha
15.17
15.66
14.54
12.03
10.86
Total
66.52
64.75
59.23
60.78
55.66
Grand Total
213.25
212.96
218.64
208.11
167.29
Total
Public
2012-13
(estimated)
1.72
Chhattisgarh
Private
States
120.00
Source: Planning Commission
When iron ore is mined, it is extracted in the form of “fines”, “lumps” and “concentrates”.
Approximately, “fines” constitute 58% of the total produce, the rest primarily being “lumps” with
“concentrates” being a miniscule portion of the total produce. The share of iron ore “lumps” in
28

29. total production increased from 38% in 2005-06 to over 42% in 2009-10, while that of iron ore
“fines” increased from 53% to nearly 58% in the same period. This is shown in Exhibit 2.4.
Exhibit 2.4: India’s Iron Ore Production by Grade (million tonnes)
Products
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
Lumps
62.64
88.31
97.85
95.57
91.72
82.06
62.70
Fines
87.90
98.24
114.88
119.22
126.16
125.34
104.18
Concentrates
0.60
1.15
0.52
0.64
0.75
0.71
0.41
165.23
187.70
213.24
215.43
218.63
208.11
167.29
Total
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
The iron ore mining industry in India has been severely hit following the ban on iron ore mining
by the Karnataka Government in July 2010 as well as closure of all mines in Goa in 2012.
Though the ban led to the shortage of iron ore, the global prices didn’t rise, largely on account
of increased supplies from Australia and Brazil as well as global meltdown and resulting lower
demand of iron ore from steel plants in China.
Demand
The demand for iron ore is expected to be from the domestic steel industry, from the domestic
sponge iron industry, and from China, especially of ores with lower fe content. On the domestic
front, iron and steel industry accounts for over 58% of the total iron ore consumption whereas
sponge iron accounts for about 40%.
India presently has an estimated crude steel production capacity of 89 million tonnes per annum
(mpta) as against 57 million tonnes per annum in 2006-07. The Planning Commission estimates
the crude steel capacity and production in the country will increase to 146.6 million tonnes per
annum and 131.9 million tonnes per annum respectively, by 2016-17. According to the
projection by Ministry of Steel, domestic steel production is slated to reach 200 million tonnes
by 2020. However, the current global economic scenario may have a moderating effect on
domestic steel demand. Two of the major steel producers (Tata Steel and SAIL) have captive
raw iron ore mines but other Indian steel producers have varying degrees of self-sufficiency and
primarily depend upon domestic iron ore supply to meet their requirements.
With about 1.6 million tonnes of iron being required for producing 1 million tonne of steel, this
translates to a demand of about 200 million tonnes of iron ore by 2016-17 and about 250-280
million tonnes by 2020, from the domestic steel industry alone (the rest met from scrap).
The iron ore lumps accounted for about 54% of the total dispatches followed by fines at about
46% during 2010-11. Captive sources account for over 25% of the total iron ore consumption
while non-captive sources account for over 74%. The iron ore consumption in India will continue
29

30. to increase largely on account of planned expansion in steel production capacity by both public
and private sector companies.
Exhibit 2.5: Crude Steel Capacity & Production during 12th Five Year Plan (million tonnes)
160
140
120
100
80
107.4
96.7
95.8
2012-13
146.6
131.9
Capacity
86.2
2011-12
60
84.38
75.94
119.7
107.7
133.4
120.1
Production
40
20
0
2013-14
2014-15
2015-16
2016-17
Source: Planning Commission
As for exports, the significant fall in production in the last few years resulted in exports of iron
ore to fall dramatically. Following a global meltdown in demand and export ban in Karnataka
and Goa, exports of iron ore from India declined significantly from a peak of about 117.36
million tonnes in 2009-10 to about 60.6 million tonnes in 2011-12, and which is forecasted to
further decrease to about 15-20 million tonnes in the current year. Higher railway freight for iron
ore exports compared to domestic freight charges and a 30% export duty on iron ore has meant
that exports today are unviable beneath international prices of about 130 USD per tonne.
The current export policy provides for exporting iron ore of Fe content up to 64% and exports of
iron ore from India are primarily to China (about 90%), followed by Japan and Korea. The iron
ore lumps accounted for less than 10% of the total iron ore exports in 2009-10 & 2010-11 and
the exports are mainly in the form of iron ore fines. Overall, iron ore consumption in India has
increased at a CAGR of 15.1%. It stood at 55.52 million tonnes in 2005-06 and increased to
111.4 million tonnes in 2010-11 (as shown in Exhibit 2.6).
Exhibit 2.6: Domestic Usage of Iron Ore (million tonnes)
Year
Iron Ore Produced
Mine Head Stock
Iron Ore Consumed
2005-06
165.23
43.1
52.52
2006-07
187.70
52.2
66.90
2007-08
213.25
63.6
85.00
2008-09
212.96
74.6
87.40
2009-10
218.64
90.8
90.60
2010-11
208.11
117.1
111.40
2011-12
167.29
123.5
106.69
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
30

31. Likely Scenario
If one were to make a projection of iron ore availability based on the demand, supply and
resource position as it stands, then the current status of Iron ore reserves indicate adequate
availability for about 30-33 years assuming that 250-280 million tonnes of iron ore will be
required per annum beyond the year 2020 by the domestic steel industry.
However the picture is more complicated. 55% of the hematite resources remain yet to be
converted into proven reserves in freehold and leasehold areas. As per the “Iron and Steel
Vision 2020” published by IBM (August 2011) the resources are estimated at 60% Fe cut off
grade (as against the present threshold of 45% Fe grade) which in is not realistic.
Presently low grade ores are not suitable for direct use in steel making mainly because of high
alumina and silica ratio that limits the blast furnace productivity. The Indian iron ore has
therefore to be utilized as a blend of various grades of ores for the blast furnace to maintain the
quality requirement (+62% Fe and Al203+Sio2 = 5%). Taking into account alumina / silica ratio
to be not more than 5%, if adequate focus is given on technological up-gradation for utilizing
low grade ores, in order to ensure that the quality of ore amenable for steel making is available,
then the projection can get drastically altered as both the reserves and resources position will
further stand considerably enhanced while taking into account the estimates at a lower cut off
grade at 45% Fe.
Also, detailed exploration in all potential areas would be necessary for identifying new iron ore
deposits.
Issues/Concerns and Way Forward
1.
Since generation of fines is an integral part of the process of iron ore mining, it is
imperative that the fines are either consumed by the domestic steel industry (after
beneficiation and agglomeration) or sold in the export market. Otherwise huge stockpiles
of fines can be an environmental hazard, besides being a loss in monetary terms. Very
low grade of iron ore, if not beneficiated at present, should be encouraged to be exported.
2.
Beneficiation and Pelletisation technologies need to be incentivised and capacity
augmentation of pelletisation and sintering facilities to utilize low grade fines should
become a priority area. Mostly fines are used in sintering or pelletisation and this step will
enable use of the low grade ores. During last few decades of selective mining (lumps and
concentrates) a substantial chunk of sub-grade or marginal grade ores (-60 +45% Fe) is
lying unused in situ or staked in dumps. Together with the staked fines (-10 mm) and
slimes (in tailing ponds) where significant tonnages of valuable hematite are presently
locked up, value addition for its utilisation is the need of the hour.
31

32. 3.
There are constraints in rail–road–port infrastructure such as lack of power rail
connectivity to ports, inadequate rail capacity for domestic and export of iron ores, lower
haulage capacity of rail wagons etc. besides poor condition of roads and low capacity of
handling of iron ore at ports. The augmentation of rail infrastructure is therefore vital
particularly in eastern sector. Also the railway freight class for both domestic steel industry
and exports of iron-ore should be reduced to 120 class
4.
The present estimate of the reserve position does not give a complete picture, as 55% of
the hematite resources remain yet to be converted into reserves. Further, as per the “Iron
and Steel Vision 2020” published by IBM (August 2011) the resources are estimated at
60% Fe+ cut off grade which in is not realistic. The re-assessment of iron ore reserves /
resources at lower cut grades (45% Fe) is called for taking into consideration ore
characterization (Al2O3 +SiO2 <= 5%) so that the steel industry can use the ores. Such a
re-assessment will substantially increase the iron ore resources in the country.
5.
The demand of iron ore at present has kept aside the reserves of Banded Iron Formation
(BIF) in the inferior category resulting in huge piles of BIF as rejects. Utilization of these
inferior grade materials by adopting suitable beneficiation techniques may reduce the
burden on land and environment.
6.
While there is no dispute that in general iron ore prices are lower in the domestic market
than international prices but selling in international market at internationally prevailing
prices does not necessarily result is higher net realization for iron ore miners due to
various fiscal restrictions like high export duty of 30%, high rail logistic cost from minehead to port, etc. However, in the longer term, demand for iron ore from China can make
Indian iron ore exports an attractive preposition provided international prices is above a
threshold which presently is about 130 USD. At the same time, given the capacity addition
in the steel sector that has been happening and which has been planned, domestic
utilization for value addition should not be neglected for want of iron ore. According to the
projection by Ministry of Steel, domestic steel production is slated to reach 200 mt by
2020 and iron ore requirement will be about 250-280 million tonnes per annum (rest met
from scrap), resulting in a likely shortage of ore (+62% Fe) availability for the domestic
steel industry. In view of this, a balance and pragmatic view needs to be adopted so that
neither the steel making industry suffers nor are the iron ore miners completely restricted.
Mineral 2: BAUXITE
Bauxite is the only ore used for commercial production of aluminium using the Basic Bayer
process for alumina refining and Hall–Heroult process for aluminium smelting. After slow growth
for over a long period, there has been all round improvement in the growth of the aluminium
sector. The per capita consumption has now increased to 1.3 kg from 0.5 kg in the last decade.
It is expected that with the significant rise in demand, the consumption of aluminium would be
32

33. about 3.0 kg by 2017. Presently, there are four primary aluminium producers with five smelters;
while Nalco, Balco and Vedanta operate one smelter each, Hindalco has two smelters.
Reserve and Resource Position
Bauxite resources in the country, as on April 1, 2010, were 3,480 million tonnes, of which 593
million tonnes are reserves and remaining 2,887 million tonnes are resources. By grades 84%
of resources are of metallurgical grade. The resources of chemicals and refractory grade are
limited and accounts for 4% only.
By State, Odisha alone accounts for 52% of country’s resources of Bauxite followed by Andhra
Pradesh (18%), Gujarat (7%), Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra (5% each) and Madhya Pradesh
and Jharkhand (4% each). The major metallurgical grade Bauxite resources are concentrated in
the eastern coast bauxite deposits of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The chemical and refractory
grade bauxite is mostly located in Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Maharashtra.
There were 345 leases that were granted for bauxite mining as on April 1, 2010 covering an
area of 30,059.10 hectares. Out of the 345 mines, 200 were operational.
Production
India is the 5th largest producer of bauxite in the world, roughly accounting for 7.3% of the world
production. Although the aluminium sector has been witnessing a steady growth rate (total
production capacity of aluminium in India has increased from 1.08 million tonnes in 2006-07 to
1.71 million tonnes in 2010-11), production figures of bauxite, the principal raw material has not
grown commensurately. In fact production figures have been declining since 2007-08. Although
the trend was somewhat reversed in 2011-12, when 12.88 million tonnes of bauxite was
produced, representing an increase of 2% over the previous year’s production figure of 12.64
million tonnes, but the 2010-11 production figures was 11% less than that of the previous year.
The decline in bauxite resources available for mining and new mining areas not getting requisite
clearances can be blamed for the decline. Exhibit 2.7 depicts the year wise production trend.
Exhibit 2.7: Production of Bauxite 2001-02 to 2011-12 (Thousand Tonnes)
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
33

34. The share of 18 public sector mines was about 44% of the total production in 2011-12, of which
the contribution of Panchpatmali Bauxite mine of Nalco was 39% of the total production. Exhibit
2.8 gives the top 5 bauxite mines in India, which cumulatively accounted for nearly 50% of the
total production.
Exhibit 2.8: Five Principal Bauxite Mines in India
Name of Mine
Location of Mine
Mine Owner
Panchpatmali
District Koraput, Odisha
National Aluminium Co. Ltd., (NALCO)
Chachandi
District Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh Ram Avatar Agarawal.
Mainpat
District Sarguja, Chhattisgarh
Bharat Aluminum Co. Ltd. (BALCO)
Asota – Mevasa
District Jamnagar, Gujarat
Bombay Minerals Ltd.
Durgamanwadi
District Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Hindalco Industries Ltd.
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
About 10% of the total production of Bauxite was of the grade below 40% Al2O3, about 52% of
the total production was of grade 40-45% Al2O3, around 26% of the total production was of the
grade 45-50% Al2O3, around 3% of the total production was of grade 50-55% Al203 and 1% of
the total production was of grade 55-60% of Al2O3. While 4% of total production was of cement
grade, nominal production of 1% was reported to refractory, abrasive & chemical grades.
Exhibit 2.9: Production of Bauxite State Wise - 2008-09 to 2010-11
2008-09
States
2009-10
2010-11
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
India
15,460,202
4,703,221
14,124,093
4,887,897
12,640,785
4,737,480
Chhattisgarh
1,674,427
557,371
1,687,069
607,911
2,109,945
765,262
463,150
34,736
31,050
3,105
100,900
10,090
Gujarat
3,514,016
897,680
2,687,306
667,424
913,421
293,540
Jharkhand
1,585,356
552,684
1,670,577
673,016
1,827,805
619,458
Karnataka
127,830
24,418
123,316
32,748
65,517
14,162
Madhya Pradesh
1,037,724
376,581
1,056,847
365,097
585,791
122,283
Maharashtra
2,053,512
625,275
1,985,006
628,556
2,135,235
550,780
Odisha
4,734,421
1,591,786
4,879,580
1,909,188
4,856,275
2,353,153
269,766
42,690
3,342
852
45,896
8,752
Goa
Tamil Nadu
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
34

35. Although Gujarat ranked fifth in terms of quantity produced, the state had the maximum Mines
Head Stocks (95% of the total stock of about 10 million tonnes) at the end of the year 2010–11.
Demand
As mentioned earlier, the aluminium sector has been growing at a steady pace increasing the
demand for bauxite. The total production capacity of aluminium in India has increased from 1.08
million tonnes in 2006-07 to 1.71 million tonnes in 2010-11
However production of bauxite has not been commensurate and has been mostly declining
since 2007-08. As a result the exports of bauxite have decreased substantially to 0.12 million
tonnes in 2010-11 as compared to 2007-08 (for calcined & non-calcined ore). This represented
a decline to the tune of 58% in value and 75% in quantity. In order to meet the domestic
demand from the aluminium sector, imports have been increasing, mostly from China.
Likely Scenario
The Bauxite requirement by primary aluminium producers is likely to be around 24 million
tonnes by 2017. There has been addition to refining capacity in the last few years with an
additional refining capacity of 3.21 million tonnes of alumina being envisaged in the 12th plan
period. This would mean that imports will have to increase substantially or else aluminium
production n the country will go down. There are large numbers of small deposits of bauxite,
deposits with less than 50 million tonnes. These mines will assume more significance and may
even get a premium. With anticipated bauxite mining facilities by the end of 12th plan period
(2016–17), there may be a gap of 7 to 10 mt of bauxite production.
There are abundant bauxite reserves in the country. Of nearly 3 billion tonnes of metallurgical
grade resources, less than 600 million tonnes are under the operating mining leases. However
since they are located in heavily forested areas, inhabited by indigenous people; mining has
been unable to start in these regions. For example Vedanta group’s bauxite mining project in
Odisha to feed its Lanjigarh refinery has not been given clearance by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
Issues/concerns and Way Forward
1.
The quantity of bauxite has been depleting in various mines with respect to alumina and
silica contents and R&D efforts are needed in this regard.
2.
Many of the existing leases are also on the verge of expiry, while the reserves in the
existing mines are reported to be depleting, and new leases are not being granted.
Excepting for Nalco, the other two primary producers namely Hindalco and Balco are
35

36. facing acute shortage of bauxite for sustained running of their refineries. No timely action
has been considered for allocation of bauxite deposits to meet the Brownfield expansion
of the existing alumina refineries. This needs to be developed.
3.
In Gujarat and Chhattisgarh, where chemical and refractory grade bauxite are mined
along with inferior grade of metallurgical bauxite; proper utilization is called for, as there
are large number of small mines in Gujarat.
4.
A proper reassessment and detailed exploration is the need of hour in all potential areas
to convert 83% of bauxite resources into the proven reserves.
5.
As all bauxite areas in Chhattisgarh are reserved for PSUs for a long time and have not
been de-reserved so far, the same are blocked for want of exploration and development.
It is therefore necessary that all the reserved areas are de-reserved for grant of mineral
concessions to the existing aluminium plants and refineries.
Mineral 3: CHROMITE / CHROME ORE
Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron with chemical composition FeoCr2O3 or FeCr2O4 and
containing Cr:Fe ratio of about 1.8:1. Chromite is used mainly in metallurgical industry for
manufacture of ferro-alloys e.g. ferro-chrome, charge-chrome and silico-chrome which are used
as additives in making stainless steel and special alloy steel as well as mild steel. The demand
for ferro-alloys is associated with the production of alloy steel and as such, chromite has got its
critical importance in the steel industry.
Reserves and Resources Position
The total resources of chromite in the country as on 1.4.2010 was estimated at 203 million
tonnes comprising 54 million tonnes reserves and the remaining 149 million tonnes being
categorized as resources. Thus 27% of the estimated potential is reserves and 73% is
resources. More than 93% of resources of chromite are located in Odisha, mostly in the
Sukinda Valley in Cuttack and Jeypore districts followed by small deposits scattered over
Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Grade wise charge chrome
grade accounts for 36% resources followed by ferro-chrome grade (19%), beneficiable grade
(17%) and refractory grade (5%). Nearly 2,500 sq km area is the potential geological domain, of
which 85 sq km area only is presently leased out.
Production
The production of chromite was at 4.26 mt during 2010-11 with an increase of 24% compared to
previous year due to improved demand but the production in 2011-12 was at 3.76 mt, a
36

37. decrease of 13% over 2010-11. The number of reporting mines was 21, of which 11 mines are
operated by 6 principal producers namely Tata Steel, Odisha Mineral Corporation, Balasore
Alloys, Indian Metals & Ferro Alloys Limited, Ferro-Alloys Corporation and IDCOL accounting
for around 92% of total production. The production during 2001-02 to 2011-12 is given in the
exhibit below
Exhibit 2.10: Production of Chromite 2001-02 to 2011-12 (Thousand Tonnes)
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
The share of public sector in total production is about 30% and that of private sector at 70%.
About 30% of the total production is reported from captive mines.
The grade wise analysis reveals that about 18% of total production was 52% Cr2O3 ore (lump
and fines), about 27% of total production was 40-52% Cr2O3, and 38% of total production was
below 40% Cr2O3.
The mine-head stocks of chromite are by-and-large was at around 1.3 million tonnes but lately
the stocks have been decreasing due to improved demand.
Demand
The entire demand for chromite (99%) is from the ferro-alloys / charge chrome industry.
Consumption of chromite in the ferro-alloys / charge chrome industry increased by 25%, from
2.16 million tonnes in 2009-10 to 2.71 million tonnes in 2010-11. Chromite is also consumed in
refractory industry in small quantities.
Chromites are in high demand abroad especially in China and Japan, the two steel making
hubs. Exports of chromite decreased to 0.17 million tonnes in 2010-11 from 0.69 million tonnes
in previous year. Out of the total exports, the bulk share of about 60% was of chromite
concentrate while chromite lumps and fines together accounted for 40%. The exports were
mainly to China (87%) and Japan (13%). India also imports chromite. Imports were at 86,000
tonnes in 2010-11 as against 96,000 tonnes in the previous year. The lumpy ore accounted for
93% while concentrate accounted for 7% only.
37

38. Likely Scenario
The apparent consumption by 2016-17 is estimated at 4.35 million tonnes while production is
estimated to reach 7 million tonnes by the end of 12th plan.
Chromite is a scarce mineral in India with 1% of the total reserves of the world whereas exports
are 30-35% of the world share.
Unless resources are converted into reserves, and with production slated to be substantially
above domestic demand, exports would increase and India would be facing a shortage of
chromites. Given the requirement of the stainless steel industry, the reserves are likely to last
for only 20 years. There is therefore a need to conserve this critical input for the growth of
domestic steel industry.
Issues/Concerns and Way Forward
1.
India has only 54 million tonnes of reserves and the ore is friable at 200-300 meter depth
which cannot be mined with the present technology. Therefore, there is a need to focus
on deep drilling for converting resources into the reserves particularly in Sukinda Valley of
Odisha. Development of underground mining technology for mining of friable and deep
seated chrome ore reserves is urgently required. Further, 73% of the resources remain
yet to be explored and developed to establish the additional reserves and this need to be
given priority by the government and the industry.
2.
The beneficiation of low grade ore (less than equal to 32% Cr2O3) is called for as against
38% Cr2O3 ores to augment the reserves.
3.
For mining one tonne of chrome ore, 15 tonnes of Over Burden (OB) is excavated in open
cast mines. Management of waste lumps in Sukinda Valley is therefore a major
environmental concern. These overburden lumps modify the land topography, affect the
drainage system and prevent natural succession of plant growth resulting in acute
problems of soil erosion and environmental pollution.
4.
The contamination of hexavalent chromium in the local water bodies is a major concern
and a source of environmental pollution in Odisha. The pumped out water from the mine
therefore needs to be doused with ferrous-sulphate solution before being discharged.
5.
The existing policy of reservation of chrome ore mining areas in favour of PSUs need to
be discontinued. Rather, such areas may be de-reserved and thrown open for allotment to
private sector to carry out exploration and development
38

39. Mineral 4: MANGANESE ORE
Manganese ore is anther indispensible raw material in steel making where it is used in the form
of ferro-manganese and also as a direct feed to the blast furnace. The important non
metallurgical uses are in manufacture of dry batteries and chemicals, paints etc. but 95% of
world production of manganese ore is used in metallurgy of iron and steel. Carbon steel is the
principal market accounting for 65-70% of manganese consumption.
The manganese ore mining in the country is carried out by open cast as well as underground
methods.
Reserve and Resources Position
The total resources of manganese ore in the country as on April 1, 2010 was 430 million
tonnes. Out of this, 142 million tonnes (33%) are categorized as reserves and the balance 288
million tonnes (67%) as resources.
As regards grade wise position of reserves, ferro-manganese grade accounts for 8% of the total
reserves, medium grade accounts for 11% of the reserves, Blast Furnace grade accounts for
34% of the reserves, and the remaining 47% of the reserves are mixed and low grade including
battery / chemical grade.
State wise, Odisha has the maximum reserves with 44% share followed by Karnataka with 22%
of the reserves, Madhya Pradesh has 13% of the reserves, Maharashtra has 8% of the
reserves, Andhra Pradesh has 4% of the reserves and Jharkhand & Goa each have 3% of the
reserves. The remaining 3% is scattered in Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal.
There are 142 mines, of which 113 are small mines with capacity less than 20,000 tonnes per
annum. Of these 142 mines, 8 are underground mines (3 in Madhya Pradesh and 5 in
Maharashtra). Seven underground mines are operated by MOIL and one by J K Minerals (a
private company). All underground mines are mechanized or semoi-mechanized and adopt cut
and fill method of stoping.
Production
Although the production of manganese ore during 2010–11 increased by 16% over 2009-10
production figures, to reach 2.88 million tonnes owing to increased demand but subsequently
production decreased to 2.35 million tonnes in 2011-12, a decrease of 23%.
Five principal produces operating 26 mines contributed 69% of the production, namely
Manganese Ore India Limited (MOIL), Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO), Odisha
39

40. Mines & Minerals (OMM), Sander Manganese & Iron Ores Ltd and Gujarat Mineral
Development Corporation (GMDC); MOIL’s contribution was 46% of the total production.
ration
Nearly 85% of the production was by 29 big mines with capacity above 20,000 tonnes per
annum and the rest 15% was produced by 113 small mines with capacity less than 20,000
tonnes per annum. The contribution of captive mines was 11% of total production whereas 20
.
public sector mines accounted for 45% of the total production.
As regards grade wise composition, 66% production was of low grade (below 35% Mn), 22% of
medium grade (35–46% Mn) and 10% of high grade (46% Mn & above). The average metal
)
content of the manganese ore produced was about 34% Mn. The production of manganese
dioxide ore was only 2%. The status of production of manganese ore during 2001
2001–02 to 201011and contribution of different states is given in the exhibits below.
Exhibit 2.11: Production of Manganese Ore 2001
:
2001-02 to 2011-12 (Thousand Tonnes)
12
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 200904
-10 2010-11 2011-12
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
Exhibit 2.12: Quantity of Manganese Ore in Different States, 2010 11
:
2010-11
Quantity
Maharashtra, 22%
Odisha, 23%
Others, 6%
Madhya Pradesh, 25%
Andhra Pradesh, 10%
Karnataka, 14%
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
40

41. The mine–head stocks were reported to be around 0.8 million tonnes at the end of 2010-11.
Madhya Pradesh and Odisha each accounted for 25% of the total production.
Demand
The reported consumption of manganese ore in all industries was 3.48 million tonnes in 201011 as against 2.92 million tonnes in 2009-10. Silico-manganese (64%) and ferro-alloys (31%)
industries together accounted for about 95% of the consumption followed by iron and steel (4%)
and remaining 1% by battery, chemicals, glass etc. The Indian manganese ores are preferred
by many, as they are generally hard, lumpy and amenable to easy reduction.
Likely Scenario
The apparent consumption was estimated at around 3.5 million tonnes in 2011-12 and will
reach 4.5 - 5.0 million tonnes by 2016-17.
However production and consumption figures show that for consecutive years, production has
been less than demand. For example, in 2009-10 and in 2010-11 production were at 2.48
million tonnes and 2.88 million tonnes respectively. As against this, demand or consumption
was 2.92 million tonnes in 2009-10 and 3.48 million tonnes in 2010-11. This shortfall is
increasingly met by imports, primarily from South Africa and Australia, which have increased
from 3,000 tonnes in 2005-06 to 0.8 million tonnes in 2009-10 and further.
The proven mineable reserves will last for 20 years at the present rate of extraction of 3 million
tonnes per annum.
Though the manganese consumption has drastically reduced from 45 kg per tonne of steel to
30 kg per tonne of steel, its vital role in steel making is co-status, as there is no substitute for
manganese. The current market trend indicates more consumption of medium grade
manganese ore as compared to high grade ores.
Moreover, production from existing mines as well as opening up new mines is required in order
to bridge the demand-supply gap.
Issues/Concerns and Way Forward
1.
Presently, 67% of the total is categorized as resources, which needs suitable technoeconomic measures or additional exploration to convert into reserves if production were to
match demand. Pockets of scattered deposits are uncertain in nature and therefore many
times, mining strategy fails, if the deposits are not scientifically investigated.
41

42. 2.
There is a certain rise in the demand for manganese alloys. Higher power tariff in most of
the states has put additional burden on manganese alloy producers. The availability of
power at reasonable tariff needs to be ensured to manganese alloy producers.
3.
There is limited high grade low phosphorous manganese ore in India and the imports of
such ores are necessary. South Africa has 80% of the world reserves but accounts for
only 20% of world production. Acquisition of manganese ores in South Africa needs to be
planned.
4.
Improvement in quality and recovery of manganese ores by means of beneficiation and
sintering process is required. Import of low phosphorous high grade manganese ore could
be considered for blending, as the Indian ores by-and-large contain high phosphorous.
Mineral 5: LIMESTONE
Limestone occupies the top position among non-fuel solid mineral deposits as per volume of
annual extraction. The mining of about 250 million tonnes of limestone for the cement industry
is only next to coal. Limestone is the primary constituent for the manufacture of cement. Given
India’s rapid urbanization and the demand for housing as well as infrastructure, demand for
limestone is likely to increase further.
There are 23 principal producers (cement plants) contributing 78% of the total production
including 6% of production by public sector mines. There were in all 280 captive mines
contributing 90% of the production.
Reserve and Resources Position
The total resources of limestone of all categories and grades are estimated at 184,935 million
tonnes, of which 14,926 million tonnes (8%) only are under reserves category and remaining
170,009 million tonnes (92%) are under the resources category.
Karnataka is the leading state having 28% of the total resources followed by Andhra Pradesh
with 20% of the total resource. Rajasthan has 12% of the total resource, Gujarat has 11% of the
total resource, Meghalaya has 9% and Chhattisgarh has 5% of the total resource.
Grade-wise, cement grade has leading share of about 69% followed by SMS / BF grades (12%)
and chemical grade (3%). Remaining 16% are of unclassified grades.
In addition to the above, Gujarat has 5 million tonnes of chalk resources and 152 million tonnes
of marl deposits of all grades, of which 92% of resources may be categorized as proven
reserves.
42

43. Production
The production of limestone in 2011-12 was at around 257 million tonnes, an increase of 4%
over the 240 million tonnes produced in 2010-11, which was again a marginal improvement
over the previous year (see exhibit 2.13). This is more or less in line with the growing demand
of cement.
About 95% of the total production of limestone is of cement grade, 3% of iron & steel grade and
the rest 2% consists of chemical and other grades.
Exhibit 2.13: Production of Limestone 2001-02 to 2011-12 (Thousand Tonnes)
3,00,000
2,50,000
2,00,000
1,50,000
1,00,000
50,000
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
There were 659 reporting mines in 2011-12 as against 592 mines in 2010-11, of which 18
mines produced more than 3 million tonnes each per annum and contributed about 36% of the
total production. Another 15 mines, each in the production range of 2-3 million tonnes per
annum contributed 15% of total production. Further, another 44 mines, each in the production
rage of 1-2 million tonnes per annum contributed 26% of total production. The remaining 23%
production was reported by 476 mines.
Andhra Pradesh is the leading producing state accounting for 22% of the total production of
limestone followed by Rajasthan (18%), Madhya Pradesh (13%), Gujarat (9%), Tamil Nadu,
Chhattisgarh and Karnataka (8% each), Himachal Pradesh (5%), Maharashtra (4%) and the
remaining 5% contributed by Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Jammu and
Kashmir etc. The mine-head stocks of limestone are being maintained at 12 to 13 mt at the end
of the year.
Demand
As mentioned above, 95% of the total production of limestone is of cement grade. Moreover,
280 captive mines contribute 90% of the production. So production of limestone is essentially
for the manufacture of cement.
43

44. In terms of volume of cement production, India is second only to China. However the per capita
consumption of cement in India is significantly low in India compared to most major cement
producing countries.
In fact, the location of a green-field cement plant is dictated by the availability of requisite quality
and quantity of limestone. Growth of cement industry is bound to spur a proportionate demand
on limestone availability. The projected cement production by 2016-17 is slated to touch 393
million tonnes per annum.
The exports of limestone ranged from 1 to 2.4 mt to neighbouring countries during the last three
years, whereas imports were from 4 to 5 mt, mainly of calcium carbide, chalk and bleaching
powder etc.
The limestone containing 45% (minimum) CaO and above is usually preferred in the
manufacture of cement, whereas Magnesia, Sulphur and Phosphorous are regarded as
deleterious elements. The broad chemical specifications of cement grade limestone are given in
exhibit 2.14.
Exhibit 2.14: Broad Chemical Specifications of Cement Grade Limestone
Oxide Component / Other
Constituents
Acceptable Range for
Manufacture of Ordinary
Portland Cement (33, 43 & 53
Grade) - %
Limiting Values Taking into
Consideration Other Types
of Cements, Scope of
Beneficiation & Blending - %
CaO
44-52
40 (min)
MgO
3.5 (max)
5.0 (max)
SiO2
To satisfy LSF, silica
-
Al2O3
Modules & Alumina
-
Fe2O3
Modules
-
TiO2
<0.5
<1.0
Mn2O3
<0.5
<1.0
R2O (Na2O + K2O)
<0.6
<1.0
Total S as SO3
<0.6
<0.8
P2O5
<0.6
<1.0
CI
<0.015
<0.05
Free Silica
<8.0
<10.0
Source: Report on Norm for Limestone Deposits for Cement Manufacture by National Council for
Cement and Building Materials, New Delhi, May 2001
44

45. Likely Scenario
Although India seems to have enough limestone to cater to its cement production, there are
some areas of concern.
While considering GDP growth rate of 8% in the 12th plan, the projected cement consumption is
required to grow at 10% per annum. This would mean an annual production requirement of
about 600 million tonnes per annum production of limestone would be required by 2016-17 or
roughly double of the present capacity of about 300 million tonnes per annum.
The gross resources of cement grade limestone are not fully utilized for cement making due to
various constraints such as inaccessibility of some deposits in hilly terrains, environmental
regulations e.g. Coastal Regulation Zone and technological constraints. This reduces the
availability of cement grade limestone for cement manufacturing.
Availability of limestone reserves for future requirements may prove to be an area of concern
while considering that 30% of reserves fall under forest and other regulated areas not available
for cement manufacture. About 22.5% of the limestone bearing areas falls under forested areas
totalling a reserve position of 28,022 million tonnes. Similarly 7.5% of the limestone bearing
areas falls under Coastal Regulation Zone, totalling a reserve position of 9,340 million tonnes.
In view of above, limestone availability for sustainable development of cement industry is not
assured beyond 50 years.
Issues/Concerns and Way Forward
1.
As only 8% of the total resources are classified as reserves, efforts are needed to convert
resources into the reserve category by means of detailed exploration by the government
agencies as well as by the industry. There is a need to increase proven reserves through
development of deposits in inaccessible areas (as Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic Plain,
Desert Area and NER), through relaxation of norms and undertaking exploration, etc.
2.
In the existing mining areas, the depth continuity of limestone beyond 50 meters needs to
be explored for further development.
3.
Incentives on utilization of mineral beneficiation techniques with better recovery from low
grade limestone and mine rejects may be considered by incentives such as reduction in
royalty rates on such material.
4.
Development of rail-road infrastructural network may be taken up on priority to utilize the
available resources especially in hilly and inaccessible areas.
45

46. Base Metal Ores and Associated Strategic Minerals / Metals
This chapter deals with those metals/minerals that can collectively be called “Base Metals”. This
group of metals are characterized by being “non-ferrous” in nature and are of high value.
Moreover most of these metals are not easy to extract (and therefore need state-of-the-art
technology) and are usually extracted through underground mining.
The base metals mainly comprise of copper, lead and zinc etc along with associated metals and
may be classified as “Deficit Category”. Even though country is presently self-sufficient in
copper and zinc metal production, but in the long-run, availability of indigenous ores will be a
cause of concern because of limited ore reserves. In addition, there are strategic minerals /
metals which are largely imported. Hence, this group of metals assumes great importance from
the point of view of raw material security for industrial development.
Mineral 1: COPPER ORE
Copper ranks third in terms of tonnage consumption after iron and aluminium. Copper is a
strategic metal essential for development. It is acclaimed for its conductivity and anti-bacterial
quality as well as for production of important alloys such as brass and bronze. The electrical
industry is by far the largest consumer of copper in the country.
Till 1997, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) was the only integrated producer of primary refined
copper in the country. The scenario changed with setting up of the smelters by Hindalco
Industries (Birla Copper) and Sterlite Industries (India) Limited (SIL) solely based on imported
concentrates and this significantly enhanced the refined copper production capacity to one
million tonne per annum as against 47,500 tonnes per annum capacity in 1997. The low grade
quality of Indian copper ores and nature of ore bodies (narrow width) restrict large scale
production from underground mines and as such, the domestic demand of copper and its alloys
is met through domestic production, recycling of scrap and by imports. India is not self-sufficient
in the reserves of copper ore.
Reserve and Resources Position
The total resource of copper ore as on April 1, 2010 was estimated at 1.56 billion tonnes. Of
this, 394 million tonne (25%) only fall under reserve category (proven and probable) while the
balance 1,164 million tonne (75%) are remaining resources. The grade of copper ore reserves
varies largely between 1% Cu and 1.85% Cu whereas identified resources contain less than 1%
Cu grade. The largest resources confine in the state of Rajasthan (50%) followed by Madhya
Pradesh (24%) and Jharkhand (18%), along with small occurrences in other states.
46

47. Production
The production of copper ore in 2010-11 was 3.62 million tonnes, which was an increase of
11% over the previous year but production in 2011-12 declined by 3% to 3.48 million tonnes.
The metal content in the ore produced worked out to be 35,477 tonnes. The production of
copper concentrates was 136,856 tonnes by HCL alone, of which contribution of Malanjkhand
mines was 58% with average metal content of 26% Cu in the concentrates. The average copper
content in the ore produced from four mines varied between 0.94% Cu to 0.98% Cu. The
production of copper concentrates decreased by 5% in 2011-12 over the previous year. The
status of copper concentrates production during 2001-02 to 2010-11 is given the exhibit below.
Exhibit 3.1: Production of Copper Concentrates 2001-02 to 2011-12 (Thousand Tonnes)
200
150
100
50
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
Demand
Refined copper production in India is currently dominated by three major players, HCL,
Hindalco and SIL. While HCL produces copper metal from the ore produced at its captive
mines, Hindalco and SIL have shore-based smelters and are dependent entirely on imported
metal-in-concentrates.
Refined copper is traded globally in the form of copper cathodes and continuous cast (CC)
copper rods while other forms are very insignificant. India is a net exporter of refined copper,
though exports have reduced over the last few years, with the expansion of domestic demand
and range-bound production. Refined copper exports account for 36% of domestic production.
Nearly 50% of India’s copper and alloy exports are to China, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
Emirates.
Refined copper imports, on the other hand accounted for less than 4% of the domestic demand
for refined copper. Copper sales in India have increased at a CAGR of 8% during the last five
years, whereas refined copper consumption has witnessed a growth of 10% CAGR.
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48. Exhibit 3.2: Import and Export of Refined Copper in India (tonnes)
Year
Export
Import
2006-07
376,000
19,045
2007-08
337,000
23,781
2008-09
226,000
24,546
2009-10
252,000
21,497
2010-11
235,874
16,072
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
The per capita consumption of copper in India is around 0.5 kg as against 4.6 kg in China and
10kg in developed nations. The consumption is expected to grow by 8-9% in the coming years
driven by the government’s increased expenditure in the power and transport sectors. The total
refined copper consumption as reported in 2010-11 was 560,836 tonnes.
Likely Scenario
As Hindustan Copper Limited has planned more than tripling of its mine output through
expansion of Malanjkhand mines for 5 million tonnes production per annum, India’s
dependence on import of copper concentrates may come down to 90% in the 12th plan period
as against 95% at present. As regards to refined capacity, it may increase to nearly 1.5 million
tonnes by 2015-16 as given below:
Exhibit 3.3: Projected Capacity and Production of Refined Copper (tonnes)
Year
Capacity
Production
Concentrate
Requirement (MIC)
2011-12
949,500
735,500
758,000
2012-13
949,500
707,500
822,000
2013-14
949,500
847,500
874,000
2014-15
1,449,500
1,322,500
1,363,000
2015-16
1,449,500
1,347,500
1,389,000
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines
The copper industry in India faces a high level of deficit in copper ore mining capacity and
surplus in refining capacity. The domestic production of concentrates accounts for only 4% of
the total requirement. As a result, two major companies (Hindalco and SIL) rely on overseas
markets for almost their entire requirement of copper concentrates.
As demand and per capita consumption grows, India will face a challenge in importing copper
concentrates as in the long term restrictions in sourcing copper concentrates from abroad will
48

49. come to play. The increase in mining output by Hindustan Copper Limited will at best lower the
import requirements somewhat and temporarily.
Again for custom smelters, (such as Hindalco and SIL) the treatment and refining charges (TC /
RC) are an important source of income or alternatively, they are major cost heads for mining
companies. Consequently, their profitability is strongly dependent on the international variation
in TC / RC charges. While the TC / RC charges have declined at a CAGR of more than 20%
during last five years, this has resulted in a tight global copper concentrate market and in turn, a
significant adverse impact on the profit margins of custom smelters. On the other hand, copper
prices increased at a CAGR of 15% in the last 10 years, driven by high prices in the world, the
copper producing companies may witness impact of product substitution mainly by aluminium.
Issues/Concerns and Way Forward
1.
India is heavily dependent on imported copper concentrates and will continue to have
surplus refining capacity in the long-term. However, looking at the international long-term
scenario, there could be restrictions in sourcing copper concentrates from abroad and in
view of this, priority for indigenous development of known resources need to be given.
Moreover, India’s share in world copper mineral reserve base is only 0.7%. Therefore,
there is an urgent need to increase the resources within the country by increased
investment in detailed exploration. As of now, there is huge gap between domestic
demand and production of concentrates.
2.
Copper concentrates invariably contain precious metals like gold, silver and selenium.
Birla copper recovers these metals to some extent but refining of gold is not taken up. On
the other hand, SIL does not produce gold and silver but exports anode slime containing
these metals whereas HCL has discontinued their precious metal recovery plant in 200708 on economic consideration. The main issue that has affected gold recovery from
copper concentrates is of inverted duty structure with respect to gold and silver content.
Though the import duty on gold content in concentrate was removed in 2011, but an
excise duty of Rs 300 per 10 gram on finished gold is imposed. This duty cannot be
passed on to the buyers of gold, since there is no countervailing duty on finished gold.
Thus, the potential of copper industry to produce gold remains underutilized.
3.
There is also a strong case for acquiring copper mining properties abroad with the
purpose of importing the concentrates into India. A case in point is of Konkola copper
mines in Zambia acquired by Vedanta Resources but the concentrates are not allowed for
import into India. The government support for overseas mines acquisition will be
necessary for free import of copper concentrates into India from such acquisitions.
4.
It is necessary to reduce the customs duty on copper concentrates as well as the CST to
NIL so as to ensure viability of custom smelting model.
49