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BIOLOGY
STUDY MATERIAL
2014- 2015
CLASS XII
KendriyaVidyalayaSangathan
Regional office
Silchar
2
OUR SOURCE OF INSPIRATION
CHIEF PATRON
SRI AVINASH DIKSHIT, IDAS
COMMISSIONER
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
NEW DELHI
PATRONS
Mr. SOMIT SRIVASTAV
DEPUTY COMMISSIONER
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
SILCHAR REGION
Mr. R.SENTHIL KUMAR
ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
SILCHAR REGION
Mr. T.P.GOUR
ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
SILCHAR REGION
3
REWIEW COMMITTEE
CONVENOR
MR.P.I.T. RAJA
PRINCIPAL
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA
KAILASHAHAR
Email ID:trajasam@gmail.com
CONTRIBUTING TEAM
1. MR. CHETAN DEV, PGT (BIOLOGY)
K.V ONGC, AGARTALA
Email ID :chetan_dev2410@rediffmail.com
2. Mr. RAJESH VERMA, PGT (BIOLOGY)
K.V KAILASHAHAR
Email ID :savirajverma@gmail.com
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CONTENTS
Sl No Chapter Pages
1 Reproduction in Organism 3
2 Sexualreproduction in flowering plants 8
3 Human reproduction 14
4 Reproductive health 26
5 Principles of inheritance and variation 33
6 Molecularbasis of inheritance 42
7 Evolution 57
8 Human health and Disease 69
9 Strategies for enhancementin food production 81
10 Microbes in human welfare 87
11 Biotechnology:principles and processes 96
12 Biotechnologyand its application 114
13 Organisms and populations 120
14 Ecosystem 132
15 Biodiversity and conservation 140
16 Environmental issues 147
17 Syllabus ,marking scheme,QP blueprint, Question paper
2014 mains and compartmental,newly added topics for
march 2015 exam
17(1)-17(36)
18 Key terms to rememberchapter1-16 18(1)-18(11)
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CHAPTER -1 , REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM
Age : elephant,rose,dog,butterfly,crow,bananatree,cow,parrot,crocodile,horse,fruitfly,rice plant,tortoise,
banyan tree
Definition : life span, reproduction , asexual and sexual reproduction difference with example (binary fission,
bud,zoospore,conidia,gemmules), vegetative reproduction(runner,rhizome,sucker,tuber,offset,bulb),role of
node in reproduction,
Sexual reproduction: importance,juvenile phase/vegetativephase (normal andspecial flowering eg. Bamboo &
Strobilanthus kunthiana), oestrus & menstrual cycle, seasonal & continuous breeder with eg.
Events in sexual reproduction : Pre-fertilization : A. gametogenesis, iso & hetero gametes, homothallic,
monoecious, heterothallic or dioecious – pistillate &staminate, hermaphrodite with example i.e. Chara,
Marchantia, earthworm, cockroach, sweet potato), meiocyte cell.
B. gamete transfer (in algae, bryophyte & pteridophyta with water relation), pollination-self & cross.
C. Fertilization : syngamy (zygote), parthenogenesis with example, external and internal fertilization & their
importance,
Post-fertilizationEvents:A. Zygote : haplo-diplontic, diplontic. B Embryogenesis : cell differentiation, embryo,
zygote & foetus, oviparous & viviparous with example, Ovary & pericarp.
CHAPATER : 2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Flower : structure, their parts & importance, floral primordium, flower and their parts (sepal, petal, anther &
carpel)
Stamens : stamen (anther, connective, filament), monothecous & dithecous, microsporangia vs pollen sac,
structure of microsporangium:epidermis,endothecium(rolewithreason),middle layer,tapetam& sporogenous
tissue (pollendevelopsbymeioticdiv.,tetrad),pollen grain (exine & intine, their chemical composition & role),
pollen germination (vacuoles, asymmetric spindle, vegetative & generative cell with difference related to
nutrition,2& 3 celledstage stage).Allergy:symptoms,reasonswithexample.Pollentablet& their uses, viability
and conservation with example.
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Pistal : Megasporangium : monocarpellary & multicarpellary with example, apocarpus & syncarpusl, (Papavar,
Michelia), structure of megasporangium/ovule : funicle, hilum, integuments, micropyle, chalaza, nucellus,
embryo sac (haploid/diploid)
Megasporogenesis : MMC (meiosis/mitosis), female gametophyte (embryo sac) : number of chromosome of
nucellus,MMC,megaspore,female gametophyte,central cell,eggapparatus(synergid&eggcell),antipodal, PEC
in embryo sac -7 celled, 8 nucleate.
Pollination: Definition,types:autogamy,geitonogamy,allogamy,xenogamy.Types of flowers : chasmogamous
& cleistogamous. Agent of pollination : wind : (well exposed stamens, feathery stigma, number, eg. Corn cog-
style & stigma), water: vallisneria,Hydra,Zostera(marine) process, aquatic plant -water hyacinth and water lily
(insect), wind & water – nector, colour of petals. Insect : floral adaptation, Amorphophallus, Yucca & moth,
Outbreeding devices : self pollination result in inbreeding depression, why ?, reason- gametophytic &
sporophytic,pollen-pistel interaction&their3reason,pollengermination, Artificial hybridization :emasculation,
bagging and rebagging
Double Fertilization : PEN, syngamy-zygote, triple fusion, PEC, endosperm, embryo, embryo development :
globular embryo, suspensor, heart shape , radical, cotyledon, micropylar & chalaza end.
Post fertilizationevents :endosperm(triploid,foodnutrition,PEN;nucellar,cellular and helobial with example,
cotyledon, scutellum), Embryo : embryology, pro embryo -globular, heart shape and mature embryo of dicot
(plumule,cotyledon,hypocotyls,radicle,rootcap),monocotembryo(scutellum,coleoptiles,shootapex,epiblast,
radicle, root cap, coleorhizae & their position), epicotyl & hypocotyls, epigeal & hypogeal germination.
Seed: albuminous&nonalbuminouswithexample,perisperm, testa&tegman,seeddormancy,true &false fruit
with example, seed dormancy with their reason, parthenocarpic fruits, seed viability (Lupinus arcticus-Arctic
tundra, Phoenix dactylifera –deadsea),size of seed&their plant eg. Orobanche & Striga (parasitic), Banyan tree
seeds, Orchids with reason.
Apomixis: definition, eg. Asteraceae & grasses, embryo sac or diploid egg cell
Polyembryony:definition,nucellar cell, citrus, 3 reasons of polyembryony, different seed size different shape,
CHAPTER – 3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Gametogenesis (sperm&ovum),fertilization,zygote,embryo,blastocyst,implantation, gestation & parturition.
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Male reproductive system: scrotum with temperature, testicular lobules, seminiferous tubules (germ
cells/spermatogonia&sertoli cells) &theirfunction,interstitial cells/leydigcells&theirfunction. Male accessory
ducts : rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis & vas deferens, their sequence and functions, urethral meatus,
penis,glanspenis-foreskin, male accessory glands : seminal vesicles(fructose,seminal plasma+sperm=semen),
prostate (ca, citrate & acid phosphatase)& one paired bulbourethral glands(cowper’s glands)-mucus &
lubrication.
Female reproductive System:ovaries,oviduct,uterus,cervix,vagina,ovarianstroma-peripheral cortex and inner
medulla, infundibulum and fimbriae function, ampula-isthmus, womb-uterus, wall of uterus – perimetrium,
myometrium&endometrium. Female external genitalia:monopubis,labiamajora,labiaminora,hymen,clitoris.
(virginity, hair, fleshy fold, finger like). Mammary glands: fat, lobes (alveoli), mammary duct, lactiferous duct-
milk.
Gametogenesis : spermatogenesis :spermatogonia, primary & secondary spermatocytes- spermatid-
spermatozoa,(spermiogenesis & spermiation), Hormone : hypothalamic-GnRH-two gonadotropin hormone-LH
(leydig cell-androgens-spermatogenesis)& FSH (sertoli cells,spermiogenesis). Sperm Structure : head
(acrosome,lysosome), middle piece (mitochondria, energy), tail (movement). No.200-300 million-coitus (40%-
slow vigorous motility).
Oogenesis : oogonia, primary oocyte (foetal life, Prophase I temporary arrested-birth, childhood,puberty,first
polar body), secondary oocyte (second polar body),ovum . Primary oocyte (arrested) surrounded by granulose
cells –primary follicle, at puberty surrounded by several layers (granulose cells & theca)-secondary follicles-
antrum (fluid), unequal division, graffian follicles, ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle : menarche,menopause,duration,menstrual flow,lackof menstrual flow,primary-sec follicles,
ovarianhormone/ gonadotropinhormonesasLH& FSH,theirrole on 5,14,28th
day, corpusleutam, endometrium.
Fertilization & implantation : coitus, insemination, ampullary-isthmic junction, fertilization, zona pellucida,
corona radiate andperivitelline space,acrosome,zygote,child male or female ? cleavage, blastomere & morula.
Blastocyst-trophoblast & inner cell mass. Endometrium, implantation.
Pregnancy & Embryonic development: chorionicvilli/trophoblast-uterine tissue, placenta, function of placenta,
umbilical cord, hCG, hPL, estrogen, progestogens. Relaxin, pregnancy hormone, increase hormone, ecto-meso
and endoderm layer & their function, stem cells. Organ development as heart, limb & digits, limb & external
genital organ, foetus movement & hair on head, body covered by hair-eye lids separate-eye shed formed. 9th
month pregnancy.
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Parturition & Lactation : gestationperiod,neuroendocrine mechanism, foetal ejection reflex, trigger-oxytocin-
urinary contraction, lactation, colostrums, antibody name, breast feeding.
CHAPTER-4 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health- family planning-1951, First country, RCH, Awareness programme –audio-visual, print
media, sex education in school, amniocentesis-good or bad, saheli-CDRI, STD disease and health, reason of
population increase.
Polulation exploision and birth control : world population, MMR, IMR, role of RCH & Family planning slogan,
marriageable age,problemsdue topopulation, Contraceptive methods :Natural-periodicabstinence,withdrawl
or coitus interruptus, lactational amenorrhea,
Barrier methods-male-condom, female-daphragms, cervical caps & vaults, IUDs,-non medicated by experts as
Lippes loop, cooper releasing IUD as CuT, Cu7, multiloaded 375 and their role, IUDs-medicated hormone
releasing,role. Oral contraceptive-pills,theirrole, duration, saheli, progestogen-estogen combination, Surgical
methods : vasectomy, tubectomy (vas deferens, fallopian tube).Effect of these methods on female.
MTP : Govt. of India rule, year, trimester utility.
STD/VD/RTI : AIDS,trichomoniass,hepatitisB,chlamydiasis,genital warts,theirpathogensname andtype. AIDS-
spread & age group, protection, problems when not aware on time.
Infertility : ART, IVF, AIH, AID, ZIFT, IUT, GIFT, ICSI, AI. Full name with using condition.
CHAPTER-5 PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
Genetics, Mendelism : first dominant law, second law of segregation-universal accepted, third- independent
assortment,theirdiagrammaticpresentationincheckerboard,7contrastingcharacters (1-stem2-flower,2-pod,2-
seed).reason of success.
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Terms : Filial, contrasting characters, homozygous, heterozygous, allele, gene, genotype, phenotype,
monohybrid, dihybrid, test cross, back cross and their utility, punnett square,
Incomplete dominance : antirrhinum/snapdragon. 4 o clock plant/ Mirabilis, parent colour, progeny colour,
phenotype & genotype of F1 F2 generation and result explanation.
Co-dominance : multiple allele, incomplete dominance & co-dominance shows by blood groups, possible
genotype & blood group of offspring, single gene effect/pleiotrophy on seeds.
Inheritance of two genes : genotype & phenotype of F1 & F2 generation.
Chromosomal theory : importance, scientist name, how is support mendelism. T.H. Morgan-Drosophila work &
importance.
Linkage & recombination-procedure & their conditions with percentage.
Sex determination: Henking-X body, sex determination in human, Drosophila, insects, birds. Autosomes & sex
chromosomes in human, male heterogamety & female heterogamety with examples. Sex determination in
human.
Mutation : definition,deletion,insertion/duplication. Point mutation & shift mutation with suitable examples.
Genetic disorders : Pedigree Analysis : definition, symbols, determination of autosome/sex linked
dominant/recessive diseases with upto two generations.
Mendelian disorders : Haemophilia : types, symptoms, reasons, precautions. Sickle cell anaemia : : types,
symptoms,reasons,precautions,aminoacidspositions,mutations. Phenylketonuria:types, symptoms, reasons,
precautions.
Chromosomal disorders: aneupoloidy (trisomy, tetrasomy, monosomy, nullisomy), polyploidy-set of
chromosomes. Down’s syndrome: reasons, Langdon-1866. Symptoms. Klinefelter’s syndrome: reasons
symptoms, gynaecomastia. Turner Syndrome : reasons, symptoms.
CHAPTER: 6, MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
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DNA : DNA length of ssDNA, bacteriophage, E.coli, Human. Structure of DNA, backbone, Watson & Crick Model
(nucleotide,nucleoside,nitrogenousbase,antiparallel,chargaff rule,length,diameter, polarity, OH & phosphate
group).
Packingof DNA helix :DNA length,diameter,relationof DNA lengthandbase pair,lengthof E.coli &Human DNA.
Histone protein, octamer, chromatin, NHC protein, euchromatin-heterochromatin.
DNA is a geneticmaterial : TransformationPrinciple (Griffth, S-R strain, bacteria, biochemical characterization).
AlfredHershey& M. Chase (1952)-radioactive,phosphorus-sulphur,Process-infection,blending&centrifugation.
Differences in DNA & RNA, RNA-catalytic activity, unstable. RNA World: first genetic material why ?
DNA replication : semi-conservative DNA replication-Meselson-Stahl experiment, role of CsCl , Taylor et al –
Vicia faba.Size of DNA, duration of replication in E.coli & human, initiation site numbers, replication fork, DNA
polymerase I&III,continuous& discontinuousstrand,okazaki fragments,RNA primers,helicase,topoisomerase,
single stranded binding proteins, S phase. RNase, ligase.
Transcription : changingin base pairs,transcriptionunit(promoter,structural & termnation), template & coding
strand. RNA polymerase, initiation, termination, cistron-monocistronic & polycistronic with examples. Exon &
intron difference with example. Process of transcription in prokaryotes :loop formation, role of rRNA, mRNA &
tRNA, initiation, initiation factor, elongation & termination (sigma & rho factor). Process of transcription in
eukaryotes:functionsof RNApolymerase I,II&III.HnRNA,splicing,capping,tailng,presence of intronshows RNA
world.
Geneticcode : George Gamow, 20 amino acid, permutation combination-2,3,4-codons 64 how, homopolymers-
copolymers –Har Govind singh Khurana. Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase), diagram,
Features: triplet, initiation & termination, unambiguous & specific, degenerate, universal, punctuations,
universal, initiation & termination codon, mutation in genetic code – RAMHAS RED CAP – point & frame shift
mutation.
tRNA : sRNA, anticodon loop, amino acid acceptor end, initiator tRNA,
Translation: peptide bond, energy, charging of tRNA/ amino acylation of tRNA, UTR regions with examples.
Release factors.
Regulatin of gene expression: function of regulatory proteins- activator & repressor, lactose & enzyme, lac
operon model (z,y,a gene, I,p,o,gene, repressor-inducer),
Human genome Project: starts, goal, bioinformatics, costs, HGP-Wellcome trust (UK), contributors, non human
model example(plant,insect,nematode,cereal,bacterial,fungi).Methodology:ESTs, Sequence Annonation, YAC
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& BAC, Procedure. Features : bases, average bases, size-largest & smallest with example, gene for protein,
repeated sequence, SNP, no of genes –lowest & maximum, application in future.
DNA fingerprinting: repetitive & satellite DNA(AT/GC rich, small peak, polymorphism), sample, use of VNTR,
Procedure. Applications.
CHAPTER : 7, EVOLUTION
Evolution : earth & life origin, Big bang theory, spore theory, spontaneous theory, oparin & Haldane theory-
requiredsubstances& result, S.L. Millar experiment-procedure, requirement & result, diagram of experiment.
Evolutionof Life : H.M.S. Beagle, CharlesDarwin, AlfredWallace &theirtravelsfinding,meaningof fitness word,
bookname withyear.Evidencesof evolution-rock, Dinosaurs-sedimentary rock, age calculation through fossils,
Divergentevolutionvshomologousorgan, Convergentevolutionvs Analogous evolution by using two example
of each, Natural selection-moth history, pollution indicator with example.
Adaptive radiation : Darwin journey- Galapagos island eg. Darwin finches & Marsupials of Australia with their
specificfeatures.Biological evolution-Bacteria&Mammal evolution-differences,Natureselectthe fitness- How?,
Lamarck theory- use-disuse of organ eg. Giraffe, Thomas Malthus theory & selection with biological evolution.
Mechanism : Mendelian factor or gene, Hugo de Vries work on Mutation, minor or large variation, Mutation-
definition, meaning as random & directional, saltation.
Hardy-WeinbergPrinciple :frequencyof ales,stableorconstant,gene pool isbasisof geneticequilibrium, Name
of 5 factors of Hardy Weinberg principles (gene flow, genetic drift, genetic recombination, natural selection &
mutation) & their meaning. Founder effect, speciation.
Plant evolutionmeaningwithzoosterophyllum, arborescent,lycopods,sphignopsida, (hosrse tail),fern,Gnetales
withera.Animal evolution –thecodents,therapsids,dinosaurs,snakes,sauropsids with era. Period of single cell,
jaw less fish, invertebrates, coelacanth- ?, Ichthyosaurs & Tyrannosaurs.
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Origin & evolution of human : period, Dryopithecus, Ramapithacus, australopithecies, Homo habilis, Homo
erectus, Homo sapien, their brain size & other features. Period of pre historic cave art, evolution of horse.
CHAPTER : 8 BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
Human health& Disease : blackbile,William Harvey, Health affected by –genetic disorder, infection, life style,
Healthy & disease free meaning, infectious & non infectious disease.
Common disease inHuman : Type of pathogen, name, vector, symptoms, treatment, transmission mode & test
of typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, Ascariasis, filariasis, Amoebiasis, ringworm, Malaria, Dangue and
Chickengunia (dual host, life cycle, events as reproduction multiplication, spore, transmission mode & their
symptoms).
Immunity : definition, types- Innate immunity : 4 type barrier (physical, physiological, cellular & cytocine),
Acquired immunity-primary lymphocyte, antibody structure (light & heavy chain, disulphide bond, constant &
variable region), Ag-Ab meaning, 5 types of antibody, HMI & CMI- types, differences.
Active & Passive immunity : definition, differences with examples. Vaccinatin & immunization- definition,
differences, passive immunization, memory, rDNA technology.
Allergy : definition, allergens, involve antibodies, chemicals (antihistamine, adrenalin & steroid), symptoms.
Asthama
Auto immunity : pathogens, meanings, disease.
Immune system in body : lymphoid organ-primary & secondary, MALT.
AIDS : HIV & AIDS, retrovirus, transmission- 4 reason, diagrams (retrovius, RNA core, reverse transcription,
factoryof HIV,multiplication),symptoms,otherdisease infection, T lymphocytes & their role, Prevention-WHO,
NACO (3 problems).
Cancer : meaning, contact inhibition, tumor-benign & malignant, metastasis, carcinogens, oncogenic virus, c-
onc/protooncogenes,cancerdetection & diagnosis (x-ray, CT, MRI), treatment- inferteron, & other 2 methods.
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Drug & Alcohol Abuse : meaning.
Opoids : Heroin/diacetyl morphine, colour, taste, procedure, source name & useful part, effect on body.
Cannabinoids : source, symptoms, part of plant name, their combination (4 names), effect on body.
Cocaine : source, name, effect on body, symptoms of Atropa belladonna, Datura, Mental illness (depression &
insomnia drug), 4 name of LSD & effect. Tobacco : nicotine, source, effect on body, symptoms (5).
Adolescence & Drug / Alcohol abuse : Adolescence meaning, period (5 common symptoms). Addiction &
Dependence – symptoms, withdrawal syndrome with symptoms.
Effect of Drug : person health, HIV, AIDS, Hepatitis, cirrohsis, other symptoms, Prevention & Control : Avoid
under peer pressure, education & counseling, seeking help from parents & peers, Looking for danger sign,
seeking professional & medical help.
CHAPTER: 9 STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION
Animal Husbandry : meaning & farm management.
Animals: Dairy farm management(name of animals& need,6 requirement), Poultry farm management : name
of animals, 6 management activity, bird flu.
Animal Breeding : inbreeding : meaning, inbreeding depression, homozogosity, 6th
generation, how it can be
removed.
Outbreeding,definition&types, Outcrossing:definition & importance, Cross breeding : definition & Hisardale,
Interspecific hybridization : meaning and 2 example (plant & animal).
Controlling Breeding experiment : AI, MOET, meaning & their uses.
Bee Keeping : definition, uses (2), species, knowledge required for bee keeping (5).
Fisheries:meaning,freshwater&marine waterfish, differences between Pisciculture & apiculture, difference
between blue & green revolution.
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Plant Breeding : meaning, agronomic characters, Procedure : 5 steps with details (collection of variability/
germplasmconservation,evaluation & selection of parents, cross hybridization, selection & testing of superior
recombinants, testing, release & commercialization of new cultivars).
Agriculture & GDP : wheat- ICWMI, Mexico, Wheat varieties, sonalika & sona kalian, Rice : semi dward – IR-8,
IRRI, & Taichung Nature I- Taiwan- Jaya & Ratna.
Sugarcane : Saccharum barberi & S. officinarum , stem size, east and south India, millets- examples.
Plant breeding for disease resistance : crop-wheat, Brassica, cauliflower, cow pea & chili resistant varieties.
Mutation : meaning, gamma radiation, eg. Parbhami kranti.
Resistance against pest/insect : crop, varieties, insect-pest, Brassica, flat bean & okra.
Plant Breeding for food improve quality : hidden hunger, biofortification, Atlas 66, IARI- vitamin A, Protein eg.
SCP : meaning, utility, Spirulina, Methylophilus-methylotrophus.
Tissue culture: meaning,explants,totipotency,micropropagation, somaclones, meristem, pollen & endosperm
culture, somatic hybrids, somatic hybridization.
CHAPTER: 10 MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
Microbiology: meaning,bacteria,fungi,structure of bacteriophage & bacteria, Microbes in Household Products
: LAB, coagulation, milk protein, vitamin B & their rule. Dough-idli & dosa, baker’s yeast, Toddy-what ?, Swiss
cheese & Roquefortcheese-meaning.MicrobesinIndustrial Products:fermentors,Fermentedbeverages:yeast,
fermentation, distilled (whisky, rum & brandy) or without distilled (wine & beer)product.
Antibiotics : meaning, functions, history of penicillin-Alexander Fleming, Staphylococci & Penicillium notatum.
Other name of antibiotics for plaque, whoooping cough, diptheria, leprosy.
Chemicals,Enzymes& bioactive compounds : product & type of microbes – Aspergillus niger, Acetobacter aceti,
Clostridium butylicum, Lactobacillus. Use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lipase (stain of cloth), pectinase &
proteases(juice clerifyagent), clotbuster-use &microbe name, clclosporinA& statin-type, name of microbes &
importance.
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Microbes in Sewage industry : sewage, muncipal wase, STPs, treatment : Primary treatment : meaning,
sedimentation,filtration,Primarysludge&effluent. Secondarytreatment: aerationtank,microbial growth-flocs,
BOD-decrease, why ?, sediment is activated sludge-use, inoculum, anaerobic sludge digesters-produce gases
like co2, biogas, methane, hydrogen sulphide. MEF- Ganga action plan & Yamuna action plan.
Microbes in production of biogas : methane bacteria, methanogens eg.- Methanobacterium, rumen, cellulose
matter in food, digestion of cellulose in human ?, diagram of biogas plant, procedure & labeling, IARI, KVIC.
Microbesas Biocontrol Agents: meaning,pollutionbyinsecticide & pesticide, Predation- as a biological control,
importance, Ladybird& Dragonflies-aphids&mosquitoes. Bt, Trichoderma,Baculovirus, Nucleopolyhedrovirus-
show narrow spectrum insecticidal application, negative impact-nil, IPM.
Microbes as a biofertilizers : meaning, importance, organic farming, sources : bacteria, fungi & cyanobacteria –
their uses & example, Rhizobium, Azospirillum & Azotobacter- their features. Mycorrhiza meaning, Glomus,
Phosphorus,symbioticassociation- mycorrhiza&Rhizobiumwhy?, Autotropes-Anabaena, Nostoc & Oscillatoria,
Paddy field, use-replenish soil & reduce the use of chemical fertilizers.
CHAPTER: 11 BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLE & PROCESS
Biotechnology, Biotechnology & genetic engineering, Principle of Biotechnology : gene cloning, gene transfer,
recombinanttechnology,plasmid,originof replication,cloning,vector,restrictionenzyme.Stepsof GMorganism
(3).
Tools of recombinant DNA technology: 1. Restriction enzyme : history, nomenclature, exo & endo
nuclease, palindromic nucleotide sequence, sticky & blunt end, diagram representation of rDNA technology.
Separation and isolation of DNA fragments : gel electrophoresis (diagram labeling-4), EtBr, uses.
CloningVectors : plasmid,featuresas ori,selectable marker(transformation), cloning sites (recognition
sites, antibiotic resistance site & uses), insertional inactivation with example, structure of vector, Vectors for
cloning genes in plants & animals (Ti, Ri, tumor, cancerous, ligation, procedure).
Competent Host (Transformation with rDNA) : natural, artificial (micro injection, macro injection, gene
gun/ biolistics, & their uses).
Processof rDNA technology: A. Isolation of genetic material (cell wall – lysozyme, cellulose, chitinase,
chromosome-RNase,Protease,fine threadsuspension).B. Cutting of DNA at specific locations –R.E., agarose gel
electrophoresis, auto radiography (procedure with diagram). C. Amplification of desirable DNA : PCR
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(denaturation, annealing, primers, Taq polymerase, extension, amplified). D. Insertion of rDNA into host
cell/organism:antibioticresistantsite vsselectablemarker.E.Obtaining the foreigngene product: recombinant
protein.Bioreactor:definition,culture,cultivation,culturemedium, maintaining pH, steam sterilization, motor,
foak braker, flat bladed impeller, broth culture, bubbles formation, and their importance.
Downstream Processing: biosynthetic phase, meaning, separation & purification, quality control.
CHAPTER: 12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION
Green revolution,M.S.Swaminathan,N.Borlog,GMO,GM, Agronomicfeature of GMcrops, Bt- meaning, name,
gene, protein, cryIAc, cryIAb gene function, toxin crystal & impact on insects.
PestResistant Plants : nematode, Meloidegyneincognitia,RNA interference (use,silencingof mRNA,transposon,
sense & anti sense RNA, use).
Biotechnologyapplicationsin Medicine :Insulin/HUMULIN: proinsulin-insulin, diabetes, allergy, pancreas, two
polypeptide, C peptide, Eli Lilly, E.coli, disulphide bond. Gene therapy : meaning, ADA deficiency, symptoms,
bone marrow transplantation, use of retroviral vector, lymphocytes, permanent cure.
Molecular Diagnosis : use of PCR, ELISA, their basis, probe & their uses.
Transgenic Animals : definition, why these produced, Common reason of transgenic animals; A. Normal
physiology&developmentB.Studyof disease,C.Biologyproducts(10example,humanproteinname,PKU,cystic
fibrosis, first transgenic cow name & their importance, nutritional importance) D. Vaccine Safety E. Chemical
safety testing.
Ethical Issues: GEAE, US patent and trademark, rice, & mango varieties, basmati rice, neem, turmeric, brinjil, 3
issues.
Biopiracy : meaning, unauthorized exploitation, Indian Patent Bill, importance.
CHAPTER: 13 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
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Biological organization (macromolecules, cells, tissues, organ, individual organisms, population, communi ties,
ecosystem,Biome). Organism& itsenvironment: graphical representationof desert,granssland,tropical forest,
temperate forest, coniferous forest, arctic & alpine tundra – their annual temperature and precipitation (cm).
Major Biome inindia(4 name).Abioticfactors: Temperature : variationsfromequatortowardstopoles& plains
to mountain tops, temp range, 100o
C temp (2 eg.), relations of temperature with area and mango tree & snow
leopard. Eurythermal & stenothermal with eg.
Water : salinityinparts per thousand eg. Inland water, sea and hypersaline lagoons. Euryhaline animals. Light :
photoperiods, biological spectrum & UV spectrum and their utility, red,green & brown algae in water. Soil :
weathering,sedimentary,soil development, grain size, water holding capacity, pH, mineral composition of soil,
benthic animals.
Response to abiotic factors : homeostasis,fitnessof living,diagrammaticrepresentationof conformers(%,water
& temp changes, osmotic conc., animal in polar reasons), regulators (thermoregulation & osmoregulation,
maintaining homeostasis) and partial regulators, migrate and suspend with suitable example.
Adaptations : meaning, plants eg. CAM, stomata, leaves spines, stem, Mammals adaptations (Allen’s rule,
blubber, insulator), physiological adaptations eg. Altitude place as Rohtang pass, altitude sickness, symptoms,
problems,Hb.,metabolicreactions-100 C & zero how ? pressure upto 100 times in sea-problems & adaptations,
desert lizard adaptation.
Populationattributes : meaning,birthrate & deathrate,formula,calculations.Age pyramid –expanding, stable,
declining meaning and importance. Population density, measuring.
Population growth : Natality, Mortality, Immigration, Emigration, their meaning. Equation (BIDE), Growth
Models : Exponential growth – unlimited resources eg. Darwin-natural selection, Logistic growth : limited
resources,fittest-survive &reproduce. (graph with equation, also explain ert
, r, K, e). Life history of Variation : r
value, sps breed once in life eg, livings produce a large number of small sized offspring and vise versa.
Population interaction : meaning and types. Predation (+,-) : eg.tophic level, herbivores, prickly pear cactus in
Australia,Pisaster,camouflagedeg.Insect & frog, monarch butterfly-bird, phytophagous insect-plants, thorn in
acacia & cactus, Calotropis, commercial product. Competition : Darwin theory, close & unrelated species.
Intrinsic rate (r), Gause rule, eg. Abingdon tortoise, Competitive Release eg. Cannell’s elegant experiment on
Balanus.Gause competitiveexclusionPrinciple-meaningwitheg, resource partitioning eg. Mac Arthur-warblers.
Parasitism : meaningfree lodging&meal,host& parasite bothco evolve,eg,Taeniasolium (3 features), malaria
parasite (endoparasite), ectoparasite-life on human, ticks on dog, female Anapheles mosquito, Cuscuta,
copepods, Brood parasitism (meaning & eg.). Commensalism : meaning, eg. Orchid-mango, barnacles –whale,
18
cattle-egret,seaanemone-clownfish. Mutualism:meaning,eg.Lichen,mycorrhizae, Rhizobium,pollination, fig-
wasp, orchids Ophrys-bee-pseudocopulate.
CHAPTER: 14 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem : Terrestrial (forest, grassland, desert) & aquatic (pond, lake, wetland, river, estuary). Ecosystem
structure & function : stratification, components (productivity, decomposition, energy flow, nutrient cycle).
Productivity: primaryproductivity&sec.productivity, NPP& GPP,R.(170 billionton, 55 ocean). Decomposition
: meaning, detritus, detritivores, fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, human & mineralization.
Energy flow : PAR, %, Producers, consumers, herbivores vs primary consumers, sec consumers vs primary
carnivores,foodchain,Difference between GFC &DFC (3), Food Web in terrestrial eco system & pond, standing
crop, tropical level vs. food chain.
Ecological Pyramids : meaning, energy, biomass and number pyramid, exception, upright & invert pyramid.
PP,PC,SC & TC.
Ecological Succession : meaning, climax community, sere, bare tocks, lichen pioneer of life, Primary & sec.
succession meaning with difference. Succession of Plants : Hydrarch Succession & Xerarch succession, pioneer
species, procedure with diagrammatic representation.
Nutrient Cycling : meaning, standing state, Biogeochemical cycles, gaseous & sedimentary cycle. Carbon &
Phosphorus cycle, difference. Date related to Carbon eg. Fixed c by plants, 49%, 71% & 1%. Litter fall, detritus,
rock minerals.
Ecosystem service : meaning & example (10), 33 trillion dollar, GNP, Robert Constanza, ecosystem service
(50,10,5%- ?).
CHAPTER-15 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Speciesof ant-20000, 300000 beetles,28000 sps of fish& 20000 spsof orchids. Biodiversity:genetic(Rauwolfia,
rice & mango), Species : meaning, western ghat-amphibian, ecological diversity-different ecosystems.
19
Species in India & world : IUCN-2004-1.7 Billion (12 lac animal & 5 lac plants), Robert May- 7 million global
diversity, Invertebrate global biodiversity – (insect, mollusca, crustacean & others), Vertebrate (fishes, birds,
reptiles,amphibians&mammals), Plant(fungi,angiosperm, algae,mosses, ferns & lichen). India land area 2.4 %
but diversity-8.1 %, 12 megabiodiversity, India-45000 sps plants & twice animals. Acc. of May-22% discovered,
waiting-1 lac plant & 3 lac animal species.
Pattern of Biodiversity : 1. Latitudinal gradients : equator to poles, 23.5 N to 23.5S polar area, Colombia-1400
bird sps, Newyork-41 N 105 & Greenland 71 N only 56 sps of birds. India-1200 bird sps, Amazonian rain forest-
SouthAmerica- greatdiversityas4 lac plant,3000 fish,1300 birds.427 mammals& 427 amphibians,378reptiles,
1.25 lac invertebrates. Evolution of species by speciation, tropical environment-promote niche & constant
environment, solar energy.
2. Species Area Relationship : curve between sps richness & area, two equations, frugivorous birds, Z value,
steeper slopes.
Biodiversity importance to Ecosystem : experiment of Paul Ehrlich-rivet popper hypothesis.
Loss of biodiversity : IUCN-2004 : 784 sps extinct (338 vertebrate, 359 invertebrate, 87 plants)-last 500 yrs. eg.
dodo, quagga, thylacine & steller sea cow, tigers sps. Threat sps-15500 (12% birds, 23% mammals, 32%
amphibian & 31 gymnosperms).
Causesof biodiversityLosses : Evil Quartet isthe sobriquet.1. Habitat loss & fragmentation (14% earth surface-
6% rainforest, Amazan lung of planet-soyabean & beef cattle, migration due to fragmentation). 2.
Overexploitation:meaning,Stellersea cow, passenger pigeon, dodo etc., 3. Alien sps invasion : meaning, Nile
Perch,-Lake Victoria-200 cichlid fish, carrot grass, lantana, water hyacinth, Clarias gariepinus. 4. Co-extinction :
mutualism & obligatory relation.
Needofbiodiversityconservation: 1. Narrow utilization :foods, firewood,fibre,products,medicines, 25% from
25000 plants, bioprocessing. 2. Broadly utilization : 20% oxygen from Amazon forest, pollination, pollination,
bulbul songs, price tag, 3. Ethical use : spiritual, social, philosophical use.
Methods of biodiversity Conservation : Save entire forest to save the tiger.
In situ conservation : meaning, endemism, hot spot-25+9=34, 3 hot spot in India- Western Ghat & Sri Lanka,
Indo-Burma,Himalaya.Theycover-2%biodiversity,National parks(90), sanctuaries (448), 14 biosphere reserve.
Ramsar sites meaning and importance
Sacred Groves : meaning & example of Meghalaya, Rajasthan & Madhya Pradesh.
Ex-situconservation: meaning,zoological park,botanical garden & wild life safari, cryopreservation, seed bank
purpose, IVF. Earth Summit & World Summit & their history.
20
CHAPTER-16 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Pollution : meaning, pollutants. Environment Protection Act-1986. Air Pollution & Control : Structure & use of
scrubber& electrostaticprecipitator,corona. CPCB- particulate size &harmful tohuman.Reasonof air pollution,
disease. Catalyticconverter: meaning,use,reasonof expansive, unleaded petrol. Vehicular Air Pollution : Case
study of Delhi : history, PIL, CNG-2002, Euro II-features, use of road map, Bharat Stage II, Euro III-april 1, 2005.
Euro IV, Air (Prevention & control) Act-1981, Noise pollution- meaning, dB (30,60,70,80,150), symptoms.
Water Pollution& Control : WaterAct (1974), waterbodies,graphical relation of BOD & dissolved oxygen, BOD
of tap, partial digested & sewage water, Algal Bloom : meaning, loss of aquatic life eg. E. crassipes, or terror of
Bengal. Biomagnification: meaning&effectsonaquaticlife, Cultural/AcceleratedBiomagnification,case study
of Arcta, NE of California-Humboldt state university-town people, integrated waste water treatment-
sedimentation,filtration& chlorine treatment,heavymetalsremains- 60 hectare mashland area-seeded algae,
fungi & bacteria, their role, FOAM-meaning.
Solid Waste : muncipal waste, sanitary land fills, role of kabadiwalas, role of eco friendly packing. Case study :
Ahmad Khan: polybland-fine powder of plastic +bitumen, price 0.04 Rs/kg, hospital waste, e waste treatment-
elements. Agrochemicals& theireffects :procedure,fungicide,herbicide, eutrophication, case study of organic
farming : Ramesh Chandra Dagar- farmer of Sonipat, HKWC-5000 farmers.
Radioactive waste : meaning, hirosima-nagasaki, 3 Mile Island, Chernobyl, Japan-2011, Nuclear Dose & health,
treatment methods - ? , not suitable why ?
Green House Effect and Global Warming : meaning, gases (CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O), temperature -18 & +15o
C, El
Ninoeffect,Himalayancaps. Ozone depletioninstratosphere : UV rays, DU unit,ozone & CFC, CL ion as catalyst,
Ozone hole, snow blindness-meaning, Montreal Protocol-Canada (1987,1989).
Resource Degradation : soil erosion(topfertile soil), deforestation,waterlogging& soil salinity. Deforestation:
meaning,40%lost in tropics & 1% in temperate, Reforestation. Case Study : 1731, Jodhpur, Amrita Devi Bishnoi
Wildlife Protection Award, Chipko movement of Garhwal-Himalaya in 1974, JFM (1980) : meaning &
importance.
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Chapter – 1: - REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
 Life Span :Period from birth till natural death.Every organism live only for a certain period of time.
Reproduction –Producing young-ones of their kind, generation after generation. Two types :
 Asexual reproduction :single parent capable of producing offspring.Somatogenic reproduction
 Sexual reproduction :two parents are invovled in producing offspring.
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Single parent involved Two parents involved
Fusion & formation of gametes is absent Fusion & formation of gametes is present
Only mitotic divisions Involves both (mitosis and meiosis)
Progeny genetically identical (clones) Progeny with variations (Offsprings.)
Modes of Asexual Reproduction :
 Binary fission: parent body divides into two halves, genetically identical to parent. Eg.-Amoeba
Paramoecium.
 Multiple fission: parent body divides into many daughter organisms. Eg. Plasmodium.
 Budding: daughter organisms grow from small buds arising in parent body. eg. Hydra, Yeast.
 Gemmule in sponge.
 Conidia: non-motile, exogenous spores in chains eg. Fungi (Penicillium).
 Zoospores: microscopic, haploid, motile structures eg. Algae (Chlamydomonas).
 Sporulation : Under unfavorable conditions, When the products of multiple fission become
individually surrounded by resistant coats, the cyst walls before their release from the parent, the
processs is known as sporulation and the encysted products are termed spores. Eg- Amoeba
 Fragmentation : Filamentous organism divided into two or more individuals eg. Spirogyra, Spirulina.
 Regeneration: it is the process of renewal, restoration and growth. Eg. Hydra, Planarian flatworm, lizard
tail & human liver.
Vegetative Reproduction in plants
 Vegetative reproduction frequently used instead of asexual reproduction, units of vegetative
propagation called vegetative propagules. Eg.- runner (Grass, Oxalis), rhizome (ginger), sucker
(Mentha), tuber (Potato), offset (Eichhornia), bulb (Onion), Bulbil (Agave).
Sexual Reproduction : PHASES OF LIFE SPAN.
 Juvenile phase: The phase of growth before reproductive maturity. In plants- Vegetative Phase.
 Reproductive phase: Reproductive maturity.
 Senescent phase: Phase between reproductive maturity and death.
Special Flowering : Bamboo- once in life, generally after 50-100 years.
Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji) – flowers once in 12 years, (In Sep-Oct 2006,blue
stretched mass flowering attract tourists in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).
 The main events of sexual cycle are: Prefertilization, Fertilization & Post Fertilization.
A. Prefertilisation events:
a. Gametogenesis : The process of formation of male and female gametes by meiosis (cell-division).
 Homogamete (Isogamete): - gametes similar eg. Algae
 Heterogamete (anisogamete): - morphologically dissimilar gamete ,male gamete (antherozoid or
sperm), female gamete (egg or ovum) eg. Human.
 Sexuality in organisms : In plants Bisexual term is used for Homothallic and Monoecious plants
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 Monoecious : Reproductive organs at different positions in same plant eg. Chara, Maize.
 Hermophrodite : Reproductive organs at different positions in same animal eg. Earthworm.
 Unisexual term used for Heterothallic and Dioecious plants.
 Male and female reproductive-structure on different plants.
 Flowering plants:male flower (staminate flower) & female flower (pistillate flower) eg. papaya and
datepalm.
 Animals – Bisexual term is used for Hermaphrodite animals-eg. Earth-worm, Tape-worm, Leech,
 Unisexual animals have male & female sexes in separate individuals-e.g. insects, frogs, human beings
Cell division during gamete formation:
Haploid-parent (n) produces haploid gametes (n) by mitotic division, eg. Monera, fungi, algae and
bryophytes.
Diploid parent (2n) produces haploid gametes (n) by meiosis division (possess only one set of chromosomes)
and such specialized parent cell is called meiocyte or gamete mother cell (2n).
 Example-
Name of organism Meiocyte (2n) gamete (n)
Human 46 23
Housefly 12 6
Ophioglossum (fern) 1260 630
Potato 48 24
b) Gamete transfer:- to facilitate fusion.
 Male gametes - motile & female- non-motile, exception few fungi and in algae.
 Gamete transfer through water : algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes & amphibians.
 Higher plants, pollen-grains are transferred by pollination.
B. Fertilization : fusion of male and female gamete.
 Syngamy : Process of fusion of male and female gamete.
Two type of Fertilization: external and internal .
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION INTERNAL FERTILISATION
Fertilisation takes place outside the body Fertilisation takes place inside the body
External medium is required- water No external medium required
Large no. of gametes produced. Lesser no. of gametes produced.
Offsprings –less protected Offsprings- well protected.
Eg. Algae, fish, amphibians Gymnosperm, angiosperm, aves, mammals.
C. Post -fertilisation events- formation of zygote and embryo.
Zygote. Single celled , diploid, vital link between two generations. In fungi & algae, zygote develops a thick
walled that is resistant to dessication and damage.
 Haplontic life cycle- zygote (2n) divides by meiosis to form haploid (n) spores.
 Diplontic life-cycle- zygote (2n) divides mitotically, develops into embryo (2n).
Embryogenesis: development of embryo from zygote by cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
On based of Zygote development, animals are grouped into two types-
Oviparous Animals Viviparous Animals
They ley fertilized or unfertilized egg. They give birth to young ones.
Fertilized eggs have calcareous shell No calcareous shell
Development of embryo outside female body Development of embryo inside female body
Less chance of survival. More chance of survival.
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Eg. Reptiles and Birds Eg. Mammals
 Cell- division increases the number of cells in the developing embryo
Cell differentiation - groups of cells undergo certain modifications for the formation of different kinds of
tissues and organs.
 In flowering plants- zygote formed inside ovule.
 Changes occur in flowering plants:
Sepal, petals, stamens, Fall off
Zygote Embryo
Primary endosperm
nucleus
Endosperm (3 N)
Synergid, antipodal cells Disintegrate
Ovary Fruit
Ovule Seed
Ovary wall
Pericarp (epicarp + mesocarp +
endocarp)
Outer Integument testa
Inner Integument tegmen
 Parthenogenesis: Female gamete develops into new organism without fertilization . eg- Honey bee,
turkey, lizard, rotifers (Protozoans).
 Seedless fruits formed by parthenogenesis
 Clone: A group of individuals of the same species that are morphologically and genetically similar to
each other & their parents.
Chapter 1: REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
QUESTIONS
Q) What is meiocyte?
Ans) It is the gamete mother cells which undergoes meiosis.
Q) Why is date palm referred to as dioecious?
Ans) In date palm the male and female flowers are present in different plants.
Q) What is special in flowering in bamboo?
Ans) Bamboo flowers only once in their life time generally after 50-100 years .
Q) Define clone?
Ans) It is a group of individual of the same species that are morphologically and genetically similar.
Q) What is vegetative propagule?
Ans) The units of vegetative propargations that gives rise to a new plant is called vegetative propagule.
Examples: Runner and rhizome.
Q) Digramatically represents asexually reproduction in yeast?
Ans) See Figure 1.2 (page-5)
Q) Cucur bit are called monoecious. Justify?
Ans) They have male and female reproductive structures in different flowers.
Q) If chromosomes number in meiocyte in rat, elephant and rice is 42,56,24 what will be the chromosomes
number in theier gamet?
Ans) Rat 21, elephant 28,rice 12
3 marks
Q) Why higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite of its complexcity?
Ans) 1. It brings about variations.
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2. Variation helps in better adaptation in nature.
3. Variation is the basis of evolution.
Q) What is parthenogenesis. Give Example?
Ans) Development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg is called parthenogenesis. It is simpler easier
and rapid mode of replication. But there is no chance of any variation. So it does not play any role in
evolution. Eg.- Honey bee and some lizards
Q Mention the reason for difference in ploidy of zygote and primary endosperm nucleus in angiosperm
Ans Zygote is formed by fusion of haploid male gamete and haploid egg so it is diploid.
Whereas the PEN is formed by fusion of haploid male gamete with two haploid polar nuclei so it is triploid.
.
5 Marks.
Q) What are vegetative propagules. Name any four of them and give example?
Eg.- rhizome of ginger, leaf bud of bryophyllum, bulb of onion, offset of pistia.
HOTS.
Q)Amoeba is immortal. Explain?
Ans) Amobea has no natural death. It undergoes binary fission and forms two new daughter cells.
Q) Which is the first diploid single cell which begins life?
Ans) Zygote.
Q What is the fate of zygote in organism which show
1 Haplontic life cycle
2Diplontic life cycle
Ans In haplontic life cycle zygote undergoes meiosis during its generation
In diplontic life cycle zygote divides mitotically during embryogenesis
Q) What type gamete are formed in staminate and pistillate flowers?
Ans) Pollen grains and egg cell respectively.
Q) Name the organisms with respect to their sexuality?
i) Monoecious animal
ii) Dioecious animal
iii) Monoecious plant
iv) Dioecious plant
Ans :- i) Earthworm ii) Cockroach iii) Chara iv) Marchantia.
25
8-1 CHAPTER- 2 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
26
CHAPTER 2 – SEXUAL REPRODUCTION INFLOWERING
PLANTS
FLOWERS : modified shoot, Site of sexual Reproduction. Male and female reproductive organs are borne on
flowers.
PARTS OF A FLOWER: Four whorls-
 Calyx (sepals): green in colour, protects the bud.
 Corolla (petals): colourful, attracts insects for pollination.
 Androecium (Male reproductive organ),
 Gynoecium (Female reproductive organs)
Calyx & corolla : accessory whorl.
Androecium & gynoecium : Essential whorl.
Male Reproductive Organ
 Androecium consists of Stamens.
 Stamen consists of anther, filament & connective (when anther is bilobed)
 Anther : bilobed (two theca) has 4 microsporangia. Refer fig. 2.1 of NCERT (L.S. of a flower with
different parts)
MICROSPOROGENESIS: The process of formation of micro spores from pollen mother cell (2n) through
meiosis.
Microsporangium is 4 layered:
Epidermis : single outer layer
Endothecium : dehiscence of anther
Middle layer : 2-4 layered,crushes when
sporogenous tissue mature.
Tapetum : dense cytoplasm &
multinucleate, Nourishes the developing
pollen grain & formation of pollen wall,
Microspore mother cell
(2n)
Meiosis
Microspore (n)
Mitosis
Pollen grains (n)
Pollen grains : Male gametophyte, size-25-50 µm. Two layered :-
 Exine : Exine is made of sporopollenin.(Hardest natural substance).
 Intine : Intine is made of cellulose and pectin.
Pollen Maturation : Mature pollen grains have two cells –
large vegetative cell & small generative cell.
Generative cell forms two male gametes by mitotic division.
Pollen grains shed in 2-celled / 3celled stage
(See Fig 2.5 a and b page 23 NCERT)
Gynoecium / carpel (the female reproduuctive organ)
(Structure of anatropous ovule) / Megasporangium
 Apocarpus : free carpel
 Syncarpus : fused carpel
 Monocarpellary : single carpel
 Multicarpellary : Many carpel.
 Each Carpel consists of ovary, style & stigma.
 Ovules are attached to ovary by placenta.
 Funicle – stalk of ovule
 Hilum, a region where funicle is attached
 Integuments –cover embryo sac.
 Micropyle – a pore for entry of pollen tube.
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 Embryo Sac : Female gametophyte
 Nucellus : it covers embryo sac, seed up to maturation.
Megasporogenesis
 The formation of megaspore
from the megaspore mother cell
–MMC (2n) is called
megasporogenesis.
 In megaspore tetrad, 3
degenerate & one functional
megaspore develops into
female gametophyte (embryo
sac).
 Embryo sac (Polygonum type) -
8 nucleate & 7 celled.
 Synergid cell have special
cellular thickening at the
micropylar tip called filiform
apparatus,which play an imp.
role in guiding the pollen tube
into the synergid.
MEGASPOROGENESIS
POLLINATION– transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. Agents of pollination –air, water,
insect.bat,bird,man.
Transfer of
pollen to stigma
Self pollination
(Autogamy)
Auto gamy
(Same flower)
Cross pollination
(Hetrogamy)
Xenogamy (different flowers on
different plants of the same
species)
Geitenogamy
Different flowers
same plant
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Autogamy : Chasmogamous flower-exposed anther and stigma. eg- Viola, Commelina, Oxalis.
Cleistogamous flower : anther and stigma-closed . It assured seed set in the absence of pollinator. eg- Viola,
Oxalis.
Adaptation for pollination
Wind pollination Water pollination Insect pollination
Pollen grains – light, non-sticky,
colourless, well exposed stamens,
feathery stigma & numerous
flower.
Pollen grains protected by
mucilaginous covering, long stalk
& long coiled style.
Colorful & showy flower, high
fragrance, produce nectar, sticky
pollen grains & stigma.
Special type of Pollination : A. Amorphophillus (flower height-6 feet), provides safe place for lay eggs of
insects.
B . A moth deposits eggs in the locule of ovary of Yucca plant & inturn pollinates Yucca.
Out Breeding Devices : to promote cross pollination because self pollination results in inbreeding
depression.
 Heterostyly : Different size of style & stamens eg. Primula (Pin & Thrum flowers)
 Herkogamy : Anatomical barrier eg. Calotropis procera.
 Self Sterility : Pollens donot germinate on stigma of self flower eg. Malva
 Protoandry : anther mature before pistel eg. Hibiscus rosa sinensis.
 Protogyny : Pistel matures before anther eg. Aristolochia
Self Incompatibility : Pollen & stigma of same flower & same plant rejects to each other .
Pollen Pistel Interaction : Stigma have the ability to recognize the right type of pollen it rejects
the pollen grains of other species & also the incompatible pollens of the species.
Artificial Hybridization : it is a major approach to crop improvement programme. It is achieved by -
i) Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the flower bud of a bisexual flower before the anther dehisces
using a pair of forceps.
ii) Bagging - covering the emasculated flowers with a bag of suitable size to protect them from contamination
with unwanted pollen.
iii). Rebagging : Mature pollen grains collected from anther of the male plant & dusted on stigma, and the
flowers are rebagged and the fruits allowed to develop.
Double fertilization
Fertilization is the process of fusion of male & female gametes (n+n) to form a diploid (2n) zygote.
First fertilization : Fusion of male gamete with egg is called SYNGAMY & develops embryo (2N)
Second fertilization: Fusion of polar nuclei with 2nd
male gamete is called TRIPLE FUSION & develops
PEN (3N).
Since two types of fusions, syngamy & triple fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is termed
double fertilization.
C. Post fertilisation changes:
1. Endosperm : 3 type of endosperm development
i). Nuclear : PEN successive nuclear divisons to give rise free nuclei eg. Cocus , Areca catechu (betal nut).
ii). Cellular : Wall formation occurs after every division of PEN eg. Annona squamosa, Adoxa.
iii) . Helobial : both type of development is present (nuclear & cellular) eg. Monocots.
Embryo development :
29
1. Zygote divides by mitosis into suspensor & embryo cells
2. Suspensor cell forms a globular basal cell which remains
embedded in the endosperm & a multicellular suspensor bearing
the embryo
3.Globular embryo becomes heart-shaped & then mature embryo
with radicle, plumule & Cotyledons.
Scutellum : Monocot embryo
DICOT EMBRYO
MONOCOT EMBRYO -
GRASS
Difference between :
EPICOTYL HYPOCOTYL
 Area of embryo axis between the plumule &
cotyledonary node.
 In hypogeal germination epicotyls elongates &
seeds remains underground.
 Area of embryo axis between the radicle &
cotyledonary node.
 In epigeal germination, hypocotyls elongates
& push the seed out of soil.
COLEOPTILE COLEORHIZA
 Covering of plumule in monocots.
 Coleoptile breaks grain covering and
elongates.
 It turns in green.
 It protects plumule during emergence from
soi.
 Covering of radicle in monocots.
 It breaks grain covering but stop further
growth
 It remains inside soil.
 No such function.
PERISPERM PERICARP
 It is a part of seed.
 It is Remnant of nucellus.
 Dry
 No significant importance
Eg. Black pepper, beet
 It is a part of fruit.
 It is overy wall (epicarp, mesocarp &
endocarp).
 Dry / fleshy
 Protection, dispersal and nutrition of seed.
Eg. Mango
30
TRUE FRUITS FALSE FRUITS
True Fruit develops only from the ovary, e.g.
mango, tomato
 False Fruit develops from parts of the
flowerother than the ovary e.g. apple, peach
etc
Albuminous Seed Non albuminous seed
 Seed retains endosperm as it is not completely
used up during embryo development. Eg. Wheat,
maize, barley, sunflower, castor.
 Seeds do not retain endosperm as it is
completely utilized during embryo development.
Eg. Pea, grountnut.
Apomixis Parthenogenesis
 It is a asexual reproduction which mimics sexual
reproduction where seeds are formed without
fertilization from diploid egg cell and other cells
of nucellus.
 Development of haploid female gamete (egg
cell) into an adult without fertilization.
Significance of fruit formation :
 The fruits protect the seeds from unfavorable climatic conditions.
 Both fleshy and dry fruits help in the dispersal of seeds to distant places.
 source of many chemicals like sugars, protein, oil, organic acids, vitamins and minerals.
 provide nutrition to the developing seedlings.
Importance of Apomixis :
Since apomictic seed are produced asexually so they maintain their agronomic characters. So they are used in
hybrid seed industry, floriculture, horticulture.
Polyembryony- Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony. It is due to formation
of more than one egg in embryo sac, formation of more embryosac, synergid cell, integument and nucellus
cells may also develops into embryo. e.g.Orange, lemon, groundnut, mango, onion etc.
31
Chapter-3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Events of Human Reproduction
Gametogenesis :formation of gametes.
Insemination : Transfer of sperm in female genital tract.
Fertilization : fusion of sperm and ovum.
Implantation : attachment of blastocyst with uterine wall for further development.
Gestation : Embryonic development
Parturition : Delivery of the baby.
The Male reproductive system
Penis : a. Urination
b. Sexual intercourse
c. Corpus cavernosum- spongy tissue that fills with
blood to make penis erect
d. Glans- the head, end of penis
e. Foreskin
i. Covers glans,
ii. May be removed surgically in an operation
2. Scrotum
a. Located behind penis
b. Contains two testes
c. Temperature sensitive (Sperm must be made in cooler
conditions i.e, 2-30
C lower than body temperature)
3. Testes
a. Sperm is produced by the seminiferous
tubules due to FSH
b. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells
due to LH
Sertoli cells : Provide nutrition to
developing germ cells.
Interstitial cells / Leydig cells : Synthesize
& secrete testicular hormone called
androgens.
(Refer Fig. 3.2, page no.-44 NCERT)
ACCESSORY DUCTS :
Epididymis: Stores sperm until they have matured.
Vas deferens: Tube that leads from the epididymis to the urethra.
Many sperm cells are stored here too.
ACCESSORY GLANDS :
Prostate gland: Provides an alkaline fluid that can protect sperm from harsh vaginal acids.
Seminal Vesicles: Produce food for sperm. Food "Fructose"
Cowper's gland: Produces clear lubricating fluid
32
SPERM SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
Head : It contains a elongated haploid
nucleus, covered by acrosome. It filled with
hydrolytic enzymes to dissolve the membrane
of ovum for fertilization.
Neck : It contains two centrioles helps in first
cleavage division of zygote.
Middle Piece: contains numerous
mitochrondria which produce energy for
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility
essential for fertilization
Tail : helps in Sperm movement
Spermatogonium : it is diploid contains 46 chromosomes.
Primary Spermatocyte (2n): it complete 1st
meiotic equal
division (reduction) & forms 2 secondary spermatocytes.
Secondary spermatocytes : it is haploid, undergo the 2nd
meiotic div to produce four equal haploid spermatids.
Spermatids : They transformed into spermatozoa (sperms)
by the process called spermiogenesis with the help of FSH.
Spermiation : After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become
embedded in the sertoli cells and finally released from
seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation.
The Female Reproductive System :
Ovary: Each ovary contains immature ova (eggs) in
follicles.
ii) Females born with lifetime supply of eggs
(250,000-400,000 in each ovary)
iii) Ovaries release ovum -. Almost all ova degenerate
between birth and puberty.
iv) Approx. 400 eggs will be ovulated over woman's
life.
v) Egg is the largest human cell.
vi) Ovaries are located lower abdomen. 1 left and 1 on
the right.
Fallopian tubes
i)Two thin tubes attached to the upper sides of uterus
ii) Tubes terminate near the ovaries but are not
attached
iii)"Fimbriae" are finger-like structures on the end of
each tube
iv)Tubes conduct egg to uterus by use of small hairs
called "cilia"
v)Fertilization of ovum takes place in the ampullary-
isthmic junction of the fallopian tubes. Egg viable
for only 24-48 hours after ovulation.
Uterus:
i)Pear-shaped organ located in lower abdomen.
ii)Muscles(myometrium) stretch to allow baby to
develop. Oxytocin starts labor contractions.
iii)Lining of uterus (endometrium) thickens with
blood-rich tissue due to progesterone.
iv)Endometrium supports embryo/fetus during
growth.
v)Placenta It is the interface between baby and
mother. If not pregnant, lining breaks down and
is discharged from body through vagina. This is
menstruation (period).
vi)Cervix connects uterus to vagina. Like a door
that opens during ovulation. Cervical mucous
closes the door at all other times.
(Refer Fig. 3.3b, page no.-45 NCERT)
33
EXTERNAL GENITALIA:
Vagina (Birth canal) :
 Menstrual blood leaves the body, Organ of intercourse , Muscular stretches to allow a baby to grow
 Vaginal opening partly remains closed by thin membrane of tissue called hymen. May be stretched or
torn during any physical activity or first intercourse.
Cervix:
 Located at inner end of vagina, Opening of uterus into vagina ,
 Mucous prevents bacteria and viruses from entering uterus, Lets sperm into uterus after ovulation
 Where baby also passes through during vaginal birth
Labia: 2 layers of skin, which fold over the opening to vagina and urethra
ii) Inner labia (labia minora) iii)Outer labia (labia majora)
 Pubic hair grows on outer labia
Clitoris: Small organ, 5 to 10 millimeters long; Located at junction of inner labia near front of body
Contains erectile tissue& sexually sensitive.
Mons pubis :Cushion like fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
Gametogenesis & its hormonal regulation :
FSH and LH from the
pituitary:
FUNCTION / PRODUCTION
Hormone In Females In Males
FSH Controls 
Eggs + Estrogen (Follicular
development)
Spermiogenesis
LH Controls  Ovulation + Corpus Luteum
Testosterone
(Spermatogenesis)
Differentiate between: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis :
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Produces male gametes (sperm) produces female gametes (oocytes)
–occurs in the seminiferous tubules (in
testes)
–occurs in the ovaries
–occurs throughout life after puberty occurs after puberty until menopause
may produce 3,00,00,000 per day –humans normally produce one oocyte during each ovarian
cycle
Primary spermatocyte divide equally to
form two similar secondary spermatocytes
Primary otocyte divide unequally to form one large secondary
oocyte and a small polar body
One spermatogonium produces 4
functional spermatozoa
An oogonium produces one functional ovum and 3 non
functional polar bodies
REFER fig.3.8 page : 49 NCERT.
34
OVULATION :
From Primordial Follicle to Tertiary Follicle
Primordial follicle:The surviving primary oocytes, at birth, are surrounded by thin, single layers cells of so-
called follicular epithelial cells.
Primary follicle :
The primordial follicles while developing into primary follicles the follicular epithelium that surrounds the
oocyte becomes iso- to highly prismatic
A Primordial
follicle
B Primary follicle
1 Oocyte
2 Follicular
epithelium
1 Oocyte
2 Pellucid zone
3 Stratum
granulosum
4 Theca folliculi
cells
Secondary follicle
Secondary follicles with follicular epitheliums encompassing multiple rows are formed called the stratum
granulosum. Pellucid zone, between the oocyte and follicular epithelium becomes visible.
Tertiary follicle
A well-developed net of capillaries in the theca interna.
Antrum – a fluid filled cavity develops
The theca layer organized into Theca internal & Theca external
Refer : Fig. 3.7 page – 49 NCERT.
35
MENSTRUAL CYCLE :
Follicular phase (Proliferative phase ) and Luteal phase (Secretory Phase)
Proliferative phase Secretory Phase
Follicular phase Luteal phase
Stage of repair and proliferation Prepares endometrium for implantation
It extends from the end of menstruation to ovulation It extends after ovulation to menstruation
LH and FSH increases LH is high (LH surge)
Estrogen level increases Progesterone level increases
Estrogen is secreted by Graffian follicle Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum
Flow diagram of Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation Repair of the
endometrium
Ovulation Thickening of the
endometrium
Breaking
down
Follicular Phase
FSH/Estrogen
Due to LH Luteal Phase
LH/Progesterone
MENSTRUAL CYCLE: Ref. Fig. 3.9 page 50, NCERT
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT IN HUMANS
Zygote
The single cellthat results from
fertilization of an ovum by
asperm.
Morula
*The morula (little mulberry)I
 Solid ball (16 64 cells).
 Morula arises from mitotic
(cleavage) divisions.
Blastocyst
The blastocyst is a liquid-filled
ball of cells. Occurs around 5 – 8
days after conception.
Implantation in the endometrium
occurs at this stage.
Embryo
Human considered an embryo
from implantation until about 8
weeks after conception.
36
Foetus 8 weeks after conception until
birth.
Transport of ovum, fertilization and passage of growing embryo through fallopian tube.
Fate of three germ layers
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Nervous system Skeleton Digestive tract
Epidermis of skin Muscles Respiratory system
Circulatory system Liver, pancreas
Gonads Bladder
Mnemonics ( Remember technique)
Tubules in male reproductive system Menstrual Cycle
“SEVEN UP” “FOL(d) M(a)PS”
Ovarian cycle:
Seminiferous tubules Follicular phase
Epididymis Ovulatory phase
Vas deferens, Luteal phase
Ejaculatory duct
(Nothing) Menstrual cycle:
Urethra Menstrual flow,
Penis Proliferative phase
Secretory phase
37
Trophoblast and Inner cell mass :
Inner cell mass : Inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem
cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and
organ.
Trophoblast : Layer get attached to endometrium. It is
ssurrounded by finger like projections called chorionic villi after
implantation.
Blastocoel :Cavity of blastocyst that contains inner cell mass.
Pregnancy and embryonic development :
Placenta : Chorionic villi & uterine tissue become interdigitated with each
other and jointly form a structural & functional unit between developing
embryo & maternal body. It provide antibodies to foetus (IgG).
Function : supply of O2 & nutrients to embryo and removal of CO2 &
excretory products from embryo.
Act as a endocrine tissue & produce hormones like human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen.
Pregnancy hormone : Relaxin
These hormones essential for fetal growth and metabolic changes in
mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
FETUS DEVELOPMENT
MONTH / PERIOD
 First month
 Second month
 First Trimester (Three month)
 Fifth Month
 Second Trimester (Six month)
 Eight month
 Third Trimester (Nine month)
CHANGES IN FETUS GROWTH
 Heart development & starts heart beat.
 Limbs & digits
 Organ system develops.
 Eruption of hair & foetal movement.
 Body covered with hair, Eye lids separates, eye lashes
formed.
 Testis descend into scrotum.
 Development of body mass & at last parturition.
Lactation : In the influence of hormone Prolactin (hPL) & progesterone, mammary glands starts producing
milk.
38
Colostrum : thick & yellowish milk consist of antibodies (IgA) & develops immunity to protect from
pathogens to infant.
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Acrosome- the part of a sperm cell that contains an enzyme – (This enables a sperm cell to penetrate an egg.)
Amniotic sac-fluid-filled membrane or sac that surrounds the developing embryo while in the uterus.(protects
baby from hard shocks, keeps it at a constant temperature. )
Blastocyst = blastula = early stage of an embryo; a liquid-filled sphere whose wall is composed of a single
layer of cells; during this stage (about eight days after fertilization) implantation in the wall of the uterus
occurs.
Cervix- lower part, or neck, of uterus. (Opening to the uterus.)
Clitoris-small, sensitive organ in front of the vagina
Coitus-synonym for sexual intercourse
Conception-fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell
Corpus Luteum - After ovulation, this crater-like structure produces progesterone and estrogen. The corpus
luteum is the old RUPTURED GRAFFIAN follicle. It means “yellow body”.
Cowper's glands - 2 glands that secrete an oily liquid, which cleans and lubricates the urethra of the male
Egg cell-a female sex cell (female gamete or ovum or secondary oocyte )
Ejaculation-the discharge of semen from the penis
Embryo-the unborn child developing in the uterus between the second and eighth weeks of life
Endometrium - the lining for the uterus – site for blastocyst implants and develops.
Epididymis-the tightly coiled tube at the back at each testis that holds newly created sperm – (each
epididymis is like a nursery where sperm mature and learn to swim.)
Erection- condition of penis when it fills with blood and becomes firm, enlarged, and erect.
Fallopian tubes -tubes leading from each ovary to the uterus. Tubes carry the egg from ovary to the uterus.
Fertilization occurs here. (Also known as the oviducts.)
Fimbria - A fimbria (plural fimbriae) Latin word, literally means "fringe." a fringe of tissue near the ovary
leading to the fallopian tube
Fertile- able to conceive a child
Fertilization union of sperm and egg.Conception.
Fertilized egg- egg after sperm has united with it. Zygote.
Fetus-unborn child developing in the uterus after the first eight weeks of life
Follicle - In ovaries. Each holds and nourishes an egg until ovulation. Nest. Becomes corpus luteum after
ovulation.
Foreskin – A sheath of skin that surrounds the penis.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone - secreted from pituitary gland in both men and women. In women, FSH
promotes the development of eggs and estrogen. In men, FSH promotes the development of sperm cells.
Fraternal twins-babies that develop from two eggs, each fertilized by a sperm cell; may or may not be of
the same sex
Gamete – a sex cell. Sperm cells and egg cells are gametes.
Genitals-the reproductive or sex organs, especially the external organs
Germ Cell- egg or sperm cell.Gamete. In humans, germ cell contains 23 chromosomes
Hormones-chemical substances produced by the endocrine glands; they act in other parts of the body and
affect maturation, growth, and behavior; LH, FSH, GH, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone are all
hormones.
Hymen-a thin bit of tissue, or membrane that may partially cover the opening of the vagina
Identical twins-babies that develop from a single fertilized egg that separates into two halves; identical
twins are always of the same sex
Labia-two folds of skin surrounding the entrance of vagina
Labor-the muscular contractions that expel a baby from uterus during childbirth
Leydig Cells – when prompted by LH, Leydig cells create testosterone.
39
LH - Luteinizing Hormone - Secreted from pituitary gland, causes ovulation and formation of corpus
Luteum in women. In men, LH causes Leydig cells to produce testosterone.
Menstrual cycle - periodic building up and sloughing off of lining of uterus approximately every twenty-
eight days
Menstruation-the periodic discharge of blood and waste material (unfertilized secondary oocyte / ova and
the degenerating endometrium lining) from the uterus
Miscarriage- expulsion from the uterus of a fetus before it is developed sufficiently to live Also called
spontaneous abortion
Myometrium – muscles of the uterus that stretch to accommodate the growth of the baby. These muscles
contract during labor and push baby out.
Orgasm-the peak of sexual excitement when the male ejaculates semen,
Ovary- female sex glands; they produce egg cells, estrogen and progesterone.
Ovulation-the discharge, or release, of an egg cell / secondary oocyte from the ovary
Ovum-scientific name for an egg cell / secondary oocyte
Oxytocin - hormone, released from the pituitary gland , stimulates contractionof the myometrium of the
uterus during labor and facilitates ejection of milk from the breast during nursing.
Penis-the male sex organ through which sperm cells leave the body; it also discharges urine
Placenta- network of blood vessels and other tissues by which the unborn child is attached to the wall of the
uterus.grows out of the endometrium The umbilical cord is attached to it. It is the interface between mother
and developing fetus.
Pregnancy-the process in a woman from conception to birth
Pregnant-the condition of a woman with an embryo or fetus in her uterus
Progesterone – pregnancy hormone, which is first produced by the corpus luteum and then by the placenta.
* increases lining of endometrium.
*maintains pregnancy
*helps develop mammary glands.
Prostate gland- surrounds the upper end of male urethra and produces part of the fluid that mixes with the
sperm to form semen. Prostate fluid alkaline helps to protect sperm from vaginal acids.
Scrotum- pouch of loose skin containing the testes.Houses and air-conditions the testicles by moving and
sweating.
Semen-the mixture of sperm and fluids released during ejaculation. Semen comprised of sperm, fructose,
prostate fluid and oil from Cowper’s gland.
Seminal vesicles-small saclike organs opening into each vas deferens near the upper end of the urethra;
produce part of the fluid that mixes with the sperm to form semen; provide food (fructose) for the sperm.
Seminiferous tubules - tubes in testes that produce sperm
Sexual intercourse- entry of penis into vagina and subsequent release of semen; also called coitus
Sperm-the male sex cell (male gamete or spermatozoon), which contains 23 chromosomes in human.
Spermatozoon-scientific name for sperm
Spontaneous abortion--synonym for miscarriage
Testes- male sex glands; produce sperm cells and testosterone;
Testicles-synonym for testes
Testosterone – male hormone that regulates development of penis, muscles, body hair, change of voice.
Umbilical cord- ropelike structure connecting embryo or fetus to placenta within the uterus.
Urethra-the tube through which urine is expelled from the bladder in both males and females and through
which semen leaves the male body
Uterus = womb - the hollow pear-shaped organ in which a baby develops before it is born;
Vagina- passage from the uterus to the outside of the body, accepts the penis during intercourse. It is the
birth canal & menstrual fluids leave through it
Vas deferens- tube extending from each epididymis to the urethra in males
Womb-synonym for uterus
Yolk sac-a structure that develops for the nutrition of embryo during early embryonic life and then ceases to
function
Zygote - The cell formed by the union of two gametes. [ fertilized ovum before cleavage.]
40
IMPORTANT NOTES
 An adult male produces over 1012
to 1013
sperms each day.
 Human female oogonial development by mitosis is completed by 25 weeks of foetus and no oogonia
are formed after birth.
 Sperm entry into the ovum stimulates MPF (M phase promoting factor) & APC ( Anaphase promoting
complex) for completion of Meiosis II.
 During Spermatogenesis, spermatogonium produces four sperms while in oogenesis, oogonium
produces one ovum and two polar bodies.
 Human Sperm contains Clupein proteins.
 Yolk nucleus: A mass of mitochondria and golgi bodies near nucleus is called as yolk nucleus and
controls vitellogenesis.
 Maximum level of estrogen – 12th day, LH-13th day, Progestrone – 21st day, Corpous luteum
formation – 19th
day of menstrual cycle.
 Menstrual cycle is absent during pregnancy, lactation periods and permanently during menopose.
 Two ovaries alternate in ovulation.
 13 mature eggs are released per year, so about 416 eggs (13x32 years) are ovulated during whole
reproductive period of human female.
 Menstruation is also called “Weeping of uterus for the lost ovum” or” Funeral of unfertilized eggs”.
 In human embryo, yolk sac degenerates since eggs is microlecithal, which shows evolutionary
significance.
 Placenta acts as a physiological barriers and an ultra-filter between foetal and maternal blood.
 Progesterone is also called pregnancy hormone since its secretions controls pregnancy.
 Teratogens are physical, chemical, biological agents which may cause malformation in developing
embryo.
 Period between fertilization and parturition is called gestation periods. Varies between 266 days up to
280 days ( 49 weeks)
1) Zygote undergoes mitosis to form 16 celled embryo. What is the stage known as? (1) Hint-Blastomeres.
2)Name the important mammary gland secretions that help in resistance of the new born baby. 1) Hint-
Colostrum
3) Fill in the boxes
Spermatogenesis Secondary spermatocytes
Spermatozoa
4) Why does fertilization take place in fallopian tube and not in the uterus.(2)
Hint-ovum and sperms must be transported to the ampullary –isthmic region simultaneously for fertilization.
5) Which cell organelle is present in the neck of the sperm? What is its significance? ( 2)
Hint-Acrosome, enzymes.
Chapter-4: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
41
Reproductive Health: Acc. to WHO, reproductive health means a total well being in all aspects of
reproduction, i.e. physical, emotional, behavioural and social.
India was the first countries in the world to initiate ‘family planning’ programmes’ in 1951.
Objective of Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes :
 Creating awareness about reproduction related aspects Awareness created with the help of audio-visual
and the print-media governmental and non-governmental agencies.
 Introduction of sex education in schools to provide right information to the young so as to discourage
children from believing in myths and having misconceptions about sex-related aspects.
 Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic
sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS, etc.,
 Educating people, especially fertile couples and those in marriageable age group, about
-available birth control options,
- care of pregnant mothers,
-post-natal care of the mother and child,
-importance of breast feeding,
-equal opportunities for the male and the female child, etc.,
 Awareness of problems
- due to uncontrolled population growth,
- social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related crimes, etc.,
 Require strong infrastructural facilities, professional expertise and material support.
 provide medical assistance and care to people in reproduction-related problems like pregnancy,
delivery, STDs, abortions, contraception, menstrual problems, infertility, etc.
 Implementation of better techniques and new strategies.
 Amniocentesis : a statutory ban on (a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in
the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo) for sex-determination to legally check increasing
female foeticides, massive child immunisation, etc., are some programmes that merit mention in this
connection.
POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL
 The world population which was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900 rocketed to about 6 billions by
2000.
 A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate(IMR) due to
RCH.
 Advertisement showing a happy couple with two children with a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do.
 Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female to 18 years and that of males to 21 years.
Methods of birth control
Natural Method:
 Coitus Interruptus: Coitus interruptus means 'interrupted sex" (penis is withdrawn from the vagina just
before ejaculation).
Advantage - method does not require the use of any drug, does not interfere with normal body functions.
The failure rate is high at 15 - 18%.
Periodic Abstinence: couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when
ovulation could be expected.
Lactational Amenorrhea : (absence of menstruation) During intense lactation, chance of conception are
almost nil but effective upto 6 month after parturition.
42
Barrier methods: In barrier methods of birth control, a barrier is placed between the penis and the vagina
during intercourse so that the sperm cannot meet the ovum for fertilization.
 Male Condoms:, usually made of latex that covers the erect penis during penetration of the vagina.
 Female Condoms: made of polyurethrane, loose sheath with two rings on either side. can be
inserted about 8 hours prior to sexual intercourse and can be kept in for about another 12 hours after
intercourse. Can be used more than once during this period.
 Condoms protect against pregnancy as well as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including
HIV/AIDS.
 Diaphragm: vaginal - a small saucer shaped rubber sheath with a metal coil in its rim which is
fitted across the mouth of the uterus (cervix).
 Cervical Cap: The cervical cap is a small dome-shaped rubber device fitted on the cervix. It is
uncomfortable to apply and is rarely used nowadays.
 Vaginal Sponge: Small polyurethrane round device which needs to be placed inside the vagina
before sexual intercourse. It releases spermicide which makes sperm inactive. It should be left in
place for 8 hours after use and can be used more than once during this time. The sponge also acts as
a barrier contraceptive to some extent since it swells up to fit across the cervix once it is inside the
vagina.
 Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are usually used alongwith these barriers.
Hormonal Methods: Drugs are used to either prevent ovulation or to prevent implantation of the embryo
after fertilization.
 Combined oral contraceptives contains two hormones similar to the natural hormones in a woman’s
body---an progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combination used by females.
 Oral Contraceptive pills: They are based on hormones results to prevent ovulation & also to
disrupt the normal growth of the internal uterine lining (endometrium),
 Centchroman: This is a non-hormonal non steroidal contraceptive. The main function is to cause a
slowing down in the growth rate of the internal uterine lining as well as to speed up the movement of
the embryo so that implantation cannot occur. It is a once a week pill. Eg-Saheli.
Subdermal Implants
Capsules placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm. The capsules supply a steady, very low dose.
Norplant implants contain no estrogen. Norplant capsules thicken cervical mucus making it difficult
for sperm to pass through. It stops ovulation (release of eggs from ovaries) in about half of the
menstrual cycles after the first year of use.
Emergency Oral Contraception
After unprotected sex, emergency oral contraception can prevent pregnancy. Sometimes called
postcoital or ‘morning after’ contraception. Mainly stops ovulation.
Regular use of emergency contraceptives has serious health hazards.
Intra-Uterine Devices (IUDs):
 IUDs are contraceptive devices which are placed inside the uterus. Small, flexible plastic frame. Has
copper wire or copper sleeves on it. Inserted into a woman’s uterus through her vagina.
 Preventing sperm and egg from meeting. Perhaps the IUD makes it hard for sperm to move through
the woman’s reproductive tract, and it reduces the ability of sperm to fertilize the egg. Prevent the
egg from implanting itself in the wall of the uterus.
43
 IUCDs prevent pregnancy by making the endometrium unreceptive to the fertilized ovum.
Stimulates the endometrium to release leukocytes (WBCs) and prostaglandins making it hostile to
the sperm.Causes bizarre and irregular growth of the endometrium.
 Prevents implantation of a fertilized ovum. IUDs like Copper-T’s also come wrapped in copper.
Copper is toxic to sperms and is a method of enhancing the contraceptive effect of the IUDs.
 The IUCDs can come in various shapes and sizes.
 Lippes Loop: The Lippes loop consists of a thin plastic (or polyethylene)wire bent in a series of S-
shapes.
l
Lippes loop Multiload 375 Copper-Ts
 Copper T: T-shaped structure which stays inside the uterus with the long arm of the T along the
uterine cavity (endometrium) and the shorter arms transversely across the upper part of the
endometrium.
 Surgical Methods: These are more or less permanent methods of contraception.
 Tubectomy : Both the female tubes are tied off and usually cut during tubal ligation to prevent the
sperm from reaching the ovum during intercourse.
 Vasectomy:The two tubes which carry sperm from the testes to the penis are the vas deferens. Tying
them off and cut.
44
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)
 Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of
pregnancy(MTP) or induced abortion.
 MTP has a significant role in decreasing the population though it is not meant for that purpose.
 Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse.
 MTPs are considered relatively safe during the first trimester, i.e., upto 12 weeks of pregnancy.
Second trimester abortions are much more riskier.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)
Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called
sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
SL.
NO.
STD CAUSAL
AGENT
SYMPTOMS EFFECT ON
FOETUS
EFFECT ON
PERSON
AFFECTED
1 CHLAMYDIOSIS Chlamydia
trachomatis
Painful urination &
intercourse
Mucus discharge
from penis/vagina
Premature
birth,blindness,
Pneumonia
Pelvic
inflammatory
disease,
Infertility,
Ectopic
pregnancy
2 GONORRHOEA Nisseria
gonorrhea
Painful urination in
men
Still birth,
Blindness
Pelvic
inflammatory
disease,
Infertility, Rash,
Death
3 TRICHOMONIASIS Tricomonas
vaginalis
Inflammation,
Itching& vaginal
white discharge
(Leucorrhoea)
Not known Valvar
erythema,
Burning dysuria
4 GENITAL HERPES Herpes
simplex
virus
Genital sores, Fever Still birth,
Brain damage
Cervical cancer.
5 SYPHILIS Trepanema
pallidum
Initially sores in
genitalia & mouth,
Rashes
Premature
birth,
Miscarriage,
Still birth
Death
6 GENITAL WART Human
papilloma
virus
Warts on genitalia Not known Cervical cancer
7 HEPATITIS-B Hepatitis –B
virus
Fatigue, Fever,
Jaundice, Rash,
Abdominal pain
Low birth
weight
Liver cirrhosis,
Liver cancer
8 AIDS HIV Fever, Prone to
infection,
Inflammation
AIDS affected Dementia, Death
One could be free of these infections by following the simple principles given below:
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
45
(iii) In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete
treatment if diagnosed with disease.
INFERTILITY
 Unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation. ‘Infertility’ when a couple
fails to conceive after one year of sexual life without contraception.
 Infertile couples could be assisted to have children through certain special techniques commonly
known as Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).
InVitro Fertilisation (IVF) : fertilization outside the body under controlled conditions. IVF–fertilisation
outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body) followed by embryo transfer (ET) upto 8
celled blastomeres. This technique also called test tube baby programme.
Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) : The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could
then be transferred into the fallopian tube is called ZIFT.
Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT) : Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres to 32 cells, into the uterus
is called IUT. Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilization (fusion of gametes within the female) also could be
used for such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive.
Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT) : Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian
tube of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and
further development.
Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection(ICSI) : It is another specialised procedure to form an embryo in the
laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
Artificial Insemination (AI) Technique : In this technique the semen collected either from the husband or a
healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the uterus (IUI – intra-uterine
insemination) of the female.
Questions.
Q1) Table of certain terms associated with ART. Fill in the spaces a,b,c,d.(1X4 )
IVF&ET A
b Introduction of zygote/embryo with 8 blastomeres into fallopian tube.
c Introduction of ova of a donor into the fallopian tube
d Introduction of semen from the husband or healthy donor into the uterus.
Ans.( a) test tube baby programme .( b) ZIFT (zygote intra fallopian transfer )
.( c) GIFT (gamete intra fallopian transfer ) (d ) IUI (intra uterine insemination )
Q2) Name 3 incurable sexually transmitted diseases and their causative organisms ( 3)
1. Hepatitis-B ----- Hepatitis-B virus 2.Genital herpes-------Herpes simplex virus
3. AIDS---------HIV (Human Immunodeficiency virus)
Q3)Why is the term test tube baby a misnomer.(3)
Baby not developed in test tube. Only fertilization carried out in test tube in lab conditions. The fertile egg is
then transferred into the fallopian tube or uterus where it develops and grows into a normal baby is born.
Q4. Why do intensely lactating mothers do not generally conceive?
Due to suppression of gonadotropins’
Chapter 5 : PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCES AND VARIATION
46
Genetics : branch of science which deals the study of inheritances and variations of characters.
Know the terms
Terms Meaning
Locus Address/ location of a gene in a chromosome e.g. T,A.b,d
Gene Structural & functional unit of chromosome.
Allele Allelomorphs= alternative form of a gene e.g. T and t OR A and a
Homozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar e.g. AA or aa
Heterozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus dissimilar e.g. Aa or Tt
Homozygous Dominant Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar & dominant e.g. AA
Homozygous recessive Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar & recessive e.g. aa
Genotype Genetic constituent of an organism
Phenotype Physical appearance
Punnet Square Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all possible
genotype.
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
Salient features of Mendel’s Experiment :
 Mendel’s investigations into inheritance patterns it was for the first time that statistical analysis and
mathematical logic were applied to problems in biology.
 Mendel selected two opposing traits, e.g., tall or dwarf plants, yellow or green seeds. This allowed
him to set up a basic framework of rules governing inheritance.
 Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties.
47
 His experiment had a large sampling size; it gives credibility to his data.
Why Mendel select pea plant ?
He selected pea plant for following reasons :
 Pea is a self pollinated plant & cross pollination is also
possible.
 Many varieties were available with observable alternate
forms for a trait.
 Short life span.
 Can be easily grown in small place.
 Seeds easy to handle.
CONTRASTING CHARACTERS
Mendel's first law ( Law of dominance ) :
(i) Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors (genes).
(ii) Factors occur in pairs.
(iii) In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
The law of dominance is used to explain the expression of only one of the parental characters in a monohybrid
cross in the F 1and the expression of both in the F2. It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F2.
(Refer Fig. 5.4. page – 73, NCERT)
Mendel's Law of segregation (Purity of Gametes): The two alleles received, one from each parent,
segregate independently in gamete formation, so that each gamete receives one or the other with equal
probability. (Can be explained by monohybrid cross).
Mendel's law of Independent Assortment : Two characters determined by two unlinked genes are
recombined at random in gamete formation, so that they segregate independently of each other, each
according to the first law (note that recombination here is not used to mean crossing-over in meiosis). (Can be
explained by dihybrid cross)
(Refer Fig. 5.7. page – 79, NCERT)
Test Cross and Back Cross : Test cross is a back cross but back cross is not a test cross.
 In a test cross, hybrid cross with homozygous recessive individuals.
 In a back cross, hybrid cross with homozygous recessive & homozygous dominant individuals.
Significance : Both are used to determine the frequency of gene or allele. It is used in horticulture, animal
breeding and in production of gene knockout organisms.
Incomplete Dominance : Dominant gene is not fully expressed on recessive gene. So, the phenotype of
hybrid do not resemble with any of the parents. Eg- Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Mirabilis jalapa (4 O’
clock plant).
48
Genotype & phenotype ratio : 1:2:1 (Refer Fig. 5.6. page – 76, NCERT).
Co-dominance : Both parental genes expressed in F1 progeny so the offspring shows resemblance with both
the parents. Eg- ABO blood group types in human.
Blood group shows 3 different alleles (IA
, IB
, IO
) and 6 different possible genotypes.
Cross between IA
IO
x IB
IO
, shows the law of dominance, co-dominance & multiple alleles.
POSSIBLE BLOOD GROUP OF PROGENY WITH RESPECT TO THE BLOOD GROUP OF
PARENTS
Parent Progeny
A B AB O
A X A + - - +
A X O + - - +
A X B + + + +
B X B - + - +
B X O - + - +
AB X A + + + -
AB X B + + + -
AB X O + + -
AB X AB + + + -
O X O - - - +
KEY + = POSSIBLE - = NOT POSSIBLE
(Refer Table. 5.2. page – 77, NCERT).
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE :
 Galton in 1883 suggested that many instances of continuous variation are heritable like height, mental
capabilities.
 The character is determined by more than one gene each with the
same but cumulative phenotypic effect.
 Quantitative characters like plant height, yield of crops (size,
shape and number of seeds and fruits per plant), intelligence in
human beings and milk yield in animals determined by many
genes in cumulative.
Skin colour determine by 3 genes ( 6 allels)
(i) Few individuals fall into parental categories;
(ii) The expression level of the phenotype is dependent upon
the number of contributive alleles and is hence more quantitative.
Polygenic inheritance also shows by kernel colour in wheat and
inheritance of cob length in maize. It is generally believed that
during evolution there was duplication of chromosome or
chromosome parts thereby leading to multiple copies of the same
gene. A large number of characters are controlled by polygenes
in which alleles contribute additively to a phenotype. This
results in polygenic inheritance.
49
Pleiotropy : single gene may produce more than one effect. The basis of Pleiotropy is the interrelationship
between the metabolic pathways that may contribute towards different phenotypes. Eg. Phenylketonuria, eye
mutation in Drosophila and starch synthesis & size of starch grain.
Basic outline of Mendels cross
1. Pure breeding parents for a pair of contrasting character (allelic pair) is taken
Eg.Tall pure-bred pea plants (TT) & short pure-bred pea plants (tt)
2. Gamete formation (Meiosis)
3. Hybridization (crossing is done)
4. F1 generation - the product of the above cross (are called hybrids)
5. Selfing (allowed to selffertilize / selfbreeding)
6. Gamete formation (Meiosis)
7. F2 generation - the product of the above selfing
8. Analysis of result (Phenotype and Genotype)
Chromosomal theory of Inheritance : It is proposed by Water Sutton and Theodore Boveri in 1902. They
found the behavior of chromosomes was parallal to the behavior of factor (genes) and used chromosome
movement to explain Mendel’s law. Gene and chromosomes shows similar behavior as followings-
 Occur in pairs
 Segregate at the time of gamete formation such that only one of each pair is transmitted to a gamete
 Independent pairs segregate independently of each other.
(Refer Fig. 5.9, page 82 NCERT).
Linkage: According to Morgan, physical association or linkage of two genes is called linkage. The new
combination are produced because homologous chromosomes can exchange segments when they are paired.
This process (crossing over) results in recombination of alleles between the homologous chromosomes.
The probability of recombination between any two genes serve as a measure of genetic distance between the
genes and allowed the construction of genetic map.
(A) Two alleles and their linked genes have switched locations via recombination. Recombined haploid
chromosomes segregate separately during meiosis as gametes before fertilization.
(B) Sample recombination frequencies between genes demonstrating higher rates of recombination for
genes further apart.
Sex determination : x body was discovered by Henking in 1891.
 Sex chromosome : the chromosomes determine the sex of living.
 Autosomal chromosomes : they determine the characters other than sex of living.
50
Name of Living Male Female
Human XY XX
Drosophila XY XX
Insect XO XX
Bird ZZ ZW
Honey Bee XM
(Drone), XM
XM
(Male) XX
Male Heterogamety : Male produced two type of gametes. Eg. Human, Drosophila.
Female heterogamety : female produced two type of gametes. Eg.Birds.
Mutation : Sudden changes in DNA.
Mutagens : Chemicals/agents that caused mutation.
Type of gene mutation Reason
Point mutation Change in single base eg sickle-cell anaemia
Frameshift mutation Deletion/insertion/duplication/addition of one or two bases
Type of
chromosomal
mutation
Reason
Structural aberration Loss or gain of large segment of DNA
Numerical variations Aneuploidy Addition/ deletion one or more
chromosomes
Trisomy 2n+1
monosomy 2n-
1
Polyploidy Addition/ deletion one or set
chromosomes
3n, 4n etc.
Pedigree Analysis
Pedigree is a chart of graphic representation of record of inheritance of a trait through several generations in a
family
Symbols used:- refer NCERT Text Book
GENETIC DISORDER
Chromosomal Disorder Mendelian Disorder
These are due to absence or excess of abnormal
arrangement of one or more chromosomes.
Eg. Down, Klinefelter’s, Turner’s syndrome.
These are due to alteration or mutation of one
gene.
Eg. Sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, thalassaemia
Mendelian Disorder
Disorder Reason Symptoms
Haemophilia Sex linked recessive disease (X). Females are
unaffected carrier.
Non stop bleeding, no blood
clotting.
Sickle Cell
Anaemia
Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 11. Sickle
shape RBC due to replace the glutamic acid by valine.
Oxygen carry capacity reduced.
Phenylketonuria Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 12.
Mutation in phenyl alanine hydroxylase enzyme
results in accumulation of phenyl pyruvate.
Mental retardation, presence of
phenyl pyruvate in urine.
Colour
Blindness
Sex linked recessive disorder (X). Unable to differentiate green and
red colour
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Class XII Biology Study Material

  • 1. 1 BIOLOGY STUDY MATERIAL 2014- 2015 CLASS XII KendriyaVidyalayaSangathan Regional office Silchar
  • 2. 2 OUR SOURCE OF INSPIRATION CHIEF PATRON SRI AVINASH DIKSHIT, IDAS COMMISSIONER KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN NEW DELHI PATRONS Mr. SOMIT SRIVASTAV DEPUTY COMMISSIONER KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN SILCHAR REGION Mr. R.SENTHIL KUMAR ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN SILCHAR REGION Mr. T.P.GOUR ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN SILCHAR REGION
  • 3. 3 REWIEW COMMITTEE CONVENOR MR.P.I.T. RAJA PRINCIPAL KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA KAILASHAHAR Email ID:trajasam@gmail.com CONTRIBUTING TEAM 1. MR. CHETAN DEV, PGT (BIOLOGY) K.V ONGC, AGARTALA Email ID :chetan_dev2410@rediffmail.com 2. Mr. RAJESH VERMA, PGT (BIOLOGY) K.V KAILASHAHAR Email ID :savirajverma@gmail.com
  • 4. 4 CONTENTS Sl No Chapter Pages 1 Reproduction in Organism 3 2 Sexualreproduction in flowering plants 8 3 Human reproduction 14 4 Reproductive health 26 5 Principles of inheritance and variation 33 6 Molecularbasis of inheritance 42 7 Evolution 57 8 Human health and Disease 69 9 Strategies for enhancementin food production 81 10 Microbes in human welfare 87 11 Biotechnology:principles and processes 96 12 Biotechnologyand its application 114 13 Organisms and populations 120 14 Ecosystem 132 15 Biodiversity and conservation 140 16 Environmental issues 147 17 Syllabus ,marking scheme,QP blueprint, Question paper 2014 mains and compartmental,newly added topics for march 2015 exam 17(1)-17(36) 18 Key terms to rememberchapter1-16 18(1)-18(11)
  • 5. 5 CHAPTER -1 , REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM Age : elephant,rose,dog,butterfly,crow,bananatree,cow,parrot,crocodile,horse,fruitfly,rice plant,tortoise, banyan tree Definition : life span, reproduction , asexual and sexual reproduction difference with example (binary fission, bud,zoospore,conidia,gemmules), vegetative reproduction(runner,rhizome,sucker,tuber,offset,bulb),role of node in reproduction, Sexual reproduction: importance,juvenile phase/vegetativephase (normal andspecial flowering eg. Bamboo & Strobilanthus kunthiana), oestrus & menstrual cycle, seasonal & continuous breeder with eg. Events in sexual reproduction : Pre-fertilization : A. gametogenesis, iso & hetero gametes, homothallic, monoecious, heterothallic or dioecious – pistillate &staminate, hermaphrodite with example i.e. Chara, Marchantia, earthworm, cockroach, sweet potato), meiocyte cell. B. gamete transfer (in algae, bryophyte & pteridophyta with water relation), pollination-self & cross. C. Fertilization : syngamy (zygote), parthenogenesis with example, external and internal fertilization & their importance, Post-fertilizationEvents:A. Zygote : haplo-diplontic, diplontic. B Embryogenesis : cell differentiation, embryo, zygote & foetus, oviparous & viviparous with example, Ovary & pericarp. CHAPATER : 2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS Flower : structure, their parts & importance, floral primordium, flower and their parts (sepal, petal, anther & carpel) Stamens : stamen (anther, connective, filament), monothecous & dithecous, microsporangia vs pollen sac, structure of microsporangium:epidermis,endothecium(rolewithreason),middle layer,tapetam& sporogenous tissue (pollendevelopsbymeioticdiv.,tetrad),pollen grain (exine & intine, their chemical composition & role), pollen germination (vacuoles, asymmetric spindle, vegetative & generative cell with difference related to nutrition,2& 3 celledstage stage).Allergy:symptoms,reasonswithexample.Pollentablet& their uses, viability and conservation with example.
  • 6. 6 Pistal : Megasporangium : monocarpellary & multicarpellary with example, apocarpus & syncarpusl, (Papavar, Michelia), structure of megasporangium/ovule : funicle, hilum, integuments, micropyle, chalaza, nucellus, embryo sac (haploid/diploid) Megasporogenesis : MMC (meiosis/mitosis), female gametophyte (embryo sac) : number of chromosome of nucellus,MMC,megaspore,female gametophyte,central cell,eggapparatus(synergid&eggcell),antipodal, PEC in embryo sac -7 celled, 8 nucleate. Pollination: Definition,types:autogamy,geitonogamy,allogamy,xenogamy.Types of flowers : chasmogamous & cleistogamous. Agent of pollination : wind : (well exposed stamens, feathery stigma, number, eg. Corn cog- style & stigma), water: vallisneria,Hydra,Zostera(marine) process, aquatic plant -water hyacinth and water lily (insect), wind & water – nector, colour of petals. Insect : floral adaptation, Amorphophallus, Yucca & moth, Outbreeding devices : self pollination result in inbreeding depression, why ?, reason- gametophytic & sporophytic,pollen-pistel interaction&their3reason,pollengermination, Artificial hybridization :emasculation, bagging and rebagging Double Fertilization : PEN, syngamy-zygote, triple fusion, PEC, endosperm, embryo, embryo development : globular embryo, suspensor, heart shape , radical, cotyledon, micropylar & chalaza end. Post fertilizationevents :endosperm(triploid,foodnutrition,PEN;nucellar,cellular and helobial with example, cotyledon, scutellum), Embryo : embryology, pro embryo -globular, heart shape and mature embryo of dicot (plumule,cotyledon,hypocotyls,radicle,rootcap),monocotembryo(scutellum,coleoptiles,shootapex,epiblast, radicle, root cap, coleorhizae & their position), epicotyl & hypocotyls, epigeal & hypogeal germination. Seed: albuminous&nonalbuminouswithexample,perisperm, testa&tegman,seeddormancy,true &false fruit with example, seed dormancy with their reason, parthenocarpic fruits, seed viability (Lupinus arcticus-Arctic tundra, Phoenix dactylifera –deadsea),size of seed&their plant eg. Orobanche & Striga (parasitic), Banyan tree seeds, Orchids with reason. Apomixis: definition, eg. Asteraceae & grasses, embryo sac or diploid egg cell Polyembryony:definition,nucellar cell, citrus, 3 reasons of polyembryony, different seed size different shape, CHAPTER – 3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION Gametogenesis (sperm&ovum),fertilization,zygote,embryo,blastocyst,implantation, gestation & parturition.
  • 7. 7 Male reproductive system: scrotum with temperature, testicular lobules, seminiferous tubules (germ cells/spermatogonia&sertoli cells) &theirfunction,interstitial cells/leydigcells&theirfunction. Male accessory ducts : rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis & vas deferens, their sequence and functions, urethral meatus, penis,glanspenis-foreskin, male accessory glands : seminal vesicles(fructose,seminal plasma+sperm=semen), prostate (ca, citrate & acid phosphatase)& one paired bulbourethral glands(cowper’s glands)-mucus & lubrication. Female reproductive System:ovaries,oviduct,uterus,cervix,vagina,ovarianstroma-peripheral cortex and inner medulla, infundibulum and fimbriae function, ampula-isthmus, womb-uterus, wall of uterus – perimetrium, myometrium&endometrium. Female external genitalia:monopubis,labiamajora,labiaminora,hymen,clitoris. (virginity, hair, fleshy fold, finger like). Mammary glands: fat, lobes (alveoli), mammary duct, lactiferous duct- milk. Gametogenesis : spermatogenesis :spermatogonia, primary & secondary spermatocytes- spermatid- spermatozoa,(spermiogenesis & spermiation), Hormone : hypothalamic-GnRH-two gonadotropin hormone-LH (leydig cell-androgens-spermatogenesis)& FSH (sertoli cells,spermiogenesis). Sperm Structure : head (acrosome,lysosome), middle piece (mitochondria, energy), tail (movement). No.200-300 million-coitus (40%- slow vigorous motility). Oogenesis : oogonia, primary oocyte (foetal life, Prophase I temporary arrested-birth, childhood,puberty,first polar body), secondary oocyte (second polar body),ovum . Primary oocyte (arrested) surrounded by granulose cells –primary follicle, at puberty surrounded by several layers (granulose cells & theca)-secondary follicles- antrum (fluid), unequal division, graffian follicles, ovulation. Menstrual Cycle : menarche,menopause,duration,menstrual flow,lackof menstrual flow,primary-sec follicles, ovarianhormone/ gonadotropinhormonesasLH& FSH,theirrole on 5,14,28th day, corpusleutam, endometrium. Fertilization & implantation : coitus, insemination, ampullary-isthmic junction, fertilization, zona pellucida, corona radiate andperivitelline space,acrosome,zygote,child male or female ? cleavage, blastomere & morula. Blastocyst-trophoblast & inner cell mass. Endometrium, implantation. Pregnancy & Embryonic development: chorionicvilli/trophoblast-uterine tissue, placenta, function of placenta, umbilical cord, hCG, hPL, estrogen, progestogens. Relaxin, pregnancy hormone, increase hormone, ecto-meso and endoderm layer & their function, stem cells. Organ development as heart, limb & digits, limb & external genital organ, foetus movement & hair on head, body covered by hair-eye lids separate-eye shed formed. 9th month pregnancy.
  • 8. 8 Parturition & Lactation : gestationperiod,neuroendocrine mechanism, foetal ejection reflex, trigger-oxytocin- urinary contraction, lactation, colostrums, antibody name, breast feeding. CHAPTER-4 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH Reproductive Health- family planning-1951, First country, RCH, Awareness programme –audio-visual, print media, sex education in school, amniocentesis-good or bad, saheli-CDRI, STD disease and health, reason of population increase. Polulation exploision and birth control : world population, MMR, IMR, role of RCH & Family planning slogan, marriageable age,problemsdue topopulation, Contraceptive methods :Natural-periodicabstinence,withdrawl or coitus interruptus, lactational amenorrhea, Barrier methods-male-condom, female-daphragms, cervical caps & vaults, IUDs,-non medicated by experts as Lippes loop, cooper releasing IUD as CuT, Cu7, multiloaded 375 and their role, IUDs-medicated hormone releasing,role. Oral contraceptive-pills,theirrole, duration, saheli, progestogen-estogen combination, Surgical methods : vasectomy, tubectomy (vas deferens, fallopian tube).Effect of these methods on female. MTP : Govt. of India rule, year, trimester utility. STD/VD/RTI : AIDS,trichomoniass,hepatitisB,chlamydiasis,genital warts,theirpathogensname andtype. AIDS- spread & age group, protection, problems when not aware on time. Infertility : ART, IVF, AIH, AID, ZIFT, IUT, GIFT, ICSI, AI. Full name with using condition. CHAPTER-5 PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION Genetics, Mendelism : first dominant law, second law of segregation-universal accepted, third- independent assortment,theirdiagrammaticpresentationincheckerboard,7contrastingcharacters (1-stem2-flower,2-pod,2- seed).reason of success.
  • 9. 9 Terms : Filial, contrasting characters, homozygous, heterozygous, allele, gene, genotype, phenotype, monohybrid, dihybrid, test cross, back cross and their utility, punnett square, Incomplete dominance : antirrhinum/snapdragon. 4 o clock plant/ Mirabilis, parent colour, progeny colour, phenotype & genotype of F1 F2 generation and result explanation. Co-dominance : multiple allele, incomplete dominance & co-dominance shows by blood groups, possible genotype & blood group of offspring, single gene effect/pleiotrophy on seeds. Inheritance of two genes : genotype & phenotype of F1 & F2 generation. Chromosomal theory : importance, scientist name, how is support mendelism. T.H. Morgan-Drosophila work & importance. Linkage & recombination-procedure & their conditions with percentage. Sex determination: Henking-X body, sex determination in human, Drosophila, insects, birds. Autosomes & sex chromosomes in human, male heterogamety & female heterogamety with examples. Sex determination in human. Mutation : definition,deletion,insertion/duplication. Point mutation & shift mutation with suitable examples. Genetic disorders : Pedigree Analysis : definition, symbols, determination of autosome/sex linked dominant/recessive diseases with upto two generations. Mendelian disorders : Haemophilia : types, symptoms, reasons, precautions. Sickle cell anaemia : : types, symptoms,reasons,precautions,aminoacidspositions,mutations. Phenylketonuria:types, symptoms, reasons, precautions. Chromosomal disorders: aneupoloidy (trisomy, tetrasomy, monosomy, nullisomy), polyploidy-set of chromosomes. Down’s syndrome: reasons, Langdon-1866. Symptoms. Klinefelter’s syndrome: reasons symptoms, gynaecomastia. Turner Syndrome : reasons, symptoms. CHAPTER: 6, MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
  • 10. 10 DNA : DNA length of ssDNA, bacteriophage, E.coli, Human. Structure of DNA, backbone, Watson & Crick Model (nucleotide,nucleoside,nitrogenousbase,antiparallel,chargaff rule,length,diameter, polarity, OH & phosphate group). Packingof DNA helix :DNA length,diameter,relationof DNA lengthandbase pair,lengthof E.coli &Human DNA. Histone protein, octamer, chromatin, NHC protein, euchromatin-heterochromatin. DNA is a geneticmaterial : TransformationPrinciple (Griffth, S-R strain, bacteria, biochemical characterization). AlfredHershey& M. Chase (1952)-radioactive,phosphorus-sulphur,Process-infection,blending&centrifugation. Differences in DNA & RNA, RNA-catalytic activity, unstable. RNA World: first genetic material why ? DNA replication : semi-conservative DNA replication-Meselson-Stahl experiment, role of CsCl , Taylor et al – Vicia faba.Size of DNA, duration of replication in E.coli & human, initiation site numbers, replication fork, DNA polymerase I&III,continuous& discontinuousstrand,okazaki fragments,RNA primers,helicase,topoisomerase, single stranded binding proteins, S phase. RNase, ligase. Transcription : changingin base pairs,transcriptionunit(promoter,structural & termnation), template & coding strand. RNA polymerase, initiation, termination, cistron-monocistronic & polycistronic with examples. Exon & intron difference with example. Process of transcription in prokaryotes :loop formation, role of rRNA, mRNA & tRNA, initiation, initiation factor, elongation & termination (sigma & rho factor). Process of transcription in eukaryotes:functionsof RNApolymerase I,II&III.HnRNA,splicing,capping,tailng,presence of intronshows RNA world. Geneticcode : George Gamow, 20 amino acid, permutation combination-2,3,4-codons 64 how, homopolymers- copolymers –Har Govind singh Khurana. Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase), diagram, Features: triplet, initiation & termination, unambiguous & specific, degenerate, universal, punctuations, universal, initiation & termination codon, mutation in genetic code – RAMHAS RED CAP – point & frame shift mutation. tRNA : sRNA, anticodon loop, amino acid acceptor end, initiator tRNA, Translation: peptide bond, energy, charging of tRNA/ amino acylation of tRNA, UTR regions with examples. Release factors. Regulatin of gene expression: function of regulatory proteins- activator & repressor, lactose & enzyme, lac operon model (z,y,a gene, I,p,o,gene, repressor-inducer), Human genome Project: starts, goal, bioinformatics, costs, HGP-Wellcome trust (UK), contributors, non human model example(plant,insect,nematode,cereal,bacterial,fungi).Methodology:ESTs, Sequence Annonation, YAC
  • 11. 11 & BAC, Procedure. Features : bases, average bases, size-largest & smallest with example, gene for protein, repeated sequence, SNP, no of genes –lowest & maximum, application in future. DNA fingerprinting: repetitive & satellite DNA(AT/GC rich, small peak, polymorphism), sample, use of VNTR, Procedure. Applications. CHAPTER : 7, EVOLUTION Evolution : earth & life origin, Big bang theory, spore theory, spontaneous theory, oparin & Haldane theory- requiredsubstances& result, S.L. Millar experiment-procedure, requirement & result, diagram of experiment. Evolutionof Life : H.M.S. Beagle, CharlesDarwin, AlfredWallace &theirtravelsfinding,meaningof fitness word, bookname withyear.Evidencesof evolution-rock, Dinosaurs-sedimentary rock, age calculation through fossils, Divergentevolutionvshomologousorgan, Convergentevolutionvs Analogous evolution by using two example of each, Natural selection-moth history, pollution indicator with example. Adaptive radiation : Darwin journey- Galapagos island eg. Darwin finches & Marsupials of Australia with their specificfeatures.Biological evolution-Bacteria&Mammal evolution-differences,Natureselectthe fitness- How?, Lamarck theory- use-disuse of organ eg. Giraffe, Thomas Malthus theory & selection with biological evolution. Mechanism : Mendelian factor or gene, Hugo de Vries work on Mutation, minor or large variation, Mutation- definition, meaning as random & directional, saltation. Hardy-WeinbergPrinciple :frequencyof ales,stableorconstant,gene pool isbasisof geneticequilibrium, Name of 5 factors of Hardy Weinberg principles (gene flow, genetic drift, genetic recombination, natural selection & mutation) & their meaning. Founder effect, speciation. Plant evolutionmeaningwithzoosterophyllum, arborescent,lycopods,sphignopsida, (hosrse tail),fern,Gnetales withera.Animal evolution –thecodents,therapsids,dinosaurs,snakes,sauropsids with era. Period of single cell, jaw less fish, invertebrates, coelacanth- ?, Ichthyosaurs & Tyrannosaurs.
  • 12. 12 Origin & evolution of human : period, Dryopithecus, Ramapithacus, australopithecies, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapien, their brain size & other features. Period of pre historic cave art, evolution of horse. CHAPTER : 8 BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE Human health& Disease : blackbile,William Harvey, Health affected by –genetic disorder, infection, life style, Healthy & disease free meaning, infectious & non infectious disease. Common disease inHuman : Type of pathogen, name, vector, symptoms, treatment, transmission mode & test of typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, Ascariasis, filariasis, Amoebiasis, ringworm, Malaria, Dangue and Chickengunia (dual host, life cycle, events as reproduction multiplication, spore, transmission mode & their symptoms). Immunity : definition, types- Innate immunity : 4 type barrier (physical, physiological, cellular & cytocine), Acquired immunity-primary lymphocyte, antibody structure (light & heavy chain, disulphide bond, constant & variable region), Ag-Ab meaning, 5 types of antibody, HMI & CMI- types, differences. Active & Passive immunity : definition, differences with examples. Vaccinatin & immunization- definition, differences, passive immunization, memory, rDNA technology. Allergy : definition, allergens, involve antibodies, chemicals (antihistamine, adrenalin & steroid), symptoms. Asthama Auto immunity : pathogens, meanings, disease. Immune system in body : lymphoid organ-primary & secondary, MALT. AIDS : HIV & AIDS, retrovirus, transmission- 4 reason, diagrams (retrovius, RNA core, reverse transcription, factoryof HIV,multiplication),symptoms,otherdisease infection, T lymphocytes & their role, Prevention-WHO, NACO (3 problems). Cancer : meaning, contact inhibition, tumor-benign & malignant, metastasis, carcinogens, oncogenic virus, c- onc/protooncogenes,cancerdetection & diagnosis (x-ray, CT, MRI), treatment- inferteron, & other 2 methods.
  • 13. 13 Drug & Alcohol Abuse : meaning. Opoids : Heroin/diacetyl morphine, colour, taste, procedure, source name & useful part, effect on body. Cannabinoids : source, symptoms, part of plant name, their combination (4 names), effect on body. Cocaine : source, name, effect on body, symptoms of Atropa belladonna, Datura, Mental illness (depression & insomnia drug), 4 name of LSD & effect. Tobacco : nicotine, source, effect on body, symptoms (5). Adolescence & Drug / Alcohol abuse : Adolescence meaning, period (5 common symptoms). Addiction & Dependence – symptoms, withdrawal syndrome with symptoms. Effect of Drug : person health, HIV, AIDS, Hepatitis, cirrohsis, other symptoms, Prevention & Control : Avoid under peer pressure, education & counseling, seeking help from parents & peers, Looking for danger sign, seeking professional & medical help. CHAPTER: 9 STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION Animal Husbandry : meaning & farm management. Animals: Dairy farm management(name of animals& need,6 requirement), Poultry farm management : name of animals, 6 management activity, bird flu. Animal Breeding : inbreeding : meaning, inbreeding depression, homozogosity, 6th generation, how it can be removed. Outbreeding,definition&types, Outcrossing:definition & importance, Cross breeding : definition & Hisardale, Interspecific hybridization : meaning and 2 example (plant & animal). Controlling Breeding experiment : AI, MOET, meaning & their uses. Bee Keeping : definition, uses (2), species, knowledge required for bee keeping (5). Fisheries:meaning,freshwater&marine waterfish, differences between Pisciculture & apiculture, difference between blue & green revolution.
  • 14. 14 Plant Breeding : meaning, agronomic characters, Procedure : 5 steps with details (collection of variability/ germplasmconservation,evaluation & selection of parents, cross hybridization, selection & testing of superior recombinants, testing, release & commercialization of new cultivars). Agriculture & GDP : wheat- ICWMI, Mexico, Wheat varieties, sonalika & sona kalian, Rice : semi dward – IR-8, IRRI, & Taichung Nature I- Taiwan- Jaya & Ratna. Sugarcane : Saccharum barberi & S. officinarum , stem size, east and south India, millets- examples. Plant breeding for disease resistance : crop-wheat, Brassica, cauliflower, cow pea & chili resistant varieties. Mutation : meaning, gamma radiation, eg. Parbhami kranti. Resistance against pest/insect : crop, varieties, insect-pest, Brassica, flat bean & okra. Plant Breeding for food improve quality : hidden hunger, biofortification, Atlas 66, IARI- vitamin A, Protein eg. SCP : meaning, utility, Spirulina, Methylophilus-methylotrophus. Tissue culture: meaning,explants,totipotency,micropropagation, somaclones, meristem, pollen & endosperm culture, somatic hybrids, somatic hybridization. CHAPTER: 10 MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE Microbiology: meaning,bacteria,fungi,structure of bacteriophage & bacteria, Microbes in Household Products : LAB, coagulation, milk protein, vitamin B & their rule. Dough-idli & dosa, baker’s yeast, Toddy-what ?, Swiss cheese & Roquefortcheese-meaning.MicrobesinIndustrial Products:fermentors,Fermentedbeverages:yeast, fermentation, distilled (whisky, rum & brandy) or without distilled (wine & beer)product. Antibiotics : meaning, functions, history of penicillin-Alexander Fleming, Staphylococci & Penicillium notatum. Other name of antibiotics for plaque, whoooping cough, diptheria, leprosy. Chemicals,Enzymes& bioactive compounds : product & type of microbes – Aspergillus niger, Acetobacter aceti, Clostridium butylicum, Lactobacillus. Use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lipase (stain of cloth), pectinase & proteases(juice clerifyagent), clotbuster-use &microbe name, clclosporinA& statin-type, name of microbes & importance.
  • 15. 15 Microbes in Sewage industry : sewage, muncipal wase, STPs, treatment : Primary treatment : meaning, sedimentation,filtration,Primarysludge&effluent. Secondarytreatment: aerationtank,microbial growth-flocs, BOD-decrease, why ?, sediment is activated sludge-use, inoculum, anaerobic sludge digesters-produce gases like co2, biogas, methane, hydrogen sulphide. MEF- Ganga action plan & Yamuna action plan. Microbes in production of biogas : methane bacteria, methanogens eg.- Methanobacterium, rumen, cellulose matter in food, digestion of cellulose in human ?, diagram of biogas plant, procedure & labeling, IARI, KVIC. Microbesas Biocontrol Agents: meaning,pollutionbyinsecticide & pesticide, Predation- as a biological control, importance, Ladybird& Dragonflies-aphids&mosquitoes. Bt, Trichoderma,Baculovirus, Nucleopolyhedrovirus- show narrow spectrum insecticidal application, negative impact-nil, IPM. Microbes as a biofertilizers : meaning, importance, organic farming, sources : bacteria, fungi & cyanobacteria – their uses & example, Rhizobium, Azospirillum & Azotobacter- their features. Mycorrhiza meaning, Glomus, Phosphorus,symbioticassociation- mycorrhiza&Rhizobiumwhy?, Autotropes-Anabaena, Nostoc & Oscillatoria, Paddy field, use-replenish soil & reduce the use of chemical fertilizers. CHAPTER: 11 BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLE & PROCESS Biotechnology, Biotechnology & genetic engineering, Principle of Biotechnology : gene cloning, gene transfer, recombinanttechnology,plasmid,originof replication,cloning,vector,restrictionenzyme.Stepsof GMorganism (3). Tools of recombinant DNA technology: 1. Restriction enzyme : history, nomenclature, exo & endo nuclease, palindromic nucleotide sequence, sticky & blunt end, diagram representation of rDNA technology. Separation and isolation of DNA fragments : gel electrophoresis (diagram labeling-4), EtBr, uses. CloningVectors : plasmid,featuresas ori,selectable marker(transformation), cloning sites (recognition sites, antibiotic resistance site & uses), insertional inactivation with example, structure of vector, Vectors for cloning genes in plants & animals (Ti, Ri, tumor, cancerous, ligation, procedure). Competent Host (Transformation with rDNA) : natural, artificial (micro injection, macro injection, gene gun/ biolistics, & their uses). Processof rDNA technology: A. Isolation of genetic material (cell wall – lysozyme, cellulose, chitinase, chromosome-RNase,Protease,fine threadsuspension).B. Cutting of DNA at specific locations –R.E., agarose gel electrophoresis, auto radiography (procedure with diagram). C. Amplification of desirable DNA : PCR
  • 16. 16 (denaturation, annealing, primers, Taq polymerase, extension, amplified). D. Insertion of rDNA into host cell/organism:antibioticresistantsite vsselectablemarker.E.Obtaining the foreigngene product: recombinant protein.Bioreactor:definition,culture,cultivation,culturemedium, maintaining pH, steam sterilization, motor, foak braker, flat bladed impeller, broth culture, bubbles formation, and their importance. Downstream Processing: biosynthetic phase, meaning, separation & purification, quality control. CHAPTER: 12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION Green revolution,M.S.Swaminathan,N.Borlog,GMO,GM, Agronomicfeature of GMcrops, Bt- meaning, name, gene, protein, cryIAc, cryIAb gene function, toxin crystal & impact on insects. PestResistant Plants : nematode, Meloidegyneincognitia,RNA interference (use,silencingof mRNA,transposon, sense & anti sense RNA, use). Biotechnologyapplicationsin Medicine :Insulin/HUMULIN: proinsulin-insulin, diabetes, allergy, pancreas, two polypeptide, C peptide, Eli Lilly, E.coli, disulphide bond. Gene therapy : meaning, ADA deficiency, symptoms, bone marrow transplantation, use of retroviral vector, lymphocytes, permanent cure. Molecular Diagnosis : use of PCR, ELISA, their basis, probe & their uses. Transgenic Animals : definition, why these produced, Common reason of transgenic animals; A. Normal physiology&developmentB.Studyof disease,C.Biologyproducts(10example,humanproteinname,PKU,cystic fibrosis, first transgenic cow name & their importance, nutritional importance) D. Vaccine Safety E. Chemical safety testing. Ethical Issues: GEAE, US patent and trademark, rice, & mango varieties, basmati rice, neem, turmeric, brinjil, 3 issues. Biopiracy : meaning, unauthorized exploitation, Indian Patent Bill, importance. CHAPTER: 13 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
  • 17. 17 Biological organization (macromolecules, cells, tissues, organ, individual organisms, population, communi ties, ecosystem,Biome). Organism& itsenvironment: graphical representationof desert,granssland,tropical forest, temperate forest, coniferous forest, arctic & alpine tundra – their annual temperature and precipitation (cm). Major Biome inindia(4 name).Abioticfactors: Temperature : variationsfromequatortowardstopoles& plains to mountain tops, temp range, 100o C temp (2 eg.), relations of temperature with area and mango tree & snow leopard. Eurythermal & stenothermal with eg. Water : salinityinparts per thousand eg. Inland water, sea and hypersaline lagoons. Euryhaline animals. Light : photoperiods, biological spectrum & UV spectrum and their utility, red,green & brown algae in water. Soil : weathering,sedimentary,soil development, grain size, water holding capacity, pH, mineral composition of soil, benthic animals. Response to abiotic factors : homeostasis,fitnessof living,diagrammaticrepresentationof conformers(%,water & temp changes, osmotic conc., animal in polar reasons), regulators (thermoregulation & osmoregulation, maintaining homeostasis) and partial regulators, migrate and suspend with suitable example. Adaptations : meaning, plants eg. CAM, stomata, leaves spines, stem, Mammals adaptations (Allen’s rule, blubber, insulator), physiological adaptations eg. Altitude place as Rohtang pass, altitude sickness, symptoms, problems,Hb.,metabolicreactions-100 C & zero how ? pressure upto 100 times in sea-problems & adaptations, desert lizard adaptation. Populationattributes : meaning,birthrate & deathrate,formula,calculations.Age pyramid –expanding, stable, declining meaning and importance. Population density, measuring. Population growth : Natality, Mortality, Immigration, Emigration, their meaning. Equation (BIDE), Growth Models : Exponential growth – unlimited resources eg. Darwin-natural selection, Logistic growth : limited resources,fittest-survive &reproduce. (graph with equation, also explain ert , r, K, e). Life history of Variation : r value, sps breed once in life eg, livings produce a large number of small sized offspring and vise versa. Population interaction : meaning and types. Predation (+,-) : eg.tophic level, herbivores, prickly pear cactus in Australia,Pisaster,camouflagedeg.Insect & frog, monarch butterfly-bird, phytophagous insect-plants, thorn in acacia & cactus, Calotropis, commercial product. Competition : Darwin theory, close & unrelated species. Intrinsic rate (r), Gause rule, eg. Abingdon tortoise, Competitive Release eg. Cannell’s elegant experiment on Balanus.Gause competitiveexclusionPrinciple-meaningwitheg, resource partitioning eg. Mac Arthur-warblers. Parasitism : meaningfree lodging&meal,host& parasite bothco evolve,eg,Taeniasolium (3 features), malaria parasite (endoparasite), ectoparasite-life on human, ticks on dog, female Anapheles mosquito, Cuscuta, copepods, Brood parasitism (meaning & eg.). Commensalism : meaning, eg. Orchid-mango, barnacles –whale,
  • 18. 18 cattle-egret,seaanemone-clownfish. Mutualism:meaning,eg.Lichen,mycorrhizae, Rhizobium,pollination, fig- wasp, orchids Ophrys-bee-pseudocopulate. CHAPTER: 14 ECOSYSTEM Ecosystem : Terrestrial (forest, grassland, desert) & aquatic (pond, lake, wetland, river, estuary). Ecosystem structure & function : stratification, components (productivity, decomposition, energy flow, nutrient cycle). Productivity: primaryproductivity&sec.productivity, NPP& GPP,R.(170 billionton, 55 ocean). Decomposition : meaning, detritus, detritivores, fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, human & mineralization. Energy flow : PAR, %, Producers, consumers, herbivores vs primary consumers, sec consumers vs primary carnivores,foodchain,Difference between GFC &DFC (3), Food Web in terrestrial eco system & pond, standing crop, tropical level vs. food chain. Ecological Pyramids : meaning, energy, biomass and number pyramid, exception, upright & invert pyramid. PP,PC,SC & TC. Ecological Succession : meaning, climax community, sere, bare tocks, lichen pioneer of life, Primary & sec. succession meaning with difference. Succession of Plants : Hydrarch Succession & Xerarch succession, pioneer species, procedure with diagrammatic representation. Nutrient Cycling : meaning, standing state, Biogeochemical cycles, gaseous & sedimentary cycle. Carbon & Phosphorus cycle, difference. Date related to Carbon eg. Fixed c by plants, 49%, 71% & 1%. Litter fall, detritus, rock minerals. Ecosystem service : meaning & example (10), 33 trillion dollar, GNP, Robert Constanza, ecosystem service (50,10,5%- ?). CHAPTER-15 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION Speciesof ant-20000, 300000 beetles,28000 sps of fish& 20000 spsof orchids. Biodiversity:genetic(Rauwolfia, rice & mango), Species : meaning, western ghat-amphibian, ecological diversity-different ecosystems.
  • 19. 19 Species in India & world : IUCN-2004-1.7 Billion (12 lac animal & 5 lac plants), Robert May- 7 million global diversity, Invertebrate global biodiversity – (insect, mollusca, crustacean & others), Vertebrate (fishes, birds, reptiles,amphibians&mammals), Plant(fungi,angiosperm, algae,mosses, ferns & lichen). India land area 2.4 % but diversity-8.1 %, 12 megabiodiversity, India-45000 sps plants & twice animals. Acc. of May-22% discovered, waiting-1 lac plant & 3 lac animal species. Pattern of Biodiversity : 1. Latitudinal gradients : equator to poles, 23.5 N to 23.5S polar area, Colombia-1400 bird sps, Newyork-41 N 105 & Greenland 71 N only 56 sps of birds. India-1200 bird sps, Amazonian rain forest- SouthAmerica- greatdiversityas4 lac plant,3000 fish,1300 birds.427 mammals& 427 amphibians,378reptiles, 1.25 lac invertebrates. Evolution of species by speciation, tropical environment-promote niche & constant environment, solar energy. 2. Species Area Relationship : curve between sps richness & area, two equations, frugivorous birds, Z value, steeper slopes. Biodiversity importance to Ecosystem : experiment of Paul Ehrlich-rivet popper hypothesis. Loss of biodiversity : IUCN-2004 : 784 sps extinct (338 vertebrate, 359 invertebrate, 87 plants)-last 500 yrs. eg. dodo, quagga, thylacine & steller sea cow, tigers sps. Threat sps-15500 (12% birds, 23% mammals, 32% amphibian & 31 gymnosperms). Causesof biodiversityLosses : Evil Quartet isthe sobriquet.1. Habitat loss & fragmentation (14% earth surface- 6% rainforest, Amazan lung of planet-soyabean & beef cattle, migration due to fragmentation). 2. Overexploitation:meaning,Stellersea cow, passenger pigeon, dodo etc., 3. Alien sps invasion : meaning, Nile Perch,-Lake Victoria-200 cichlid fish, carrot grass, lantana, water hyacinth, Clarias gariepinus. 4. Co-extinction : mutualism & obligatory relation. Needofbiodiversityconservation: 1. Narrow utilization :foods, firewood,fibre,products,medicines, 25% from 25000 plants, bioprocessing. 2. Broadly utilization : 20% oxygen from Amazon forest, pollination, pollination, bulbul songs, price tag, 3. Ethical use : spiritual, social, philosophical use. Methods of biodiversity Conservation : Save entire forest to save the tiger. In situ conservation : meaning, endemism, hot spot-25+9=34, 3 hot spot in India- Western Ghat & Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma,Himalaya.Theycover-2%biodiversity,National parks(90), sanctuaries (448), 14 biosphere reserve. Ramsar sites meaning and importance Sacred Groves : meaning & example of Meghalaya, Rajasthan & Madhya Pradesh. Ex-situconservation: meaning,zoological park,botanical garden & wild life safari, cryopreservation, seed bank purpose, IVF. Earth Summit & World Summit & their history.
  • 20. 20 CHAPTER-16 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Pollution : meaning, pollutants. Environment Protection Act-1986. Air Pollution & Control : Structure & use of scrubber& electrostaticprecipitator,corona. CPCB- particulate size &harmful tohuman.Reasonof air pollution, disease. Catalyticconverter: meaning,use,reasonof expansive, unleaded petrol. Vehicular Air Pollution : Case study of Delhi : history, PIL, CNG-2002, Euro II-features, use of road map, Bharat Stage II, Euro III-april 1, 2005. Euro IV, Air (Prevention & control) Act-1981, Noise pollution- meaning, dB (30,60,70,80,150), symptoms. Water Pollution& Control : WaterAct (1974), waterbodies,graphical relation of BOD & dissolved oxygen, BOD of tap, partial digested & sewage water, Algal Bloom : meaning, loss of aquatic life eg. E. crassipes, or terror of Bengal. Biomagnification: meaning&effectsonaquaticlife, Cultural/AcceleratedBiomagnification,case study of Arcta, NE of California-Humboldt state university-town people, integrated waste water treatment- sedimentation,filtration& chlorine treatment,heavymetalsremains- 60 hectare mashland area-seeded algae, fungi & bacteria, their role, FOAM-meaning. Solid Waste : muncipal waste, sanitary land fills, role of kabadiwalas, role of eco friendly packing. Case study : Ahmad Khan: polybland-fine powder of plastic +bitumen, price 0.04 Rs/kg, hospital waste, e waste treatment- elements. Agrochemicals& theireffects :procedure,fungicide,herbicide, eutrophication, case study of organic farming : Ramesh Chandra Dagar- farmer of Sonipat, HKWC-5000 farmers. Radioactive waste : meaning, hirosima-nagasaki, 3 Mile Island, Chernobyl, Japan-2011, Nuclear Dose & health, treatment methods - ? , not suitable why ? Green House Effect and Global Warming : meaning, gases (CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O), temperature -18 & +15o C, El Ninoeffect,Himalayancaps. Ozone depletioninstratosphere : UV rays, DU unit,ozone & CFC, CL ion as catalyst, Ozone hole, snow blindness-meaning, Montreal Protocol-Canada (1987,1989). Resource Degradation : soil erosion(topfertile soil), deforestation,waterlogging& soil salinity. Deforestation: meaning,40%lost in tropics & 1% in temperate, Reforestation. Case Study : 1731, Jodhpur, Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award, Chipko movement of Garhwal-Himalaya in 1974, JFM (1980) : meaning & importance.
  • 21. 21 Chapter – 1: - REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS  Life Span :Period from birth till natural death.Every organism live only for a certain period of time. Reproduction –Producing young-ones of their kind, generation after generation. Two types :  Asexual reproduction :single parent capable of producing offspring.Somatogenic reproduction  Sexual reproduction :two parents are invovled in producing offspring. Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Single parent involved Two parents involved Fusion & formation of gametes is absent Fusion & formation of gametes is present Only mitotic divisions Involves both (mitosis and meiosis) Progeny genetically identical (clones) Progeny with variations (Offsprings.) Modes of Asexual Reproduction :  Binary fission: parent body divides into two halves, genetically identical to parent. Eg.-Amoeba Paramoecium.  Multiple fission: parent body divides into many daughter organisms. Eg. Plasmodium.  Budding: daughter organisms grow from small buds arising in parent body. eg. Hydra, Yeast.  Gemmule in sponge.  Conidia: non-motile, exogenous spores in chains eg. Fungi (Penicillium).  Zoospores: microscopic, haploid, motile structures eg. Algae (Chlamydomonas).  Sporulation : Under unfavorable conditions, When the products of multiple fission become individually surrounded by resistant coats, the cyst walls before their release from the parent, the processs is known as sporulation and the encysted products are termed spores. Eg- Amoeba  Fragmentation : Filamentous organism divided into two or more individuals eg. Spirogyra, Spirulina.  Regeneration: it is the process of renewal, restoration and growth. Eg. Hydra, Planarian flatworm, lizard tail & human liver. Vegetative Reproduction in plants  Vegetative reproduction frequently used instead of asexual reproduction, units of vegetative propagation called vegetative propagules. Eg.- runner (Grass, Oxalis), rhizome (ginger), sucker (Mentha), tuber (Potato), offset (Eichhornia), bulb (Onion), Bulbil (Agave). Sexual Reproduction : PHASES OF LIFE SPAN.  Juvenile phase: The phase of growth before reproductive maturity. In plants- Vegetative Phase.  Reproductive phase: Reproductive maturity.  Senescent phase: Phase between reproductive maturity and death. Special Flowering : Bamboo- once in life, generally after 50-100 years. Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji) – flowers once in 12 years, (In Sep-Oct 2006,blue stretched mass flowering attract tourists in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu).  The main events of sexual cycle are: Prefertilization, Fertilization & Post Fertilization. A. Prefertilisation events: a. Gametogenesis : The process of formation of male and female gametes by meiosis (cell-division).  Homogamete (Isogamete): - gametes similar eg. Algae  Heterogamete (anisogamete): - morphologically dissimilar gamete ,male gamete (antherozoid or sperm), female gamete (egg or ovum) eg. Human.  Sexuality in organisms : In plants Bisexual term is used for Homothallic and Monoecious plants
  • 22. 22  Monoecious : Reproductive organs at different positions in same plant eg. Chara, Maize.  Hermophrodite : Reproductive organs at different positions in same animal eg. Earthworm.  Unisexual term used for Heterothallic and Dioecious plants.  Male and female reproductive-structure on different plants.  Flowering plants:male flower (staminate flower) & female flower (pistillate flower) eg. papaya and datepalm.  Animals – Bisexual term is used for Hermaphrodite animals-eg. Earth-worm, Tape-worm, Leech,  Unisexual animals have male & female sexes in separate individuals-e.g. insects, frogs, human beings Cell division during gamete formation: Haploid-parent (n) produces haploid gametes (n) by mitotic division, eg. Monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes. Diploid parent (2n) produces haploid gametes (n) by meiosis division (possess only one set of chromosomes) and such specialized parent cell is called meiocyte or gamete mother cell (2n).  Example- Name of organism Meiocyte (2n) gamete (n) Human 46 23 Housefly 12 6 Ophioglossum (fern) 1260 630 Potato 48 24 b) Gamete transfer:- to facilitate fusion.  Male gametes - motile & female- non-motile, exception few fungi and in algae.  Gamete transfer through water : algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes & amphibians.  Higher plants, pollen-grains are transferred by pollination. B. Fertilization : fusion of male and female gamete.  Syngamy : Process of fusion of male and female gamete. Two type of Fertilization: external and internal . EXTERNAL FERTILISATION INTERNAL FERTILISATION Fertilisation takes place outside the body Fertilisation takes place inside the body External medium is required- water No external medium required Large no. of gametes produced. Lesser no. of gametes produced. Offsprings –less protected Offsprings- well protected. Eg. Algae, fish, amphibians Gymnosperm, angiosperm, aves, mammals. C. Post -fertilisation events- formation of zygote and embryo. Zygote. Single celled , diploid, vital link between two generations. In fungi & algae, zygote develops a thick walled that is resistant to dessication and damage.  Haplontic life cycle- zygote (2n) divides by meiosis to form haploid (n) spores.  Diplontic life-cycle- zygote (2n) divides mitotically, develops into embryo (2n). Embryogenesis: development of embryo from zygote by cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation. On based of Zygote development, animals are grouped into two types- Oviparous Animals Viviparous Animals They ley fertilized or unfertilized egg. They give birth to young ones. Fertilized eggs have calcareous shell No calcareous shell Development of embryo outside female body Development of embryo inside female body Less chance of survival. More chance of survival.
  • 23. 23 Eg. Reptiles and Birds Eg. Mammals  Cell- division increases the number of cells in the developing embryo Cell differentiation - groups of cells undergo certain modifications for the formation of different kinds of tissues and organs.  In flowering plants- zygote formed inside ovule.  Changes occur in flowering plants: Sepal, petals, stamens, Fall off Zygote Embryo Primary endosperm nucleus Endosperm (3 N) Synergid, antipodal cells Disintegrate Ovary Fruit Ovule Seed Ovary wall Pericarp (epicarp + mesocarp + endocarp) Outer Integument testa Inner Integument tegmen  Parthenogenesis: Female gamete develops into new organism without fertilization . eg- Honey bee, turkey, lizard, rotifers (Protozoans).  Seedless fruits formed by parthenogenesis  Clone: A group of individuals of the same species that are morphologically and genetically similar to each other & their parents. Chapter 1: REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS QUESTIONS Q) What is meiocyte? Ans) It is the gamete mother cells which undergoes meiosis. Q) Why is date palm referred to as dioecious? Ans) In date palm the male and female flowers are present in different plants. Q) What is special in flowering in bamboo? Ans) Bamboo flowers only once in their life time generally after 50-100 years . Q) Define clone? Ans) It is a group of individual of the same species that are morphologically and genetically similar. Q) What is vegetative propagule? Ans) The units of vegetative propargations that gives rise to a new plant is called vegetative propagule. Examples: Runner and rhizome. Q) Digramatically represents asexually reproduction in yeast? Ans) See Figure 1.2 (page-5) Q) Cucur bit are called monoecious. Justify? Ans) They have male and female reproductive structures in different flowers. Q) If chromosomes number in meiocyte in rat, elephant and rice is 42,56,24 what will be the chromosomes number in theier gamet? Ans) Rat 21, elephant 28,rice 12 3 marks Q) Why higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite of its complexcity? Ans) 1. It brings about variations.
  • 24. 24 2. Variation helps in better adaptation in nature. 3. Variation is the basis of evolution. Q) What is parthenogenesis. Give Example? Ans) Development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg is called parthenogenesis. It is simpler easier and rapid mode of replication. But there is no chance of any variation. So it does not play any role in evolution. Eg.- Honey bee and some lizards Q Mention the reason for difference in ploidy of zygote and primary endosperm nucleus in angiosperm Ans Zygote is formed by fusion of haploid male gamete and haploid egg so it is diploid. Whereas the PEN is formed by fusion of haploid male gamete with two haploid polar nuclei so it is triploid. . 5 Marks. Q) What are vegetative propagules. Name any four of them and give example? Eg.- rhizome of ginger, leaf bud of bryophyllum, bulb of onion, offset of pistia. HOTS. Q)Amoeba is immortal. Explain? Ans) Amobea has no natural death. It undergoes binary fission and forms two new daughter cells. Q) Which is the first diploid single cell which begins life? Ans) Zygote. Q What is the fate of zygote in organism which show 1 Haplontic life cycle 2Diplontic life cycle Ans In haplontic life cycle zygote undergoes meiosis during its generation In diplontic life cycle zygote divides mitotically during embryogenesis Q) What type gamete are formed in staminate and pistillate flowers? Ans) Pollen grains and egg cell respectively. Q) Name the organisms with respect to their sexuality? i) Monoecious animal ii) Dioecious animal iii) Monoecious plant iv) Dioecious plant Ans :- i) Earthworm ii) Cockroach iii) Chara iv) Marchantia.
  • 25. 25 8-1 CHAPTER- 2 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
  • 26. 26 CHAPTER 2 – SEXUAL REPRODUCTION INFLOWERING PLANTS FLOWERS : modified shoot, Site of sexual Reproduction. Male and female reproductive organs are borne on flowers. PARTS OF A FLOWER: Four whorls-  Calyx (sepals): green in colour, protects the bud.  Corolla (petals): colourful, attracts insects for pollination.  Androecium (Male reproductive organ),  Gynoecium (Female reproductive organs) Calyx & corolla : accessory whorl. Androecium & gynoecium : Essential whorl. Male Reproductive Organ  Androecium consists of Stamens.  Stamen consists of anther, filament & connective (when anther is bilobed)  Anther : bilobed (two theca) has 4 microsporangia. Refer fig. 2.1 of NCERT (L.S. of a flower with different parts) MICROSPOROGENESIS: The process of formation of micro spores from pollen mother cell (2n) through meiosis. Microsporangium is 4 layered: Epidermis : single outer layer Endothecium : dehiscence of anther Middle layer : 2-4 layered,crushes when sporogenous tissue mature. Tapetum : dense cytoplasm & multinucleate, Nourishes the developing pollen grain & formation of pollen wall, Microspore mother cell (2n) Meiosis Microspore (n) Mitosis Pollen grains (n) Pollen grains : Male gametophyte, size-25-50 µm. Two layered :-  Exine : Exine is made of sporopollenin.(Hardest natural substance).  Intine : Intine is made of cellulose and pectin. Pollen Maturation : Mature pollen grains have two cells – large vegetative cell & small generative cell. Generative cell forms two male gametes by mitotic division. Pollen grains shed in 2-celled / 3celled stage (See Fig 2.5 a and b page 23 NCERT) Gynoecium / carpel (the female reproduuctive organ) (Structure of anatropous ovule) / Megasporangium  Apocarpus : free carpel  Syncarpus : fused carpel  Monocarpellary : single carpel  Multicarpellary : Many carpel.  Each Carpel consists of ovary, style & stigma.  Ovules are attached to ovary by placenta.  Funicle – stalk of ovule  Hilum, a region where funicle is attached  Integuments –cover embryo sac.  Micropyle – a pore for entry of pollen tube.
  • 27. 27  Embryo Sac : Female gametophyte  Nucellus : it covers embryo sac, seed up to maturation. Megasporogenesis  The formation of megaspore from the megaspore mother cell –MMC (2n) is called megasporogenesis.  In megaspore tetrad, 3 degenerate & one functional megaspore develops into female gametophyte (embryo sac).  Embryo sac (Polygonum type) - 8 nucleate & 7 celled.  Synergid cell have special cellular thickening at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus,which play an imp. role in guiding the pollen tube into the synergid. MEGASPOROGENESIS POLLINATION– transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. Agents of pollination –air, water, insect.bat,bird,man. Transfer of pollen to stigma Self pollination (Autogamy) Auto gamy (Same flower) Cross pollination (Hetrogamy) Xenogamy (different flowers on different plants of the same species) Geitenogamy Different flowers same plant
  • 28. 28 Autogamy : Chasmogamous flower-exposed anther and stigma. eg- Viola, Commelina, Oxalis. Cleistogamous flower : anther and stigma-closed . It assured seed set in the absence of pollinator. eg- Viola, Oxalis. Adaptation for pollination Wind pollination Water pollination Insect pollination Pollen grains – light, non-sticky, colourless, well exposed stamens, feathery stigma & numerous flower. Pollen grains protected by mucilaginous covering, long stalk & long coiled style. Colorful & showy flower, high fragrance, produce nectar, sticky pollen grains & stigma. Special type of Pollination : A. Amorphophillus (flower height-6 feet), provides safe place for lay eggs of insects. B . A moth deposits eggs in the locule of ovary of Yucca plant & inturn pollinates Yucca. Out Breeding Devices : to promote cross pollination because self pollination results in inbreeding depression.  Heterostyly : Different size of style & stamens eg. Primula (Pin & Thrum flowers)  Herkogamy : Anatomical barrier eg. Calotropis procera.  Self Sterility : Pollens donot germinate on stigma of self flower eg. Malva  Protoandry : anther mature before pistel eg. Hibiscus rosa sinensis.  Protogyny : Pistel matures before anther eg. Aristolochia Self Incompatibility : Pollen & stigma of same flower & same plant rejects to each other . Pollen Pistel Interaction : Stigma have the ability to recognize the right type of pollen it rejects the pollen grains of other species & also the incompatible pollens of the species. Artificial Hybridization : it is a major approach to crop improvement programme. It is achieved by - i) Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the flower bud of a bisexual flower before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps. ii) Bagging - covering the emasculated flowers with a bag of suitable size to protect them from contamination with unwanted pollen. iii). Rebagging : Mature pollen grains collected from anther of the male plant & dusted on stigma, and the flowers are rebagged and the fruits allowed to develop. Double fertilization Fertilization is the process of fusion of male & female gametes (n+n) to form a diploid (2n) zygote. First fertilization : Fusion of male gamete with egg is called SYNGAMY & develops embryo (2N) Second fertilization: Fusion of polar nuclei with 2nd male gamete is called TRIPLE FUSION & develops PEN (3N). Since two types of fusions, syngamy & triple fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is termed double fertilization. C. Post fertilisation changes: 1. Endosperm : 3 type of endosperm development i). Nuclear : PEN successive nuclear divisons to give rise free nuclei eg. Cocus , Areca catechu (betal nut). ii). Cellular : Wall formation occurs after every division of PEN eg. Annona squamosa, Adoxa. iii) . Helobial : both type of development is present (nuclear & cellular) eg. Monocots. Embryo development :
  • 29. 29 1. Zygote divides by mitosis into suspensor & embryo cells 2. Suspensor cell forms a globular basal cell which remains embedded in the endosperm & a multicellular suspensor bearing the embryo 3.Globular embryo becomes heart-shaped & then mature embryo with radicle, plumule & Cotyledons. Scutellum : Monocot embryo DICOT EMBRYO MONOCOT EMBRYO - GRASS Difference between : EPICOTYL HYPOCOTYL  Area of embryo axis between the plumule & cotyledonary node.  In hypogeal germination epicotyls elongates & seeds remains underground.  Area of embryo axis between the radicle & cotyledonary node.  In epigeal germination, hypocotyls elongates & push the seed out of soil. COLEOPTILE COLEORHIZA  Covering of plumule in monocots.  Coleoptile breaks grain covering and elongates.  It turns in green.  It protects plumule during emergence from soi.  Covering of radicle in monocots.  It breaks grain covering but stop further growth  It remains inside soil.  No such function. PERISPERM PERICARP  It is a part of seed.  It is Remnant of nucellus.  Dry  No significant importance Eg. Black pepper, beet  It is a part of fruit.  It is overy wall (epicarp, mesocarp & endocarp).  Dry / fleshy  Protection, dispersal and nutrition of seed. Eg. Mango
  • 30. 30 TRUE FRUITS FALSE FRUITS True Fruit develops only from the ovary, e.g. mango, tomato  False Fruit develops from parts of the flowerother than the ovary e.g. apple, peach etc Albuminous Seed Non albuminous seed  Seed retains endosperm as it is not completely used up during embryo development. Eg. Wheat, maize, barley, sunflower, castor.  Seeds do not retain endosperm as it is completely utilized during embryo development. Eg. Pea, grountnut. Apomixis Parthenogenesis  It is a asexual reproduction which mimics sexual reproduction where seeds are formed without fertilization from diploid egg cell and other cells of nucellus.  Development of haploid female gamete (egg cell) into an adult without fertilization. Significance of fruit formation :  The fruits protect the seeds from unfavorable climatic conditions.  Both fleshy and dry fruits help in the dispersal of seeds to distant places.  source of many chemicals like sugars, protein, oil, organic acids, vitamins and minerals.  provide nutrition to the developing seedlings. Importance of Apomixis : Since apomictic seed are produced asexually so they maintain their agronomic characters. So they are used in hybrid seed industry, floriculture, horticulture. Polyembryony- Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony. It is due to formation of more than one egg in embryo sac, formation of more embryosac, synergid cell, integument and nucellus cells may also develops into embryo. e.g.Orange, lemon, groundnut, mango, onion etc.
  • 31. 31 Chapter-3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION Events of Human Reproduction Gametogenesis :formation of gametes. Insemination : Transfer of sperm in female genital tract. Fertilization : fusion of sperm and ovum. Implantation : attachment of blastocyst with uterine wall for further development. Gestation : Embryonic development Parturition : Delivery of the baby. The Male reproductive system Penis : a. Urination b. Sexual intercourse c. Corpus cavernosum- spongy tissue that fills with blood to make penis erect d. Glans- the head, end of penis e. Foreskin i. Covers glans, ii. May be removed surgically in an operation 2. Scrotum a. Located behind penis b. Contains two testes c. Temperature sensitive (Sperm must be made in cooler conditions i.e, 2-30 C lower than body temperature) 3. Testes a. Sperm is produced by the seminiferous tubules due to FSH b. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells due to LH Sertoli cells : Provide nutrition to developing germ cells. Interstitial cells / Leydig cells : Synthesize & secrete testicular hormone called androgens. (Refer Fig. 3.2, page no.-44 NCERT) ACCESSORY DUCTS : Epididymis: Stores sperm until they have matured. Vas deferens: Tube that leads from the epididymis to the urethra. Many sperm cells are stored here too. ACCESSORY GLANDS : Prostate gland: Provides an alkaline fluid that can protect sperm from harsh vaginal acids. Seminal Vesicles: Produce food for sperm. Food "Fructose" Cowper's gland: Produces clear lubricating fluid
  • 32. 32 SPERM SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES Head : It contains a elongated haploid nucleus, covered by acrosome. It filled with hydrolytic enzymes to dissolve the membrane of ovum for fertilization. Neck : It contains two centrioles helps in first cleavage division of zygote. Middle Piece: contains numerous mitochrondria which produce energy for movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization Tail : helps in Sperm movement Spermatogonium : it is diploid contains 46 chromosomes. Primary Spermatocyte (2n): it complete 1st meiotic equal division (reduction) & forms 2 secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes : it is haploid, undergo the 2nd meiotic div to produce four equal haploid spermatids. Spermatids : They transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis with the help of FSH. Spermiation : After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the sertoli cells and finally released from seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation. The Female Reproductive System : Ovary: Each ovary contains immature ova (eggs) in follicles. ii) Females born with lifetime supply of eggs (250,000-400,000 in each ovary) iii) Ovaries release ovum -. Almost all ova degenerate between birth and puberty. iv) Approx. 400 eggs will be ovulated over woman's life. v) Egg is the largest human cell. vi) Ovaries are located lower abdomen. 1 left and 1 on the right. Fallopian tubes i)Two thin tubes attached to the upper sides of uterus ii) Tubes terminate near the ovaries but are not attached iii)"Fimbriae" are finger-like structures on the end of each tube iv)Tubes conduct egg to uterus by use of small hairs called "cilia" v)Fertilization of ovum takes place in the ampullary- isthmic junction of the fallopian tubes. Egg viable for only 24-48 hours after ovulation. Uterus: i)Pear-shaped organ located in lower abdomen. ii)Muscles(myometrium) stretch to allow baby to develop. Oxytocin starts labor contractions. iii)Lining of uterus (endometrium) thickens with blood-rich tissue due to progesterone. iv)Endometrium supports embryo/fetus during growth. v)Placenta It is the interface between baby and mother. If not pregnant, lining breaks down and is discharged from body through vagina. This is menstruation (period). vi)Cervix connects uterus to vagina. Like a door that opens during ovulation. Cervical mucous closes the door at all other times. (Refer Fig. 3.3b, page no.-45 NCERT)
  • 33. 33 EXTERNAL GENITALIA: Vagina (Birth canal) :  Menstrual blood leaves the body, Organ of intercourse , Muscular stretches to allow a baby to grow  Vaginal opening partly remains closed by thin membrane of tissue called hymen. May be stretched or torn during any physical activity or first intercourse. Cervix:  Located at inner end of vagina, Opening of uterus into vagina ,  Mucous prevents bacteria and viruses from entering uterus, Lets sperm into uterus after ovulation  Where baby also passes through during vaginal birth Labia: 2 layers of skin, which fold over the opening to vagina and urethra ii) Inner labia (labia minora) iii)Outer labia (labia majora)  Pubic hair grows on outer labia Clitoris: Small organ, 5 to 10 millimeters long; Located at junction of inner labia near front of body Contains erectile tissue& sexually sensitive. Mons pubis :Cushion like fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair Gametogenesis & its hormonal regulation : FSH and LH from the pituitary: FUNCTION / PRODUCTION Hormone In Females In Males FSH Controls  Eggs + Estrogen (Follicular development) Spermiogenesis LH Controls  Ovulation + Corpus Luteum Testosterone (Spermatogenesis) Differentiate between: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis : Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Produces male gametes (sperm) produces female gametes (oocytes) –occurs in the seminiferous tubules (in testes) –occurs in the ovaries –occurs throughout life after puberty occurs after puberty until menopause may produce 3,00,00,000 per day –humans normally produce one oocyte during each ovarian cycle Primary spermatocyte divide equally to form two similar secondary spermatocytes Primary otocyte divide unequally to form one large secondary oocyte and a small polar body One spermatogonium produces 4 functional spermatozoa An oogonium produces one functional ovum and 3 non functional polar bodies REFER fig.3.8 page : 49 NCERT.
  • 34. 34 OVULATION : From Primordial Follicle to Tertiary Follicle Primordial follicle:The surviving primary oocytes, at birth, are surrounded by thin, single layers cells of so- called follicular epithelial cells. Primary follicle : The primordial follicles while developing into primary follicles the follicular epithelium that surrounds the oocyte becomes iso- to highly prismatic A Primordial follicle B Primary follicle 1 Oocyte 2 Follicular epithelium 1 Oocyte 2 Pellucid zone 3 Stratum granulosum 4 Theca folliculi cells Secondary follicle Secondary follicles with follicular epitheliums encompassing multiple rows are formed called the stratum granulosum. Pellucid zone, between the oocyte and follicular epithelium becomes visible. Tertiary follicle A well-developed net of capillaries in the theca interna. Antrum – a fluid filled cavity develops The theca layer organized into Theca internal & Theca external Refer : Fig. 3.7 page – 49 NCERT.
  • 35. 35 MENSTRUAL CYCLE : Follicular phase (Proliferative phase ) and Luteal phase (Secretory Phase) Proliferative phase Secretory Phase Follicular phase Luteal phase Stage of repair and proliferation Prepares endometrium for implantation It extends from the end of menstruation to ovulation It extends after ovulation to menstruation LH and FSH increases LH is high (LH surge) Estrogen level increases Progesterone level increases Estrogen is secreted by Graffian follicle Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum Flow diagram of Menstrual Cycle Menstruation Repair of the endometrium Ovulation Thickening of the endometrium Breaking down Follicular Phase FSH/Estrogen Due to LH Luteal Phase LH/Progesterone MENSTRUAL CYCLE: Ref. Fig. 3.9 page 50, NCERT MENSTRUAL CYCLE EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT IN HUMANS Zygote The single cellthat results from fertilization of an ovum by asperm. Morula *The morula (little mulberry)I  Solid ball (16 64 cells).  Morula arises from mitotic (cleavage) divisions. Blastocyst The blastocyst is a liquid-filled ball of cells. Occurs around 5 – 8 days after conception. Implantation in the endometrium occurs at this stage. Embryo Human considered an embryo from implantation until about 8 weeks after conception.
  • 36. 36 Foetus 8 weeks after conception until birth. Transport of ovum, fertilization and passage of growing embryo through fallopian tube. Fate of three germ layers Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Nervous system Skeleton Digestive tract Epidermis of skin Muscles Respiratory system Circulatory system Liver, pancreas Gonads Bladder Mnemonics ( Remember technique) Tubules in male reproductive system Menstrual Cycle “SEVEN UP” “FOL(d) M(a)PS” Ovarian cycle: Seminiferous tubules Follicular phase Epididymis Ovulatory phase Vas deferens, Luteal phase Ejaculatory duct (Nothing) Menstrual cycle: Urethra Menstrual flow, Penis Proliferative phase Secretory phase
  • 37. 37 Trophoblast and Inner cell mass : Inner cell mass : Inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organ. Trophoblast : Layer get attached to endometrium. It is ssurrounded by finger like projections called chorionic villi after implantation. Blastocoel :Cavity of blastocyst that contains inner cell mass. Pregnancy and embryonic development : Placenta : Chorionic villi & uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural & functional unit between developing embryo & maternal body. It provide antibodies to foetus (IgG). Function : supply of O2 & nutrients to embryo and removal of CO2 & excretory products from embryo. Act as a endocrine tissue & produce hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen. Pregnancy hormone : Relaxin These hormones essential for fetal growth and metabolic changes in mother and maintenance of pregnancy. FETUS DEVELOPMENT MONTH / PERIOD  First month  Second month  First Trimester (Three month)  Fifth Month  Second Trimester (Six month)  Eight month  Third Trimester (Nine month) CHANGES IN FETUS GROWTH  Heart development & starts heart beat.  Limbs & digits  Organ system develops.  Eruption of hair & foetal movement.  Body covered with hair, Eye lids separates, eye lashes formed.  Testis descend into scrotum.  Development of body mass & at last parturition. Lactation : In the influence of hormone Prolactin (hPL) & progesterone, mammary glands starts producing milk.
  • 38. 38 Colostrum : thick & yellowish milk consist of antibodies (IgA) & develops immunity to protect from pathogens to infant. TERMS TO REMEMBER Acrosome- the part of a sperm cell that contains an enzyme – (This enables a sperm cell to penetrate an egg.) Amniotic sac-fluid-filled membrane or sac that surrounds the developing embryo while in the uterus.(protects baby from hard shocks, keeps it at a constant temperature. ) Blastocyst = blastula = early stage of an embryo; a liquid-filled sphere whose wall is composed of a single layer of cells; during this stage (about eight days after fertilization) implantation in the wall of the uterus occurs. Cervix- lower part, or neck, of uterus. (Opening to the uterus.) Clitoris-small, sensitive organ in front of the vagina Coitus-synonym for sexual intercourse Conception-fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell Corpus Luteum - After ovulation, this crater-like structure produces progesterone and estrogen. The corpus luteum is the old RUPTURED GRAFFIAN follicle. It means “yellow body”. Cowper's glands - 2 glands that secrete an oily liquid, which cleans and lubricates the urethra of the male Egg cell-a female sex cell (female gamete or ovum or secondary oocyte ) Ejaculation-the discharge of semen from the penis Embryo-the unborn child developing in the uterus between the second and eighth weeks of life Endometrium - the lining for the uterus – site for blastocyst implants and develops. Epididymis-the tightly coiled tube at the back at each testis that holds newly created sperm – (each epididymis is like a nursery where sperm mature and learn to swim.) Erection- condition of penis when it fills with blood and becomes firm, enlarged, and erect. Fallopian tubes -tubes leading from each ovary to the uterus. Tubes carry the egg from ovary to the uterus. Fertilization occurs here. (Also known as the oviducts.) Fimbria - A fimbria (plural fimbriae) Latin word, literally means "fringe." a fringe of tissue near the ovary leading to the fallopian tube Fertile- able to conceive a child Fertilization union of sperm and egg.Conception. Fertilized egg- egg after sperm has united with it. Zygote. Fetus-unborn child developing in the uterus after the first eight weeks of life Follicle - In ovaries. Each holds and nourishes an egg until ovulation. Nest. Becomes corpus luteum after ovulation. Foreskin – A sheath of skin that surrounds the penis. Follicle Stimulating Hormone - secreted from pituitary gland in both men and women. In women, FSH promotes the development of eggs and estrogen. In men, FSH promotes the development of sperm cells. Fraternal twins-babies that develop from two eggs, each fertilized by a sperm cell; may or may not be of the same sex Gamete – a sex cell. Sperm cells and egg cells are gametes. Genitals-the reproductive or sex organs, especially the external organs Germ Cell- egg or sperm cell.Gamete. In humans, germ cell contains 23 chromosomes Hormones-chemical substances produced by the endocrine glands; they act in other parts of the body and affect maturation, growth, and behavior; LH, FSH, GH, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone are all hormones. Hymen-a thin bit of tissue, or membrane that may partially cover the opening of the vagina Identical twins-babies that develop from a single fertilized egg that separates into two halves; identical twins are always of the same sex Labia-two folds of skin surrounding the entrance of vagina Labor-the muscular contractions that expel a baby from uterus during childbirth Leydig Cells – when prompted by LH, Leydig cells create testosterone.
  • 39. 39 LH - Luteinizing Hormone - Secreted from pituitary gland, causes ovulation and formation of corpus Luteum in women. In men, LH causes Leydig cells to produce testosterone. Menstrual cycle - periodic building up and sloughing off of lining of uterus approximately every twenty- eight days Menstruation-the periodic discharge of blood and waste material (unfertilized secondary oocyte / ova and the degenerating endometrium lining) from the uterus Miscarriage- expulsion from the uterus of a fetus before it is developed sufficiently to live Also called spontaneous abortion Myometrium – muscles of the uterus that stretch to accommodate the growth of the baby. These muscles contract during labor and push baby out. Orgasm-the peak of sexual excitement when the male ejaculates semen, Ovary- female sex glands; they produce egg cells, estrogen and progesterone. Ovulation-the discharge, or release, of an egg cell / secondary oocyte from the ovary Ovum-scientific name for an egg cell / secondary oocyte Oxytocin - hormone, released from the pituitary gland , stimulates contractionof the myometrium of the uterus during labor and facilitates ejection of milk from the breast during nursing. Penis-the male sex organ through which sperm cells leave the body; it also discharges urine Placenta- network of blood vessels and other tissues by which the unborn child is attached to the wall of the uterus.grows out of the endometrium The umbilical cord is attached to it. It is the interface between mother and developing fetus. Pregnancy-the process in a woman from conception to birth Pregnant-the condition of a woman with an embryo or fetus in her uterus Progesterone – pregnancy hormone, which is first produced by the corpus luteum and then by the placenta. * increases lining of endometrium. *maintains pregnancy *helps develop mammary glands. Prostate gland- surrounds the upper end of male urethra and produces part of the fluid that mixes with the sperm to form semen. Prostate fluid alkaline helps to protect sperm from vaginal acids. Scrotum- pouch of loose skin containing the testes.Houses and air-conditions the testicles by moving and sweating. Semen-the mixture of sperm and fluids released during ejaculation. Semen comprised of sperm, fructose, prostate fluid and oil from Cowper’s gland. Seminal vesicles-small saclike organs opening into each vas deferens near the upper end of the urethra; produce part of the fluid that mixes with the sperm to form semen; provide food (fructose) for the sperm. Seminiferous tubules - tubes in testes that produce sperm Sexual intercourse- entry of penis into vagina and subsequent release of semen; also called coitus Sperm-the male sex cell (male gamete or spermatozoon), which contains 23 chromosomes in human. Spermatozoon-scientific name for sperm Spontaneous abortion--synonym for miscarriage Testes- male sex glands; produce sperm cells and testosterone; Testicles-synonym for testes Testosterone – male hormone that regulates development of penis, muscles, body hair, change of voice. Umbilical cord- ropelike structure connecting embryo or fetus to placenta within the uterus. Urethra-the tube through which urine is expelled from the bladder in both males and females and through which semen leaves the male body Uterus = womb - the hollow pear-shaped organ in which a baby develops before it is born; Vagina- passage from the uterus to the outside of the body, accepts the penis during intercourse. It is the birth canal & menstrual fluids leave through it Vas deferens- tube extending from each epididymis to the urethra in males Womb-synonym for uterus Yolk sac-a structure that develops for the nutrition of embryo during early embryonic life and then ceases to function Zygote - The cell formed by the union of two gametes. [ fertilized ovum before cleavage.]
  • 40. 40 IMPORTANT NOTES  An adult male produces over 1012 to 1013 sperms each day.  Human female oogonial development by mitosis is completed by 25 weeks of foetus and no oogonia are formed after birth.  Sperm entry into the ovum stimulates MPF (M phase promoting factor) & APC ( Anaphase promoting complex) for completion of Meiosis II.  During Spermatogenesis, spermatogonium produces four sperms while in oogenesis, oogonium produces one ovum and two polar bodies.  Human Sperm contains Clupein proteins.  Yolk nucleus: A mass of mitochondria and golgi bodies near nucleus is called as yolk nucleus and controls vitellogenesis.  Maximum level of estrogen – 12th day, LH-13th day, Progestrone – 21st day, Corpous luteum formation – 19th day of menstrual cycle.  Menstrual cycle is absent during pregnancy, lactation periods and permanently during menopose.  Two ovaries alternate in ovulation.  13 mature eggs are released per year, so about 416 eggs (13x32 years) are ovulated during whole reproductive period of human female.  Menstruation is also called “Weeping of uterus for the lost ovum” or” Funeral of unfertilized eggs”.  In human embryo, yolk sac degenerates since eggs is microlecithal, which shows evolutionary significance.  Placenta acts as a physiological barriers and an ultra-filter between foetal and maternal blood.  Progesterone is also called pregnancy hormone since its secretions controls pregnancy.  Teratogens are physical, chemical, biological agents which may cause malformation in developing embryo.  Period between fertilization and parturition is called gestation periods. Varies between 266 days up to 280 days ( 49 weeks) 1) Zygote undergoes mitosis to form 16 celled embryo. What is the stage known as? (1) Hint-Blastomeres. 2)Name the important mammary gland secretions that help in resistance of the new born baby. 1) Hint- Colostrum 3) Fill in the boxes Spermatogenesis Secondary spermatocytes Spermatozoa 4) Why does fertilization take place in fallopian tube and not in the uterus.(2) Hint-ovum and sperms must be transported to the ampullary –isthmic region simultaneously for fertilization. 5) Which cell organelle is present in the neck of the sperm? What is its significance? ( 2) Hint-Acrosome, enzymes. Chapter-4: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
  • 41. 41 Reproductive Health: Acc. to WHO, reproductive health means a total well being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e. physical, emotional, behavioural and social. India was the first countries in the world to initiate ‘family planning’ programmes’ in 1951. Objective of Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes :  Creating awareness about reproduction related aspects Awareness created with the help of audio-visual and the print-media governmental and non-governmental agencies.  Introduction of sex education in schools to provide right information to the young so as to discourage children from believing in myths and having misconceptions about sex-related aspects.  Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS, etc.,  Educating people, especially fertile couples and those in marriageable age group, about -available birth control options, - care of pregnant mothers, -post-natal care of the mother and child, -importance of breast feeding, -equal opportunities for the male and the female child, etc.,  Awareness of problems - due to uncontrolled population growth, - social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related crimes, etc.,  Require strong infrastructural facilities, professional expertise and material support.  provide medical assistance and care to people in reproduction-related problems like pregnancy, delivery, STDs, abortions, contraception, menstrual problems, infertility, etc.  Implementation of better techniques and new strategies.  Amniocentesis : a statutory ban on (a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo) for sex-determination to legally check increasing female foeticides, massive child immunisation, etc., are some programmes that merit mention in this connection. POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL  The world population which was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900 rocketed to about 6 billions by 2000.  A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate(IMR) due to RCH.  Advertisement showing a happy couple with two children with a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do.  Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female to 18 years and that of males to 21 years. Methods of birth control Natural Method:  Coitus Interruptus: Coitus interruptus means 'interrupted sex" (penis is withdrawn from the vagina just before ejaculation). Advantage - method does not require the use of any drug, does not interfere with normal body functions. The failure rate is high at 15 - 18%. Periodic Abstinence: couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when ovulation could be expected. Lactational Amenorrhea : (absence of menstruation) During intense lactation, chance of conception are almost nil but effective upto 6 month after parturition.
  • 42. 42 Barrier methods: In barrier methods of birth control, a barrier is placed between the penis and the vagina during intercourse so that the sperm cannot meet the ovum for fertilization.  Male Condoms:, usually made of latex that covers the erect penis during penetration of the vagina.  Female Condoms: made of polyurethrane, loose sheath with two rings on either side. can be inserted about 8 hours prior to sexual intercourse and can be kept in for about another 12 hours after intercourse. Can be used more than once during this period.  Condoms protect against pregnancy as well as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV/AIDS.  Diaphragm: vaginal - a small saucer shaped rubber sheath with a metal coil in its rim which is fitted across the mouth of the uterus (cervix).  Cervical Cap: The cervical cap is a small dome-shaped rubber device fitted on the cervix. It is uncomfortable to apply and is rarely used nowadays.  Vaginal Sponge: Small polyurethrane round device which needs to be placed inside the vagina before sexual intercourse. It releases spermicide which makes sperm inactive. It should be left in place for 8 hours after use and can be used more than once during this time. The sponge also acts as a barrier contraceptive to some extent since it swells up to fit across the cervix once it is inside the vagina.  Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are usually used alongwith these barriers. Hormonal Methods: Drugs are used to either prevent ovulation or to prevent implantation of the embryo after fertilization.  Combined oral contraceptives contains two hormones similar to the natural hormones in a woman’s body---an progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combination used by females.  Oral Contraceptive pills: They are based on hormones results to prevent ovulation & also to disrupt the normal growth of the internal uterine lining (endometrium),  Centchroman: This is a non-hormonal non steroidal contraceptive. The main function is to cause a slowing down in the growth rate of the internal uterine lining as well as to speed up the movement of the embryo so that implantation cannot occur. It is a once a week pill. Eg-Saheli. Subdermal Implants Capsules placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm. The capsules supply a steady, very low dose. Norplant implants contain no estrogen. Norplant capsules thicken cervical mucus making it difficult for sperm to pass through. It stops ovulation (release of eggs from ovaries) in about half of the menstrual cycles after the first year of use. Emergency Oral Contraception After unprotected sex, emergency oral contraception can prevent pregnancy. Sometimes called postcoital or ‘morning after’ contraception. Mainly stops ovulation. Regular use of emergency contraceptives has serious health hazards. Intra-Uterine Devices (IUDs):  IUDs are contraceptive devices which are placed inside the uterus. Small, flexible plastic frame. Has copper wire or copper sleeves on it. Inserted into a woman’s uterus through her vagina.  Preventing sperm and egg from meeting. Perhaps the IUD makes it hard for sperm to move through the woman’s reproductive tract, and it reduces the ability of sperm to fertilize the egg. Prevent the egg from implanting itself in the wall of the uterus.
  • 43. 43  IUCDs prevent pregnancy by making the endometrium unreceptive to the fertilized ovum. Stimulates the endometrium to release leukocytes (WBCs) and prostaglandins making it hostile to the sperm.Causes bizarre and irregular growth of the endometrium.  Prevents implantation of a fertilized ovum. IUDs like Copper-T’s also come wrapped in copper. Copper is toxic to sperms and is a method of enhancing the contraceptive effect of the IUDs.  The IUCDs can come in various shapes and sizes.  Lippes Loop: The Lippes loop consists of a thin plastic (or polyethylene)wire bent in a series of S- shapes. l Lippes loop Multiload 375 Copper-Ts  Copper T: T-shaped structure which stays inside the uterus with the long arm of the T along the uterine cavity (endometrium) and the shorter arms transversely across the upper part of the endometrium.  Surgical Methods: These are more or less permanent methods of contraception.  Tubectomy : Both the female tubes are tied off and usually cut during tubal ligation to prevent the sperm from reaching the ovum during intercourse.  Vasectomy:The two tubes which carry sperm from the testes to the penis are the vas deferens. Tying them off and cut.
  • 44. 44 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)  Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of pregnancy(MTP) or induced abortion.  MTP has a significant role in decreasing the population though it is not meant for that purpose.  Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse.  MTPs are considered relatively safe during the first trimester, i.e., upto 12 weeks of pregnancy. Second trimester abortions are much more riskier. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI). SL. NO. STD CAUSAL AGENT SYMPTOMS EFFECT ON FOETUS EFFECT ON PERSON AFFECTED 1 CHLAMYDIOSIS Chlamydia trachomatis Painful urination & intercourse Mucus discharge from penis/vagina Premature birth,blindness, Pneumonia Pelvic inflammatory disease, Infertility, Ectopic pregnancy 2 GONORRHOEA Nisseria gonorrhea Painful urination in men Still birth, Blindness Pelvic inflammatory disease, Infertility, Rash, Death 3 TRICHOMONIASIS Tricomonas vaginalis Inflammation, Itching& vaginal white discharge (Leucorrhoea) Not known Valvar erythema, Burning dysuria 4 GENITAL HERPES Herpes simplex virus Genital sores, Fever Still birth, Brain damage Cervical cancer. 5 SYPHILIS Trepanema pallidum Initially sores in genitalia & mouth, Rashes Premature birth, Miscarriage, Still birth Death 6 GENITAL WART Human papilloma virus Warts on genitalia Not known Cervical cancer 7 HEPATITIS-B Hepatitis –B virus Fatigue, Fever, Jaundice, Rash, Abdominal pain Low birth weight Liver cirrhosis, Liver cancer 8 AIDS HIV Fever, Prone to infection, Inflammation AIDS affected Dementia, Death One could be free of these infections by following the simple principles given below: (i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners. (ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
  • 45. 45 (iii) In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment if diagnosed with disease. INFERTILITY  Unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation. ‘Infertility’ when a couple fails to conceive after one year of sexual life without contraception.  Infertile couples could be assisted to have children through certain special techniques commonly known as Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART). InVitro Fertilisation (IVF) : fertilization outside the body under controlled conditions. IVF–fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body) followed by embryo transfer (ET) upto 8 celled blastomeres. This technique also called test tube baby programme. Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) : The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could then be transferred into the fallopian tube is called ZIFT. Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT) : Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres to 32 cells, into the uterus is called IUT. Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilization (fusion of gametes within the female) also could be used for such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive. Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT) : Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and further development. Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection(ICSI) : It is another specialised procedure to form an embryo in the laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum. Artificial Insemination (AI) Technique : In this technique the semen collected either from the husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the uterus (IUI – intra-uterine insemination) of the female. Questions. Q1) Table of certain terms associated with ART. Fill in the spaces a,b,c,d.(1X4 ) IVF&ET A b Introduction of zygote/embryo with 8 blastomeres into fallopian tube. c Introduction of ova of a donor into the fallopian tube d Introduction of semen from the husband or healthy donor into the uterus. Ans.( a) test tube baby programme .( b) ZIFT (zygote intra fallopian transfer ) .( c) GIFT (gamete intra fallopian transfer ) (d ) IUI (intra uterine insemination ) Q2) Name 3 incurable sexually transmitted diseases and their causative organisms ( 3) 1. Hepatitis-B ----- Hepatitis-B virus 2.Genital herpes-------Herpes simplex virus 3. AIDS---------HIV (Human Immunodeficiency virus) Q3)Why is the term test tube baby a misnomer.(3) Baby not developed in test tube. Only fertilization carried out in test tube in lab conditions. The fertile egg is then transferred into the fallopian tube or uterus where it develops and grows into a normal baby is born. Q4. Why do intensely lactating mothers do not generally conceive? Due to suppression of gonadotropins’ Chapter 5 : PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCES AND VARIATION
  • 46. 46 Genetics : branch of science which deals the study of inheritances and variations of characters. Know the terms Terms Meaning Locus Address/ location of a gene in a chromosome e.g. T,A.b,d Gene Structural & functional unit of chromosome. Allele Allelomorphs= alternative form of a gene e.g. T and t OR A and a Homozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar e.g. AA or aa Heterozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus dissimilar e.g. Aa or Tt Homozygous Dominant Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar & dominant e.g. AA Homozygous recessive Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar & recessive e.g. aa Genotype Genetic constituent of an organism Phenotype Physical appearance Punnet Square Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all possible genotype. MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE Salient features of Mendel’s Experiment :  Mendel’s investigations into inheritance patterns it was for the first time that statistical analysis and mathematical logic were applied to problems in biology.  Mendel selected two opposing traits, e.g., tall or dwarf plants, yellow or green seeds. This allowed him to set up a basic framework of rules governing inheritance.  Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties.
  • 47. 47  His experiment had a large sampling size; it gives credibility to his data. Why Mendel select pea plant ? He selected pea plant for following reasons :  Pea is a self pollinated plant & cross pollination is also possible.  Many varieties were available with observable alternate forms for a trait.  Short life span.  Can be easily grown in small place.  Seeds easy to handle. CONTRASTING CHARACTERS Mendel's first law ( Law of dominance ) : (i) Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors (genes). (ii) Factors occur in pairs. (iii) In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive). The law of dominance is used to explain the expression of only one of the parental characters in a monohybrid cross in the F 1and the expression of both in the F2. It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F2. (Refer Fig. 5.4. page – 73, NCERT) Mendel's Law of segregation (Purity of Gametes): The two alleles received, one from each parent, segregate independently in gamete formation, so that each gamete receives one or the other with equal probability. (Can be explained by monohybrid cross). Mendel's law of Independent Assortment : Two characters determined by two unlinked genes are recombined at random in gamete formation, so that they segregate independently of each other, each according to the first law (note that recombination here is not used to mean crossing-over in meiosis). (Can be explained by dihybrid cross) (Refer Fig. 5.7. page – 79, NCERT) Test Cross and Back Cross : Test cross is a back cross but back cross is not a test cross.  In a test cross, hybrid cross with homozygous recessive individuals.  In a back cross, hybrid cross with homozygous recessive & homozygous dominant individuals. Significance : Both are used to determine the frequency of gene or allele. It is used in horticulture, animal breeding and in production of gene knockout organisms. Incomplete Dominance : Dominant gene is not fully expressed on recessive gene. So, the phenotype of hybrid do not resemble with any of the parents. Eg- Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Mirabilis jalapa (4 O’ clock plant).
  • 48. 48 Genotype & phenotype ratio : 1:2:1 (Refer Fig. 5.6. page – 76, NCERT). Co-dominance : Both parental genes expressed in F1 progeny so the offspring shows resemblance with both the parents. Eg- ABO blood group types in human. Blood group shows 3 different alleles (IA , IB , IO ) and 6 different possible genotypes. Cross between IA IO x IB IO , shows the law of dominance, co-dominance & multiple alleles. POSSIBLE BLOOD GROUP OF PROGENY WITH RESPECT TO THE BLOOD GROUP OF PARENTS Parent Progeny A B AB O A X A + - - + A X O + - - + A X B + + + + B X B - + - + B X O - + - + AB X A + + + - AB X B + + + - AB X O + + - AB X AB + + + - O X O - - - + KEY + = POSSIBLE - = NOT POSSIBLE (Refer Table. 5.2. page – 77, NCERT). POLYGENIC INHERITANCE :  Galton in 1883 suggested that many instances of continuous variation are heritable like height, mental capabilities.  The character is determined by more than one gene each with the same but cumulative phenotypic effect.  Quantitative characters like plant height, yield of crops (size, shape and number of seeds and fruits per plant), intelligence in human beings and milk yield in animals determined by many genes in cumulative. Skin colour determine by 3 genes ( 6 allels) (i) Few individuals fall into parental categories; (ii) The expression level of the phenotype is dependent upon the number of contributive alleles and is hence more quantitative. Polygenic inheritance also shows by kernel colour in wheat and inheritance of cob length in maize. It is generally believed that during evolution there was duplication of chromosome or chromosome parts thereby leading to multiple copies of the same gene. A large number of characters are controlled by polygenes in which alleles contribute additively to a phenotype. This results in polygenic inheritance.
  • 49. 49 Pleiotropy : single gene may produce more than one effect. The basis of Pleiotropy is the interrelationship between the metabolic pathways that may contribute towards different phenotypes. Eg. Phenylketonuria, eye mutation in Drosophila and starch synthesis & size of starch grain. Basic outline of Mendels cross 1. Pure breeding parents for a pair of contrasting character (allelic pair) is taken Eg.Tall pure-bred pea plants (TT) & short pure-bred pea plants (tt) 2. Gamete formation (Meiosis) 3. Hybridization (crossing is done) 4. F1 generation - the product of the above cross (are called hybrids) 5. Selfing (allowed to selffertilize / selfbreeding) 6. Gamete formation (Meiosis) 7. F2 generation - the product of the above selfing 8. Analysis of result (Phenotype and Genotype) Chromosomal theory of Inheritance : It is proposed by Water Sutton and Theodore Boveri in 1902. They found the behavior of chromosomes was parallal to the behavior of factor (genes) and used chromosome movement to explain Mendel’s law. Gene and chromosomes shows similar behavior as followings-  Occur in pairs  Segregate at the time of gamete formation such that only one of each pair is transmitted to a gamete  Independent pairs segregate independently of each other. (Refer Fig. 5.9, page 82 NCERT). Linkage: According to Morgan, physical association or linkage of two genes is called linkage. The new combination are produced because homologous chromosomes can exchange segments when they are paired. This process (crossing over) results in recombination of alleles between the homologous chromosomes. The probability of recombination between any two genes serve as a measure of genetic distance between the genes and allowed the construction of genetic map. (A) Two alleles and their linked genes have switched locations via recombination. Recombined haploid chromosomes segregate separately during meiosis as gametes before fertilization. (B) Sample recombination frequencies between genes demonstrating higher rates of recombination for genes further apart. Sex determination : x body was discovered by Henking in 1891.  Sex chromosome : the chromosomes determine the sex of living.  Autosomal chromosomes : they determine the characters other than sex of living.
  • 50. 50 Name of Living Male Female Human XY XX Drosophila XY XX Insect XO XX Bird ZZ ZW Honey Bee XM (Drone), XM XM (Male) XX Male Heterogamety : Male produced two type of gametes. Eg. Human, Drosophila. Female heterogamety : female produced two type of gametes. Eg.Birds. Mutation : Sudden changes in DNA. Mutagens : Chemicals/agents that caused mutation. Type of gene mutation Reason Point mutation Change in single base eg sickle-cell anaemia Frameshift mutation Deletion/insertion/duplication/addition of one or two bases Type of chromosomal mutation Reason Structural aberration Loss or gain of large segment of DNA Numerical variations Aneuploidy Addition/ deletion one or more chromosomes Trisomy 2n+1 monosomy 2n- 1 Polyploidy Addition/ deletion one or set chromosomes 3n, 4n etc. Pedigree Analysis Pedigree is a chart of graphic representation of record of inheritance of a trait through several generations in a family Symbols used:- refer NCERT Text Book GENETIC DISORDER Chromosomal Disorder Mendelian Disorder These are due to absence or excess of abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes. Eg. Down, Klinefelter’s, Turner’s syndrome. These are due to alteration or mutation of one gene. Eg. Sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, thalassaemia Mendelian Disorder Disorder Reason Symptoms Haemophilia Sex linked recessive disease (X). Females are unaffected carrier. Non stop bleeding, no blood clotting. Sickle Cell Anaemia Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 11. Sickle shape RBC due to replace the glutamic acid by valine. Oxygen carry capacity reduced. Phenylketonuria Autosomal recessive trait on chromosome 12. Mutation in phenyl alanine hydroxylase enzyme results in accumulation of phenyl pyruvate. Mental retardation, presence of phenyl pyruvate in urine. Colour Blindness Sex linked recessive disorder (X). Unable to differentiate green and red colour