1. Work as a Social Institution
Interlocking Institutions
It’s Not About Sex Difference
Work Constructs (and Constrains) Gender
Work as Liberation and Locations of Empowerment in Work
Communicating Gender Diversity
A Critical Approach

2. Work as a Social
Institution
○The meaning of work is not at all
universal. Different cultures each have
different meanings of what work is. In
the United States a man or woman would
most likely describe work as getting paid
outside of the home.
○Mothers who don’t have wage paying
jobs that require them to leave home to
the public as seen as not working but
they would disagree explaining raising a
child is work. Work in the United States
could be described as an individual’s
income, and with no proof of income
comes society’s thought of unemployed.
○In the United States, “work ethic”
creates an expectation that all people
ought to want to work hard, even if they
don’t like their jobs, because work itself
is considered a good thing. It displays
independence of one’s own living and
one’s ability to take care of one self or
others. The almost unquestioned belief
that work is good and the
demonization of those on welfare
demonstrates the way rhetorical
constructions of work maintain its
function as a social institution
(Schram, 1995). When we think of
someone who is unemployed we
think of them as laxidazical or
unambitious while people on
welfare are seen as those who live
off the state and are dependent on
others. Work is the status quo and a
means of living so those without
one are shunned.

3. ○An important aspect to highlight is
that work expectations aren’t
consistent across sexes – work isn’t a
gender or sex neutral institution. In
the U.S. work is seen as a masculine
institution. The reasoning behind
work being masculine is it’s a
characteristic in which what makes
Americans American. Having a job is
seen as the American way. In society’s
view, a man isn’t considered a man
unless he is employed. A man is seen
as a “go-getter,” a person who is
supposed to bring home the bacon,
supply for their family and whatnot.
○Male occupations possess more
social value – more pay, prestige,
authority, and opportunities for
advancement. If you think about it,
how many women are heading
corporations or have full authority
over business transactions? The ratio
between men and women would be
overwhelming.
○Women who have offspring are
discriminated against when it
involves working as well as not
working. For example, many men
and women who are mothers and
fathers choose to work and place
their children in childcare, only the
women are seen are criticized for
being a bad parent for not taking
care of their child.
If they remain home with the child
and don’t bring in a means of
income she’s considered a bad
parent for not working and helping
support financially.
Women are in no-man’s-land when
it involves work and a child. There is
no societal ideal regarding women
involving work and children. It’s a
lose-lose situation.

4. Interlocking Institutions
○Work often comes into conflict with family
in the United States. The public/private
division portrays work and family as
opposite social institutions. Too much time
invested in one leaves little time for the
other – most often the workplace consumes
the family life. Each institution has its own
set of demands, values, and goals.
○A study brought forth by sociologist Arlie
Hochschild in 1997 found that the rapidly
increasing time stress in U.S. culture
induces more persons to choose work over
family because of the rewards work
promises. For example, in the movie “Click,”
Adam Sandler becomes obsessed with work
to the point where he never spends time
with his family and before he dies (in his
dream) he realizes work has taken over his
life (the reason for his divorce) and he is
regretful he didn’t use that time to get to
know his family more. This sort of action
happens too often with families being
pulled apart all due to one parent sacrificing
family time to try and support it more
financially.
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5. Tensions between work and family
differ for men and women. A large
contributor is childbirth. Women are
expected to miss up to 12 weeks of work
(unpaid leave) to take care of the child.
This is under the Pregnancy
Discrimination Act of 1978 and the
Family Medical Leave Act of 1993 which
allows people to leave their jobs for
some time without fear of losing their
job. While one parent is taking time off
from work, that usually means
longer hours for the other parent to
make up from income lost during
that time period. This can lead to
extra stress and more dependency
on the part of the other parent to
make sure the family is supported.

6. It’s Not About Sex Difference
○There are differences in the workplace between
men and women, however, many verbal and
nonverbal activities in the workplace that are
characterized as feminine are practiced by men as
much as, or more than, women. The greatest area
of which this accounts for is the use of emotions.
○Emotions at work are considered inappropriate.
It doesn’t make for a productive environment.
Crying, fear, sadness, and joy is frowned upon.
However, it is totally acceptable for men to show
anger.
○The reason behind why it’s impossible to
compare and contrast women’s and men’s
emotions is due to that they are specific to the
social context, meaning that emotions
considered organizationally appropriate when
expressed by a man are perceived as
inappropriate when expressed by a woman.
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○Stereotypically, it is said that women are
more emotional than men but men express
emotion at work too; it’s not coded as
emotional though. So to complete the
statement, men are emotional at work as are
women and tend to carry out the same
emotional traits.
○Men engage in practices that are
stereotypicallycarried out by more women
than men, for instance
- Wasting time conversing with
employees
- Pretending to like people they dislike
- Making decisions based on affect rather
then objective evidence
- Ignoring rules in favor of particularistic
sentiments
“When women coworkers socialize, they
waste time; when men coworkers socialize,
they advance their careers” (Martin, 2003)

7. Work Constructs (and Constrains) Gender
○Social inequalities are manifested and maintained through work.
With the expansion of technological capabilities, globalization has
been able to penetrate and reinforce these inequalities. Businesses
don’t have to hire as many people and can turn down applications and
even “let go” those who they feel aren’t a necessary asset. These
companies can weed out those they see unfit and place reasoning on
globalization rather than personal bias. In other words, globalization
provides legal remedies for employment discrimination.
○According to statistics, women were said to have earned only 75% of
what men received for their wages even when hours and job prestige
were the same (Blau & Kahn 2000). Even at the top of corporate levels,
women earn 8% to 25% less than there counterpart. Now consider a
restaurant environment. You tend to see more waitresses than waiters,
deeming serving stereotypically a women’s job. Being a server, you rely
heavilyoff tips because the pay is below minimum wage – falling in
line with what is stated above. Is it coincidence? Job segregation and
gender influences pay.

8. ○So we know social inequalities are manifested
and maintained through work but how does work
produce these inequalities and systematic forms
of discrimination? Sociologist Joan Acker
pioneered the study of the way in which work is
gendered. Her theory stated that organizational
structure in not gender neutral (Acker, 1990). She
stated 5 reasons to pay attention to concerning
gender in organizations;
1) The sex segregation of work,
including which work is paid and which is not
2) Income and status inequality
between women and men and how this is created
through organizational structure
3) How organizations invent and
reproduce cultural images of sex and gender
4) The way in which gender, particularly
masculinity, is the product of organizational
processes
5) The need to make organizations
more democratic and more supportive of humane
goals.
These 5 reasons are intersecting processes that
create issues in power, control, and dominance
concerning gender differences.

9. ○The construction of the abstract worker
goes as follows --- a bodiless, sexless,
emotionless worker who does not
procreate. Most would signify this as a
male considering males are seen as
emotionless and they have minimal
responsibility when it comes to
procreation. The male body. ○ In contrast the woman body is sexually
objectified leaving a great chance of distraction
and inappropriate behavior between sexes at the
workplace. It is said they carry the opposite traits
of each mentioned in the construction of the
abstract worker.
○Along with the common job of women
being waitresses, being an office
assistant is another women held job. It
is said secretaries are supposed to assist
the boss (who is stereotypically male)
and look good doing it (the term sexy
secretary comes to mind). Some women
use their bodies to gain an advantage in
job/pay advancement. The movie
“Obsessed” depicts a secretary who uses
her body and way of dressing to seduce
her boss. This active ongoing of
revealing clothing could be instilled in
modern society as well as women
knowing they will hold/get a job with
the art of objectifying.

10. Class, Race, Gender/Sex, and Work: Care Work
○○Job segregation not only occurs across sex
lines but also across race lines within sex. For
example, “Black women’s initial
overrepresentation in domestic service
reflects the intersections of race, gender, and
class – the idea that Blacks are best suited for
servitude, that women belong in the private
sphere of the home, and that work done in
the home does not deserve significant
economic reward” (Harvey, 2005). These
representations can be traced back to the
days of slavery in which Blacks (especially
women) were used as servants, caretakers of
children, and providing cooked meals where
there was little reward and high
expectations.
○ Sociologist Mignon Duffy analyzed jobs
considered of reproductive labor – service,
health care, food, etc – and her research
established that the U.S. market is “stratified,
segmented into various sectors that provide
workers with grossly unequal wage levels and
access to opportunities for advancement.”
Gender and racial oppression concentrate
people of color into lower paying and status
jobs. Woman of color are represented as
maids and kitchen workers. For example, the
new television series “Devious Maids” depicts
5 different maids, each either of African or
Latino decent working in the homes of men
and/or white women. This television show
strongly suggests how women of color are still
considered bottom of the barrel workers,
fitting the unfortunate stereotype and
accepting discrimination.

11. Violence, Gender/Sex, and Work: Sexual Harassment
○Normalization of violence in the workplace takes the form
of sexual harassment.
Statistics of the U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment
Commission for 2004:
- Women filed 84.9% of the 13,136 charges of SH
However, a vast amount of harassment is never reported
due to fear of losing jobs or being outcasted by other
coworkers.
Of the 4 harassment targeting methods:
- Women harassing men
-Men harassing men
-Women harassing women
- Men harassing women
Statistics show the most dominant and most reported kind
is men harassing women.

12. ○ Sexual harassment isn’t strictly physical, there are
various ways in which an individual can be sexually
harassed. Men and women define sexual
harassment differently. Women define acts as
constituting harassment and are more likely to
perceive coercion in a situation, whereas men are
more likely to blame the person harassed instead
of empathizing with that person. For this reason,
courtrooms emphasize on a reasonable women
standard when addressing such complaints.
○Sexual joking and girl watching is a common
sexual harassment tactic used by men. It is said
that they perform these acts in order to establish
intimacy amongst other heterosexual men. Girl
watching is almost like a basic common
conversation starter amongst other men to get to
know one another in the workplace. Many men in
the workplace relate to one another better if they
have a common topic to discuss and with human
beings being sexual creatures women is a hot topic.
○ Sexual harassment is seen as an
instrument of gender regulation, not just
something men do to women. It is used
to maintain the masculinity of the work
environment and maintain gender/sex
binary norms and inequalities.

13. Work as Liberation and Locations of Empowerhment in
Work
○Even though work can constrain, it also “provides women
with the same rewards that it has historicallyoffered men,
including a degree of economic independence and enhanced
self-esteem” (Gerson, 2004). Work can be liberating, and
working at jobs that violate gender expectations can transform
that way in which work is gendered. Women have come along
way in the workplace since the 50’s having to endure such
inequality. Works gives a sense of empowerment in itself,
allowing an individual to act independently.
○ Women shouldn’t be stereotyped into such segmented jobs.
Even though equal opportunity might never fully develop,
certain liberating working experiences may help to fill the
void. The more the older generations push for more equal
opportunity the more it will open up and the more the future
generations (of women) can grow up in households where
both the father and mother work independently, instead of
the women being strictly confined to the home.

14. By: Erik Eliason